This document discusses ethical considerations for research involving human subjects. It explains that researchers need to obtain ethical approval before conducting studies with human subjects. Ethical decisions are based on three main approaches: duty-based, rights-based, and goal-based. The document then outlines principles, rules, and criteria that research studies should be evaluated against from an ethical standpoint, including principles of autonomy, non-maleficence, beneficence, and justice. It emphasizes informed consent, avoiding harm, and treating participants fairly and equally. Researchers must respect participants' privacy, keep information confidential, and be truthful.

1. Ethical considerations
Why do we need ethical approval?
 Before you embark on research with human subjects,
you are likely to require ethical approval.
 Ethical decisions are
approaches: duty,
based
rights
on three main
and goal-based.

2. A. Goal-based approach: assumes that we
should try to produce the greatest possible
balance of value over disvalue.
 Discomfort to one individual may be justified by
the
consequences for the society as a whole.
B. Duty-based approach: your duty as a researcher
is founded on your own moral principles.

3. • As a researcher, you will have a duty to
yourself and to
the individual who is participating in the
research.
• The researcher should not lye or deceive his
subjects for getting good research outcome.
• If she/he did it, it is unethical.

4. C. Rights-based approach: the rights of the
individual are assumed to be all-important.
 Thus a subject’s right to refuse must be
upheld whatever the consequences for the
research.

5.  Research studies should be judged ethically on three
sets of criteria:
1. Ethical principles
2. Ethical rules
3. Scientific criteria.
 The later is often neglected but is important since if a
study is poor or the sample size insufficient, then the
study is not capable of demonstrating anything and
consequently could be regarded as unethical.

6. 1. Ethical principles
 Moral reasoning for ethical decision making
 Serve as a basic justification for ethical
evaluations of human actions
 Universal regardless of geographic, economic,
legal and political boundaries
 Researchers are obliged to assure that these
principles are followed while conducting
research involving human participants

7. a) Autonomy:
•We ought to respect the right to self-
determination
•Participants have the right to participate or not
by their own understanding and free choice
•Any consent to participate in the study should
be informed or legal
• Their must be no coercion of any sort

8. b) Non-Maleficence
• We ought not to inflict evil or harm
•We should not inflict harm on or expose people to
unnecessary risk as a result of our research project.
c) Beneficence
• We ought to further others’ legitimate interests
•This is the principle that obliges us to take positive
steps to help others pursue their interests.
• These interests clearly have to be legitimate.

9. d) Justice
•We ought to ensure fair entitlement to
resources
•This principle is concerned with people
receiving their due.
•This means people should be treated equally
in every way since not all people are equally
competent or equally healthy.

10. 2. Ethical Rules
•These rules are essential for the development of
trust between researchers and study participants.
a) Veracity
•All subjects in any research project should always
be told the truth.
b) Privacy
•When subjects enrol in a research study, they
grant access to themselves, but this is not unlimited
access.
•Access is a broad term and generally includes
viewing, touch or having information about them.

11. c) Confidentiality
•No information obtained with the patient’s or subject’s
permission from their medical records should be disclosed to any
third person without that individual’s consent.
d) Fidelity
•Fidelity means keeping our promises and avoiding negligence
with information.
•For example, if we agree to send a summary of our research
findings to participants in a study, we should do so.

12. 3) Applying to Ethics Committee (Scientific criteria)
Remember that the key questions that the Ethics
Committee will be asking are:
• Is the research valid?
– How important is the research question?
– Can the question be answered?
•Is the welfare of the research subject under
threat?
– What will participating involve?
– Are the risks necessary and acceptable?

13. • Is the dignity of the research subject upheld?
– Will consent be sought?
– Will confidentiality be respected?

14. CHAPTER 9
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
5/17/2022 Research Methodology Lecture 14

15.  At the end of this chapter you will be able to write a
research results and discussion

16. Results
 Purpose → to describe the results of data analysis
that are relevant to the study
 This component is the core section of the scientific
report and which is presented by texts, tables,
figures, charts, etc.
 The results component answers the question:
 “What did you obtain from the experiments you
conducted?”.

17.  The results should be presented in an orderly
sequence using an outline
 The sequence of the results should follow the
sequence of the objectives and Methods section
 Report main result(s) supported by selected data

18.  Use past tense
 Do not interpret results
 Avoid extra words
 Determine whether the data are best presented in the
form of
 text,
 figures, or
 tables.

19. Presentation of findings
 Order multiple results logically
 most to least important;
 simple to complex; etc.
 Present the analysis of the overall study
population before the analysis of subgroups.

20. SEQUENCE OF PRESENTATION OF FINDINGS
 The 1st section is usually description of the study
population
 Provide information on the problem you studied
(size, distribution, characteristics) i.e descriptive
findings
 In analytic study, the degree to which different
independent variables influence the problem may
be the final part of the result section

21. Text
 Describe what you found, not what you did
 Present results in a logical sequence
 Consider sub-sections
 use the text to summarize the tables and figures and to present data not
shown in the tables and figures.
 Do not repeat all of the data from the tables and figures in the text;
 Less is often better ( a table or figure is worth thousand words)
 Make sure all numbers in text are consistent with tables/figures

22. Use of tables & figures
 Tables are referred to as “tables”, and all other items
(graphs, photographs, drawings, diagrams, maps, etc.)
are referred to as “figures”
 Tables & figures need numbers & clear title
 Tables are labeled at the top and figures at the bottom
 Tables and figures are assigned numbers in the order
they are mentioned in the text
 Tables and figures are numbered independently of each other (i.e.,
“Table 1 then 2; and Figure 1 then 2, regardless of Table / Figure
order”)

23. Use of tables & figures cont..
 Include only those tables & figures that present
main findings & need more elaborate
presentation in the text
 Use tables to highlight individual values
 Use figures to highlight trends/relationships
 In tables, keep lines to a minimum; avoid vertical
lines
 Use footnotes to clarify points of potential ambiguity

24. DISCUSSION
Purpose → to interpret your results & justify your
interpretation
 Its main function is to answer the questions posed in
the Introduction, explain how the results support the
answers and, how the answers fit in with existing
knowledge on the topic.
 The Discussion is considered the heart of the paper
and usually requires several writing attempts.

25.  Discussion should be kept as short as possible
while clearly and fully stating, supporting,
explaining, and defending your answers and
discussing other important and directly relevant
issues.

26.  Begin by re-stating the hypothesis you were testing and
answering the questions posed in the introduction.
 Do not present any new data that were not shown in the
result section
 Care must be taken to provide a commentary and not a
reiteration of the results
 Organize the Discussion from the specific to the general: your
findings to the literature, to theory, to practice.
 Address all the results relating to the questions, regardless of
whether or not the findings were statistically significant

27.  Defend your answers, if necessary, by explaining
both why your answer is satisfactory and why
others are not.
 Discuss any unexpected findings.
 Identify potential limitations and comment on the
relative importance of these to your
interpretation of the results and how they may
affect the validity of the findings.

28. CHAPTER 10
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

29.  A conclusion is where you summarize the paper’s
findings and generalize their importance,
 An effective conclusion should provide closure for
a paper, leaving the reader feeling satisfied that
the concepts have been fully explained

30. Conclusions should be short, as they have
been elaborately discussed in the discussion
section
Begin with a clear statement of the principal
findings
Strive for accuracy and originality in your
conclusion.

31.  Conclude with how your testing supports or
disproves your hypothesis.
 By the time you reach the end of your
conclusion, there should be no question in the
reader's mind as to the validity of your claims.

32. Recommendations
 Recommendations are usually placed in roughly the same
sequence as the conclusion
 Recommendations may at the same time be summarized
according to the groups towards which they are directed
Example
 Policy makers
 Managers at district or lower level
 Staff who could implement the activities
 The community at large
 Researchers

33. Components of a research Paper
Section Purpose
Title Clearly describes contents
Authors Ensures recognition for the writer(s)
Abstract Describes what was done – 150 words
Key Words (some journals)
Ensures the article is correctly identified
in abstracting and indexing services
Introduction Explains the problem
Methods Explains how the data were collected
Results Describes what was discovered
Discussion Discusses the implications of the findings
Acknowledgements
Ensures those who helped in the research
are recognised
References
Ensures previously published work is
recognised
Appendices (some journals)
Provides supplemental data for the expert
reader

34. Title
• Describes the paper’s content clearly and
precisely including keywords
• Is the advertisement for the article
• Do not use abbreviations and jargon
• Search engines/indexing databases depend on
the accuracy of the title - since they use the
keywords to identify relevant articles

35. Abstract
• Briefly summarize (approximately 150 words) - the
problem, the method, the results, and the conclusions so
that
– The reader can decide whether or not to read the
whole article
• Together, the title and the abstract should stand on their
own
• Most authors write the abstract last so that it accurately
reflects the content of the paper
• Use keywords that will attract the readers
The Structured Abstract: An Essential Tool for Research. [accessed 2018-09-18] Available from
www.mlanet.org/p/cm/ld/fid=517
Gastel, Barbara. Writing Abstracts; Authoraid. [accessed 2018-09-18]. Available from
www.authoraid.info/uploads/filer_public/86/c8/86c804e2-869b-45b1-a4d5-
6fe46d766ed6/writing_abstracts_gastel_for_authoraid_posting.pdf

36. Introduction
• Clearly state the:
– Problem being investigated
– Background that explains the problem
– Reasons for conducting the research
• Summarize relevant research to provide context
• State how your work differs from published work
• Identify the questions you are answering
• Explain what other findings, if any, you are challenging or
extending
• Briefly describe the experiment, hypothesis(es), research
question(s); general experimental design or method

37. Methods
• Provide the reader enough details so they can
understand and replicate your research
• Explain how you studied the problem, identify the
procedures you followed, and order these
chronologically where possible
• Explain new methodology in detail; otherwise name the
method and cite the previously published work
• Include the frequency of observations, what types of
data were recorded, etc.
• Be precise in describing measurements and include
errors of measurement or research design limits

38. Results
• Objectively present your findings, and explain what
was found
• Show that your new results are contributing to the
body of scientific knowledge
• Follow a logical sequence based on the tables and
figures presenting the findings to answer the
question or hypothesis
• Figures should have a brief description (a legend),
providing the reader sufficient information to know
how the data were produced

39. Discussion/Conclusion
• Describe what your results mean in context of what
was already known about the subject
• Indicate how the results relate to expectations and to
the literature previously cited
• Explain how the research has moved the body of
scientific knowledge forward
• Do not extend your conclusions beyond what is
directly supported by your results - avoid undue
speculation
• Outline the next steps for further study

40. References
• Whenever you draw upon previously published work,
you must acknowledge the source
• Any information not from your experiment and not
‘common knowledge’ should be recognized by a
citation
• How references are presented varies considerably -
refer to notes for authors for the specific journal
• Avoid references that are difficult to find
• Avoid listing related references that were not
important to the study
Components of a Research Paper. Center for Innovative Research and Teaching. Grand Canyon
University. [Accessed 2018-09-18] available from
cirt.gcu.edu/research/developmentresources/tutorials/researchpaper

41. Harvard Reference Style
Uses the author's name and date of publication
in the body of the text, and the bibliography is
given alphabetically by author
– Adams, A.B. (1983a) Article title: subtitle. Journal
Title 46 (Suppl. 2), 617-619
– Adams, A.B. (1983b) Book Title. Publisher, New
York.
– Bennett, W.P., Hoskins, M.A., Brady, F.P. et al. (1993)
Article title. Journal Title 334, 31-35.

42. Vancouver Reference Style
Uses a number series to indicate references;
bibliographies list these in numerical order as
they appear in the text
1.Adams, A.B. (1983) Article title: subtitle. Journal
Title 46 (Suppl. 2), 617-619.
2.Lessells, D.E. (1989) Chapter title. In: Arnold, J.R. &
Davies, G.H.B. (eds.) Book Title, 3rd edn. Blackwell
Scientific Publications, Oxford, pp. 32-68.
3.Bennett, W.P., Hoskins, M.A., Brady, F.P. et al. (1993)
Article title. Journal Title 334, 31-35.

43. Reference Management Software Tools
• Reference management tools help users to create and manage lists
of references for research projects and writing a paper.
• These tools organize citations into specific formats for the
preparation of manuscripts and bibliographies.
• Many search platforms provide ways for downloading search results
into reference management tools.
• This lesson gives an overview on two frequently used free
management software options: Zotero and Mendeley.
• They are available online on the software site, and as standalone
versions which can be installed onto the computer. Shared libraries
can be created using these tools to facilitate collaboration with
colleagues and research partners.

44. • Tools such as Mendeley, Zotero or EndNote
can be used to create the footnote and
reference format required by a specific
publisher
• See the Reference Management Software
Tools modules to learn how to access,
download and use these options
www.research4life.org/training/reference-management-tools/

45. Zotero
• Zotero is a free and open-source reference management tool which is available as an add-on
for the Firefox web browser.
• A stand-alone version is available for Chrome, Safari and Firefox browsers.
• Zotero recognizes bibliographic information on books, journal articles, and other resources from
websites and databases and extracts metadata from these sources.
• It allows one to store related PDFs, files, images, and links in ones’ library, create a reference list in
Microsoft Word or OpenOffice, and publish shared libraries in the organization or with a research
group.
• For a comprehensive
on Author skills.
how-to-use guide, check out the Research4Life Training page
• web access to the software: http://www.zotero.org.
• desktop version to download: https://www.zotero.org/download/
• guides: https://www.zotero.org/support/

46. Mendeley
• Mendeley is a free reference management tool and academic social network with
web-based, desktop and mobile versions.
• One can sync their library between these different versions and across different
computers.
• Mendeley generates citations and bibliographies in Microsoft Word, LibreOffice,
and LaTeX. One can read and annotate on PDFs and capture their notes and
highlights.
• It allows one to add and organize their library by importing PDFs from ones’
computer or from other reference management tools such as EndNote and Zotero.
• One can also collaborate with colleagues and share their papers, notes and
annotations.
For a comprehensive how-to-use guide, check out the Research4Life Training page
on Author skills.
● web access to the software: https://www.mendeley.com
●desktop version to download: https://www.mendeley.com/downloadmendeley-
desktop/
● guides: https://community.mendeley.com/guides
● video tutorials: https://community.mendeley.com/guides/videos

47. Endnote
 Commercially available software
 But can be accessed and utilised the cracked

48. CHAPTER
11
INTRODUCTION TO SOME STATISTICAL PACKAGES
 Introduction to EPIDATA/EPI ENFO
Introduction to SPSS

49.  END!!!