The document describes the challenges of measuring dayglow emissions and past attempts to do so. It summarizes:
1) Dayglow emission intensities are very low compared to the strong solar continuum background, making measurements difficult.
2) Past attempts used techniques like high-resolution scanning and subtracting the solar spectrum, but results were ambiguous and contributions from direct sunlight could not be separated.
3) Other techniques tested included using Fabry-Perot etalons and interference filters in series, as well as polarization properties to reduce the background, but definitive dayglow measurements were not obtained.
This presentation was made for my 2nd year 2nd term course.
Me and my friend gave this presentation.
We are very much interested in cosmology and space program.
**If you want the script of this presentation leave a message in LinkedIn
The Global Positioning System (GPS) consists of three segments - the control segment, space segment, and user segment. The control segment monitors the satellites and ground stations. The space segment is made up of 24 satellites that orbit the Earth. The user segment includes all GPS receivers on Earth. GPS uses trilateration to determine the precise position of receivers by calculating distances to multiple satellites. Sources of error include clock errors, atmospheric delays, and multipath interference. Error correction techniques like differential GPS improve accuracy. GPS has many applications including navigation, mapping, and timing systems. Its accuracy and uses are continuing to improve and expand.
This document discusses attitude determination and control systems (ADCS) for satellites. It outlines key topics like ADCS sensors, actuators, disturbances, and control techniques. ADCS is needed to stabilize satellites and point them in the required orientation using sensors to determine attitude and actuators to generate torques for control despite external disturbance torques. Common ADCS sensors include earth sensors, sun sensors, star trackers, magnetometers and gyros. Actuators include reaction wheels, magnetic torquers, and thrusters. Control techniques range from passive methods like spin stabilization to active three-axis control using reaction wheels or magnetorquers.
The document discusses the Global Positioning System (GPS). It provides details about the three segments that enable GPS - the space segment consisting of 24 satellites, the control segment of 5 ground stations that monitor the satellites, and the user segment of GPS receivers. It describes how GPS uses trilateration to determine the location of a receiver by calculating the distance to multiple satellites based on signal travel time. The document outlines several sources of error in GPS signals and discusses advantages and applications of the system such as navigation, mapping, and tracking capabilities.
This document provides a summary of a research paper on modified ionospheric tomography algorithms using GPS Aided Geo-Augmented Navigation (GAGAN) data. It describes how ionospheric delay modeling is challenging for GAGAN systems. A modified tomography technique is presented that uses fewer coefficients to characterize the Indian ionosphere, reducing processing time for real-time applications. The algorithm estimates electron density distributions using least squares solutions based on GPS total electron content measurements and empirical basis functions.
This document describes the design and fabrication of a rocker bogie mechanism. The rocker bogie system is a suspension used on Mars rovers to allow independent wheel movement over obstacles. The design includes two rocker arms that allow the left and right wheels to climb obstacles individually. Calculations are shown for tilt angle, wheel base, link lengths, and motor specifications. Components include shafts, links, wheels, bearings, and motors. The advantages of the rocker bogie system include its ability to climb obstacles twice the wheel diameter and distribute load evenly across independently moving wheels.
The document describes the challenges of measuring dayglow emissions and past attempts to do so. It summarizes:
1) Dayglow emission intensities are very low compared to the strong solar continuum background, making measurements difficult.
2) Past attempts used techniques like high-resolution scanning and subtracting the solar spectrum, but results were ambiguous and contributions from direct sunlight could not be separated.
3) Other techniques tested included using Fabry-Perot etalons and interference filters in series, as well as polarization properties to reduce the background, but definitive dayglow measurements were not obtained.
This presentation was made for my 2nd year 2nd term course.
Me and my friend gave this presentation.
We are very much interested in cosmology and space program.
**If you want the script of this presentation leave a message in LinkedIn
The Global Positioning System (GPS) consists of three segments - the control segment, space segment, and user segment. The control segment monitors the satellites and ground stations. The space segment is made up of 24 satellites that orbit the Earth. The user segment includes all GPS receivers on Earth. GPS uses trilateration to determine the precise position of receivers by calculating distances to multiple satellites. Sources of error include clock errors, atmospheric delays, and multipath interference. Error correction techniques like differential GPS improve accuracy. GPS has many applications including navigation, mapping, and timing systems. Its accuracy and uses are continuing to improve and expand.
This document discusses attitude determination and control systems (ADCS) for satellites. It outlines key topics like ADCS sensors, actuators, disturbances, and control techniques. ADCS is needed to stabilize satellites and point them in the required orientation using sensors to determine attitude and actuators to generate torques for control despite external disturbance torques. Common ADCS sensors include earth sensors, sun sensors, star trackers, magnetometers and gyros. Actuators include reaction wheels, magnetic torquers, and thrusters. Control techniques range from passive methods like spin stabilization to active three-axis control using reaction wheels or magnetorquers.
The document discusses the Global Positioning System (GPS). It provides details about the three segments that enable GPS - the space segment consisting of 24 satellites, the control segment of 5 ground stations that monitor the satellites, and the user segment of GPS receivers. It describes how GPS uses trilateration to determine the location of a receiver by calculating the distance to multiple satellites based on signal travel time. The document outlines several sources of error in GPS signals and discusses advantages and applications of the system such as navigation, mapping, and tracking capabilities.
This document provides a summary of a research paper on modified ionospheric tomography algorithms using GPS Aided Geo-Augmented Navigation (GAGAN) data. It describes how ionospheric delay modeling is challenging for GAGAN systems. A modified tomography technique is presented that uses fewer coefficients to characterize the Indian ionosphere, reducing processing time for real-time applications. The algorithm estimates electron density distributions using least squares solutions based on GPS total electron content measurements and empirical basis functions.
This document describes the design and fabrication of a rocker bogie mechanism. The rocker bogie system is a suspension used on Mars rovers to allow independent wheel movement over obstacles. The design includes two rocker arms that allow the left and right wheels to climb obstacles individually. Calculations are shown for tilt angle, wheel base, link lengths, and motor specifications. Components include shafts, links, wheels, bearings, and motors. The advantages of the rocker bogie system include its ability to climb obstacles twice the wheel diameter and distribute load evenly across independently moving wheels.
The document discusses nanosatellites and their advantages over larger satellites. It defines different classes of small satellites based on mass, including nanosatellites which are between 1-10 kg. Nanosatellites allow for lower costs, easier production, and more opportunities for new missions compared to larger satellites. Examples of nanosatellite applications demonstrated include technology demonstrations, Earth observation, and biological experiments. The global market for nanosatellite launches is projected to grow significantly in the coming years.
The Global Positioning System (GPS) consists of three segments - the control segment, space segment, and user segment. The control segment monitors the satellites and ground stations. The space segment is made up of 24 satellites that orbit the Earth. The user segment includes all GPS receivers on Earth. GPS uses trilateration to determine the precise position of receivers by calculating distances to multiple satellites. Sources of error include clock errors, atmospheric delays, and multipath interference. Error correction techniques like differential GPS improve accuracy. GPS has many applications including navigation, mapping, and timing systems. Its accuracy and uses are continuing to improve in the future.
The slides give a glimpse of the new upcoming technology that is ready to change the definition of space travel. More economically efficient and less risky approach that does not put space travellers life at stake........
GPS uses a constellation of satellites to provide location and time information to GPS receivers. It functions using triangulation based on distance measurements from multiple satellites. New applications and technologies continue to improve GPS precision and integration with other systems. Future advancements may include smaller and more portable receivers as well as integration with additional satellite systems.
GPS has evolved since its development in the 1970s by the US Department of Defense. It was originally intended for military use but has grown to support many civilian applications. GPS uses a constellation of satellites that transmit timing and location data to receivers, which use triangulation to calculate the user's precise position. It has applications in navigation, tracking, emergency services, and more. A survey found that while GPS is commonly used for transportation, respondents felt it could benefit other sectors as well and its future trends are promising. However, some have privacy concerns about its growing use.
Attitude Control of Satellite Test Setup Using Reaction WheelsA. Bilal Özcan
This document summarizes a presentation about attitude control of a satellite test setup using reaction wheels. It describes the mathematical models of DC motors, reaction wheels, and the satellite test setup. It also discusses the implementation of a PID controller to control the satellite's orientation by generating angular velocity references for the reaction wheels. Simulation results show that the settling time of the system was decreased from 21.5 seconds to 6.1 seconds by optimizing the PID gains. Future work is planned to consider effects like vibrations and actuator saturations when testing the system.
Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS) allow users to pinpoint their geographic location anywhere in the world using signals from satellites. The two main GNSS currently in operation are the United States' Global Positioning System (GPS) and Russia's Global Navigation Satellite System (GLONASS). There are also other regional GNSS including the European Union's Galileo, China's BeiDou, Japan's QZSS, and India's NavIC. GPS and GLONASS both provide positioning and timing data to users worldwide, with GPS generally offering higher accuracy overall and GLONASS performing better at high latitudes.
•Lunar laser telemetry consists in determining the round-trip travel time of the light between a transmitter on the Earth and a reflector on the Moon, which is an equivalent measurement of the distance between these two points
This document provides information on basic navigation concepts. It defines navigation as the process of monitoring and controlling an aircraft from one place to another. Key aspects of navigation discussed include:
- Direction in terms of true, magnetic and compass headings, and how variation and deviation affect readings.
- Distance measurement using great circle routes versus rhumb lines. Great circles provide the shortest distance between two points on Earth.
- Time concepts such as GMT, time zones, and methods for converting between time zones.
- Altitude measurement using pressure altitude versus true altitude, and how instruments like the altimeter and barometer are used.
- Other navigational considerations like landmarks, checkpoints, speed, and factors needed
The Global Positioning System (GPS), originally Navstar GPS,[1][2] is a space-based radionavigation system owned by the United States government and operated by the United States Air Force. It is a global navigation satellite system that provides geolocation and time information to a GPS receiver anywhere on or near the Earth where there is an unobstructed line of sight to four or more GPS satellites
This document provides information about a professional development course on fundamentals of rockets and missiles. The course will be held from March 11-13, 2009 in Laurel, Maryland and will cost $1590. It will provide a practical foundation of knowledge on rocket and missile issues and technologies. The 14-part course outline covers topics like rocket propulsion, liquid and solid propellant systems, foreign and domestic rocket comparisons, and reusable launch vehicles. The instructor, Edward L. Keith, has extensive experience in the rocket field. Attendees will learn about rocket fundamentals and receive printed course notes. The course is intended for engineers, managers, military personnel, and others involved in rocket projects.
SpaceX’s Falcon 9 and Blue Origin Reusable Launch Vehicles are designed not only to withstand re-entry but also to return to the launch pad or ocean landing site for a vertical landing. Reusable rocket is the pivotal breakthrough needed to substantially reduce the cost of space access and make human multi-planet species
This document discusses reusable launch vehicles (RLVs). It begins with an introduction that defines RLVs as vehicles that can be used for multiple missions. The main advantage is lower costs compared to expendable rockets. The history section discusses early concepts from the 1950s and serious attempts in the 1990s by companies like McDonnell-Douglas and Lockheed Martin. The present section notes SpaceX's success in recovering Falcon 9 first stages. Design considerations for RLVs include withstanding high stresses and temperatures during launch and reentry. Stages to orbit discusses single-stage and multi-stage options. Vertical landing and retro-propulsion methods are also covered. Preparing a reused RLV requires extensive inspection and refurbishment of components
Presentation on All Terrain Vehicle (Rocker Bogie Mechanism)MANASADEEP
1) Five students designed and built a rocker bogie suspension system inspired by Mars rovers.
2) The rocker bogie system uses linked rocker arms and bogies to lift each wheel over obstacles independently, allowing the rover to traverse rough terrain.
3) Testing showed the design was effective and stable with wheels maintaining contact over obstacles, and the system weight was within motor limits.
This document discusses GPS error sources and techniques for improving GPS accuracy, including:
- The troposphere causes delays in GPS signals and is a source of error. Techniques like WAAS and LAAS use reference stations and satellites to correct for tropospheric delays.
- Good satellite geometry with low PDOP provides the most accurate GPS positioning. Dilution of precision metrics like PDOP indicate satellite geometry quality.
- Ambiguity resolution techniques using dual or triple frequency carrier phase and code data can fix integer ambiguities and improve positioning accuracy to centimeter-level.
This document discusses different types of satellite orbits. It begins by explaining how satellites orbit Earth due to gravitational and centrifugal forces. It then defines the six classical Keplerian orbital elements that characterize satellite orbits: semi-major axis, eccentricity, right ascension of the ascending node, inclination, argument of perigee, and true anomaly. Different types of orbits are classified based on altitude (LEO, MEO, HEO), inclination (equatorial, polar, inclined), and eccentricity (circular, elliptic). Special orbits like sun-synchronous and Molniya orbits are also described. Finally, reference coordinate systems used for satellite attitude control are introduced, including the geocentric inertial, Greenwich, orbital, body
Radar 2009 a 18 synthetic aperture radarForward2025
This document provides an overview of a lecture on synthetic aperture radar (SAR). It begins with an introduction to SAR, including why it was developed due to limitations of conventional radar for imaging. It then discusses the basics of SAR and how it forms images using signal processing to synthesize a large antenna aperture. The document outlines the rest of the lecture topics which will cover SAR image formation techniques, examples, applications, and a history of the evolution of SAR from its origins in the 1950s to current systems.
1. The document discusses the life cycle of a low-mass star like our Sun. It goes through main sequence hydrogen fusion, shell burning of hydrogen and helium fusion in the core, expanding to a red giant as the core contracts, and ultimately shedding its outer layers to form a planetary nebula with a white dwarf core.
2. It explains that as a star runs out of hydrogen in its core, it expands and moves off the main sequence. The core contracts and outer layers expand, making the star redder. Nuclear fusion then occurs in shells around the core until helium fusion in the core ends.
3. A white dwarf is the final remnant after a low-mass star has shed its outer
Galileo made observations using the telescope in 1609 that supported the heliocentric model of Copernicus. Galileo observed phases of Venus that showed it orbits the sun, not Earth. He also saw mountains and valleys on the moon, showing heavenly bodies are not perfectly spherical as previously thought. Tycho Brahe made highly accurate naked-eye observations of planetary positions, which Kepler later analyzed, discovering planets orbit in ellipses with the sun at one focus, and that their orbital periods relate to their distances from the sun. This supported removing Earth from the center of the universe.
The document discusses nanosatellites and their advantages over larger satellites. It defines different classes of small satellites based on mass, including nanosatellites which are between 1-10 kg. Nanosatellites allow for lower costs, easier production, and more opportunities for new missions compared to larger satellites. Examples of nanosatellite applications demonstrated include technology demonstrations, Earth observation, and biological experiments. The global market for nanosatellite launches is projected to grow significantly in the coming years.
The Global Positioning System (GPS) consists of three segments - the control segment, space segment, and user segment. The control segment monitors the satellites and ground stations. The space segment is made up of 24 satellites that orbit the Earth. The user segment includes all GPS receivers on Earth. GPS uses trilateration to determine the precise position of receivers by calculating distances to multiple satellites. Sources of error include clock errors, atmospheric delays, and multipath interference. Error correction techniques like differential GPS improve accuracy. GPS has many applications including navigation, mapping, and timing systems. Its accuracy and uses are continuing to improve in the future.
The slides give a glimpse of the new upcoming technology that is ready to change the definition of space travel. More economically efficient and less risky approach that does not put space travellers life at stake........
GPS uses a constellation of satellites to provide location and time information to GPS receivers. It functions using triangulation based on distance measurements from multiple satellites. New applications and technologies continue to improve GPS precision and integration with other systems. Future advancements may include smaller and more portable receivers as well as integration with additional satellite systems.
GPS has evolved since its development in the 1970s by the US Department of Defense. It was originally intended for military use but has grown to support many civilian applications. GPS uses a constellation of satellites that transmit timing and location data to receivers, which use triangulation to calculate the user's precise position. It has applications in navigation, tracking, emergency services, and more. A survey found that while GPS is commonly used for transportation, respondents felt it could benefit other sectors as well and its future trends are promising. However, some have privacy concerns about its growing use.
Attitude Control of Satellite Test Setup Using Reaction WheelsA. Bilal Özcan
This document summarizes a presentation about attitude control of a satellite test setup using reaction wheels. It describes the mathematical models of DC motors, reaction wheels, and the satellite test setup. It also discusses the implementation of a PID controller to control the satellite's orientation by generating angular velocity references for the reaction wheels. Simulation results show that the settling time of the system was decreased from 21.5 seconds to 6.1 seconds by optimizing the PID gains. Future work is planned to consider effects like vibrations and actuator saturations when testing the system.
Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS) allow users to pinpoint their geographic location anywhere in the world using signals from satellites. The two main GNSS currently in operation are the United States' Global Positioning System (GPS) and Russia's Global Navigation Satellite System (GLONASS). There are also other regional GNSS including the European Union's Galileo, China's BeiDou, Japan's QZSS, and India's NavIC. GPS and GLONASS both provide positioning and timing data to users worldwide, with GPS generally offering higher accuracy overall and GLONASS performing better at high latitudes.
•Lunar laser telemetry consists in determining the round-trip travel time of the light between a transmitter on the Earth and a reflector on the Moon, which is an equivalent measurement of the distance between these two points
This document provides information on basic navigation concepts. It defines navigation as the process of monitoring and controlling an aircraft from one place to another. Key aspects of navigation discussed include:
- Direction in terms of true, magnetic and compass headings, and how variation and deviation affect readings.
- Distance measurement using great circle routes versus rhumb lines. Great circles provide the shortest distance between two points on Earth.
- Time concepts such as GMT, time zones, and methods for converting between time zones.
- Altitude measurement using pressure altitude versus true altitude, and how instruments like the altimeter and barometer are used.
- Other navigational considerations like landmarks, checkpoints, speed, and factors needed
The Global Positioning System (GPS), originally Navstar GPS,[1][2] is a space-based radionavigation system owned by the United States government and operated by the United States Air Force. It is a global navigation satellite system that provides geolocation and time information to a GPS receiver anywhere on or near the Earth where there is an unobstructed line of sight to four or more GPS satellites
This document provides information about a professional development course on fundamentals of rockets and missiles. The course will be held from March 11-13, 2009 in Laurel, Maryland and will cost $1590. It will provide a practical foundation of knowledge on rocket and missile issues and technologies. The 14-part course outline covers topics like rocket propulsion, liquid and solid propellant systems, foreign and domestic rocket comparisons, and reusable launch vehicles. The instructor, Edward L. Keith, has extensive experience in the rocket field. Attendees will learn about rocket fundamentals and receive printed course notes. The course is intended for engineers, managers, military personnel, and others involved in rocket projects.
SpaceX’s Falcon 9 and Blue Origin Reusable Launch Vehicles are designed not only to withstand re-entry but also to return to the launch pad or ocean landing site for a vertical landing. Reusable rocket is the pivotal breakthrough needed to substantially reduce the cost of space access and make human multi-planet species
This document discusses reusable launch vehicles (RLVs). It begins with an introduction that defines RLVs as vehicles that can be used for multiple missions. The main advantage is lower costs compared to expendable rockets. The history section discusses early concepts from the 1950s and serious attempts in the 1990s by companies like McDonnell-Douglas and Lockheed Martin. The present section notes SpaceX's success in recovering Falcon 9 first stages. Design considerations for RLVs include withstanding high stresses and temperatures during launch and reentry. Stages to orbit discusses single-stage and multi-stage options. Vertical landing and retro-propulsion methods are also covered. Preparing a reused RLV requires extensive inspection and refurbishment of components
Presentation on All Terrain Vehicle (Rocker Bogie Mechanism)MANASADEEP
1) Five students designed and built a rocker bogie suspension system inspired by Mars rovers.
2) The rocker bogie system uses linked rocker arms and bogies to lift each wheel over obstacles independently, allowing the rover to traverse rough terrain.
3) Testing showed the design was effective and stable with wheels maintaining contact over obstacles, and the system weight was within motor limits.
This document discusses GPS error sources and techniques for improving GPS accuracy, including:
- The troposphere causes delays in GPS signals and is a source of error. Techniques like WAAS and LAAS use reference stations and satellites to correct for tropospheric delays.
- Good satellite geometry with low PDOP provides the most accurate GPS positioning. Dilution of precision metrics like PDOP indicate satellite geometry quality.
- Ambiguity resolution techniques using dual or triple frequency carrier phase and code data can fix integer ambiguities and improve positioning accuracy to centimeter-level.
This document discusses different types of satellite orbits. It begins by explaining how satellites orbit Earth due to gravitational and centrifugal forces. It then defines the six classical Keplerian orbital elements that characterize satellite orbits: semi-major axis, eccentricity, right ascension of the ascending node, inclination, argument of perigee, and true anomaly. Different types of orbits are classified based on altitude (LEO, MEO, HEO), inclination (equatorial, polar, inclined), and eccentricity (circular, elliptic). Special orbits like sun-synchronous and Molniya orbits are also described. Finally, reference coordinate systems used for satellite attitude control are introduced, including the geocentric inertial, Greenwich, orbital, body
Radar 2009 a 18 synthetic aperture radarForward2025
This document provides an overview of a lecture on synthetic aperture radar (SAR). It begins with an introduction to SAR, including why it was developed due to limitations of conventional radar for imaging. It then discusses the basics of SAR and how it forms images using signal processing to synthesize a large antenna aperture. The document outlines the rest of the lecture topics which will cover SAR image formation techniques, examples, applications, and a history of the evolution of SAR from its origins in the 1950s to current systems.
1. The document discusses the life cycle of a low-mass star like our Sun. It goes through main sequence hydrogen fusion, shell burning of hydrogen and helium fusion in the core, expanding to a red giant as the core contracts, and ultimately shedding its outer layers to form a planetary nebula with a white dwarf core.
2. It explains that as a star runs out of hydrogen in its core, it expands and moves off the main sequence. The core contracts and outer layers expand, making the star redder. Nuclear fusion then occurs in shells around the core until helium fusion in the core ends.
3. A white dwarf is the final remnant after a low-mass star has shed its outer
Galileo made observations using the telescope in 1609 that supported the heliocentric model of Copernicus. Galileo observed phases of Venus that showed it orbits the sun, not Earth. He also saw mountains and valleys on the moon, showing heavenly bodies are not perfectly spherical as previously thought. Tycho Brahe made highly accurate naked-eye observations of planetary positions, which Kepler later analyzed, discovering planets orbit in ellipses with the sun at one focus, and that their orbital periods relate to their distances from the sun. This supported removing Earth from the center of the universe.
The document discusses several topics related to life in the universe:
1. It provides an overview of the contents of the universe, including the percentages of baryons, dark matter, and dark energy.
2. It summarizes evidence that the earliest life on Earth emerged around 3.8 billion years ago, as supported by fossil and isotope evidence.
3. It outlines some of the necessities for life, including a nutrient source, energy, and liquid water. Many places in the universe may meet these criteria.
class9 The Terrestrial Planets-Geology.pdffurexpose
This document discusses the geological features and processes that shape the surfaces of terrestrial planets like Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars. It explains that while all formed from the same materials, their sizes and distances from the Sun led to different levels of geological activity over time. Smaller planets like Mercury and the Moon cooled faster and are now geologically dead, while others like Earth and Venus have evidence of ongoing volcanism, tectonics and erosion continuing to alter their surfaces.
Ancient civilizations made many important astronomical observations and achievements including tracking the seasons and calendar, monitoring lunar cycles and planets, predicting eclipses, and discovering precession. They built structures like Stonehenge and observatories in Mexico to aid their observations. The two competing cosmological models were the geocentric Ptolemaic model with Earth at the center, and the heliocentric Copernican model with the Sun at the center. Key evidence that eventually supported the heliocentric model included retrograde motion being a consequence of planetary orbits, parallax of nearby stars, and Galileo's observation of Venus having all phases rather than just crescents.
class3 Seasons and the Appearance of the Sky.pdffurexpose
The document discusses key concepts about the sky and celestial motions, including:
- How we measure and describe locations in the sky using angles, azimuth, and altitude.
- Why stars appear to rise and set due to Earth's rotation on its axis.
- How the constellations we see depend on latitude and time of year due to Earth's orbit around the sun.
- The primary cause of seasons on Earth is the tilt of its rotational axis, not its distance from the sun.
The document discusses key concepts in astronomy and the scientific method. It explains that astronomy covers immense scales, from planets to galaxies to the universe. The scientific method involves proposing hypotheses and testing them through experiments and observations. In astronomy, observations of the night sky can be deceiving, as stars that appear close together may actually be at very different distances.
This document provides an overview of Newton's laws of motion and Kepler's laws of planetary motion from a lecture on astrodynamics. It introduces Newton's two-body equations, conservation of linear momentum, the two-body equation of relative motion, and expressions of these equations in rectangular and polar coordinates. Kepler's laws of equal areas swept out in equal times and the harmony of the world (periods squared are proportional to semi-major axes cubed) are also summarized. Methods for determining orbital elements like the eccentricity vector and parameter are presented.