This review article examines the difference between ratings of perceived exertion and effort during self-paced exercise and what is actually being measured. It discusses that while effort and exertion are slightly different constructs, they are often used interchangeably in literature. It also explores the neural processes involved in developing perceptions of effort and exertion and how these may differ. Finally, it suggests that examining the difference between effort and exertion could improve understanding of their role in regulating exercise pace.
8 smits 2014 - Pacing and Decision Making in Sport and Exercise The Roles.pdfJorgeSilva638591
The document reviews perspectives on understanding the mechanisms underlying decision making in pacing, or how athletes regulate exercise intensity. It explores how current pacing literature considers various factors that may influence pacing strategy but lacks explanation of how perception and action are coupled in establishing behavior. In contrast, decision making literature that views perception and action as coupled provides new perspectives. The review introduces an ecological approach, which considers pacing a behavior expression of continuous decision making rooted in direct experience rather than representations constructed by a higher-order governor. It explores using the affordance competition hypothesis to help explain neural integration of information in decision making during exercise regulation.
1) The document discusses a study that examined the effect of acute aerobic exercise on selective attention in college students.
2) The researchers used the Paced Auditory Serial Addition Task (PASAT) to measure selective attention before and after exercise sessions in members of a college rowing team.
3) The results showed that all participants increased their scores on the PASAT after exercise, and statistical analysis found this change to be significant, indicating acute aerobic exercise can positively impact selective attention.
O
vertraining remains one the most controversial topics
within the field of strength and conditioning, as it accounts
for increased fatigue and can result in performance
impairment. One of the many topics that persists among strength
and conditioning professionals is the topic of overtraining. A
common question that is asked is how does overtraining differ
from overreaching? Additionally, some may even question the
very existence of overtraining. Although the prevalence of
overtraining varies considerably among a variety of sports,
the overall occurrence of actual overtraining seen in normal
day-to-day resistance trained individuals is very low (11,17,22).
The purpose of this article is to address the implications of
overtraining and overreaching, the recovery process, signs
and symptoms of overtraining, how resistance training and
supplementation can affect these outcomes, and future directions
within the topic of overtraining.
This study examined how chronic psychological stress affects recovery of muscle function and sensations over a 96-hour period after intense resistance exercise. 31 resistance-trained students completed questionnaires measuring perceived stress and life stress events. They then performed a high-intensity resistance exercise protocol. Maximal muscle force, perceived energy, fatigue, and soreness were measured every 24 hours for 96 hours after exercise. Both perceived stress and life stress were found to moderate recovery trajectories over this period, with higher stress associated with poorer recovery of muscle function and greater fatigue/soreness. The findings suggest that under high stress, individuals may need to allow more time to fully recover from strenuous resistance training.
This study aims to determine if a 10-week yoga program delivered during lunch breaks at an office can improve heart rate variability (HRV) and related health measures in sedentary office workers. It is a randomized controlled trial that will assign participants to either a yoga group participating in three weekly lunchtime yoga sessions, or a no-treatment control group. The primary outcome is the high frequency component of HRV, a marker of parasympathetic nervous system activity and stress. Secondary outcomes include additional HRV measures and assessments of physical and psychological health. Assessments will take place before, after, and 6 months following the intervention. The researchers hypothesize that yoga will increase HRV and improve health.
The study investigated the effects of positive, negative, and dissociative self-talk on physiological responses during a 60-minute steady-state running exercise at 70% of maximal oxygen uptake. Twenty-nine trained male runners were randomly assigned to one of three groups: a negative self-talk group, a positive self-talk group, or a dissociative group. While cardiorespiratory measures and perceived exertion increased over time, only the negative self-talk group showed significantly higher minute ventilation, breathing frequency, perceived exertion, and cortisol levels compared to the other two groups. The results suggest that negative self-talk can alter hormonal and breathing responses during exercise by inducing emotional stress.
This document provides a literature review on the use of heart rate variability (HRV) as a monitoring tool for training load in elite youth soccer players. It discusses how HRV can reflect autonomic nervous system balance and fatigue levels. The study aims to document daily variations in HRV, training load, session RPE, wellness measures, and performance tests over a 6-week pre-season period. Correlations between HRV, training load, sRPE, and psychometric data will be examined to evaluate HRV as a monitoring tool for training responses and recovery in youth soccer players.
The document is a review article about the perception of effort in exercise science. It discusses how perception of effort, also known as perceived exertion, is an important cognitive feeling associated with voluntary physical and mental exertion. While perception of effort is commonly used in exercise science research, the review argues that its definition often includes other unrelated sensations. The review provides a narrowed definition of perception of effort as solely the feeling of work during exercise. It also discusses models that aim to explain the neurophysiology of perception of effort and provides perspectives for future research.
8 smits 2014 - Pacing and Decision Making in Sport and Exercise The Roles.pdfJorgeSilva638591
The document reviews perspectives on understanding the mechanisms underlying decision making in pacing, or how athletes regulate exercise intensity. It explores how current pacing literature considers various factors that may influence pacing strategy but lacks explanation of how perception and action are coupled in establishing behavior. In contrast, decision making literature that views perception and action as coupled provides new perspectives. The review introduces an ecological approach, which considers pacing a behavior expression of continuous decision making rooted in direct experience rather than representations constructed by a higher-order governor. It explores using the affordance competition hypothesis to help explain neural integration of information in decision making during exercise regulation.
1) The document discusses a study that examined the effect of acute aerobic exercise on selective attention in college students.
2) The researchers used the Paced Auditory Serial Addition Task (PASAT) to measure selective attention before and after exercise sessions in members of a college rowing team.
3) The results showed that all participants increased their scores on the PASAT after exercise, and statistical analysis found this change to be significant, indicating acute aerobic exercise can positively impact selective attention.
O
vertraining remains one the most controversial topics
within the field of strength and conditioning, as it accounts
for increased fatigue and can result in performance
impairment. One of the many topics that persists among strength
and conditioning professionals is the topic of overtraining. A
common question that is asked is how does overtraining differ
from overreaching? Additionally, some may even question the
very existence of overtraining. Although the prevalence of
overtraining varies considerably among a variety of sports,
the overall occurrence of actual overtraining seen in normal
day-to-day resistance trained individuals is very low (11,17,22).
The purpose of this article is to address the implications of
overtraining and overreaching, the recovery process, signs
and symptoms of overtraining, how resistance training and
supplementation can affect these outcomes, and future directions
within the topic of overtraining.
This study examined how chronic psychological stress affects recovery of muscle function and sensations over a 96-hour period after intense resistance exercise. 31 resistance-trained students completed questionnaires measuring perceived stress and life stress events. They then performed a high-intensity resistance exercise protocol. Maximal muscle force, perceived energy, fatigue, and soreness were measured every 24 hours for 96 hours after exercise. Both perceived stress and life stress were found to moderate recovery trajectories over this period, with higher stress associated with poorer recovery of muscle function and greater fatigue/soreness. The findings suggest that under high stress, individuals may need to allow more time to fully recover from strenuous resistance training.
This study aims to determine if a 10-week yoga program delivered during lunch breaks at an office can improve heart rate variability (HRV) and related health measures in sedentary office workers. It is a randomized controlled trial that will assign participants to either a yoga group participating in three weekly lunchtime yoga sessions, or a no-treatment control group. The primary outcome is the high frequency component of HRV, a marker of parasympathetic nervous system activity and stress. Secondary outcomes include additional HRV measures and assessments of physical and psychological health. Assessments will take place before, after, and 6 months following the intervention. The researchers hypothesize that yoga will increase HRV and improve health.
The study investigated the effects of positive, negative, and dissociative self-talk on physiological responses during a 60-minute steady-state running exercise at 70% of maximal oxygen uptake. Twenty-nine trained male runners were randomly assigned to one of three groups: a negative self-talk group, a positive self-talk group, or a dissociative group. While cardiorespiratory measures and perceived exertion increased over time, only the negative self-talk group showed significantly higher minute ventilation, breathing frequency, perceived exertion, and cortisol levels compared to the other two groups. The results suggest that negative self-talk can alter hormonal and breathing responses during exercise by inducing emotional stress.
This document provides a literature review on the use of heart rate variability (HRV) as a monitoring tool for training load in elite youth soccer players. It discusses how HRV can reflect autonomic nervous system balance and fatigue levels. The study aims to document daily variations in HRV, training load, session RPE, wellness measures, and performance tests over a 6-week pre-season period. Correlations between HRV, training load, sRPE, and psychometric data will be examined to evaluate HRV as a monitoring tool for training responses and recovery in youth soccer players.
The document is a review article about the perception of effort in exercise science. It discusses how perception of effort, also known as perceived exertion, is an important cognitive feeling associated with voluntary physical and mental exertion. While perception of effort is commonly used in exercise science research, the review argues that its definition often includes other unrelated sensations. The review provides a narrowed definition of perception of effort as solely the feeling of work during exercise. It also discusses models that aim to explain the neurophysiology of perception of effort and provides perspectives for future research.
This study evaluated a new method of monitoring exercise training called the session rating of perceived exertion (RPE) method. The session RPE method uses a participant's perceived exertion after a training session as a marker of training intensity. The study compared the session RPE method to an objective heart rate (HR) monitoring method during steady state and interval cycling, as well as basketball practice. It found a consistent relationship between the two monitoring methods, though the session RPE scores were generally higher. Even with different subjects, the relationships between the methods were similar. The study concluded the session RPE method is a valid way to quantify training during various types of exercise when objective monitoring is not possible.
The document discusses how decision-making theories can help explain how athletes regulate their muscular work rate during self-paced endurance activities. It describes that athletes must make strategic decisions before events and tactical decisions during events to maximize performance while avoiding premature fatigue. The review examines rational and heuristic decision-making models and how they may explain observations from competitive environments. While both models can explain some behaviors, the complex nature of competitions implies rational decision-making is unlikely. Enhanced understanding of the decision-making process could help understand performance regulation.
The document discusses the differences between physical activity and exercise. Physical activity is defined broadly as any bodily movement produced by skeletal muscles that results in energy expenditure, while exercise is a planned, structured subset of physical activity aimed at improving or maintaining physical fitness. All exercise is considered a type of physical activity, but not all physical activity is exercise. Physical activity interventions should focus on increasing total activity rather than just exercise.
2 2009-a review of the scientific studies on cyclic meditationElsa von Licy
This document summarizes several scientific studies that have been conducted on the effects of cyclic meditation (CM). CM is a technique that combines yoga postures with guided meditation. Studies have found that practicing CM leads to increased parasympathetic nervous system activity and reduced sympathetic nervous system activity, as indicated by changes in heart rate variability. CM also reduces oxygen consumption, energy expenditure, and physiological arousal to a greater extent than simply resting. CM may improve attention and cognitive performance while also inducing a relaxed state. The combination of physical and mental elements in CM appears to provide benefits for stress reduction, autonomic nervous system balance, and cognitive functioning.
Respond to the 5 post below.100-200 wordsAPA FORMAT (NO TITLE PA.docxaudeleypearl
Respond to the 5 post below.100-200 words
APA FORMAT (NO TITLE PAGE NEEDED)
Due Sunday January 26, 2020
Adam J
1. After selecting and reading two of the provided articles, I was able to notice some differences and similarities between the two studies. As I read the article by Grenier and McGill (2007), the focus seemed to be on explaining the methods of improving lumbar stability and determining which of these two methods was more efficient at providing stability to this region. Through this study, Grenier and McGill found that when comparing abdominal hollowing and abdominal bracing, major differences could be found. In fact, through this study, we are able to see that the strategy of abdominal bracing provided a 32% improvement in the observed stability of the lumbar spine. Although Okubo, et al. (2010) were also concerned with lumbar stability, their study focused more on specific exercises that maximize specific abdominal muscle activation. The information presented by Okubo, et al. shows that different exercises are necessary if our goal is to improve the overall stability of our lumbar spine.
The information gleaned from the two articles described above are both important when working with a patient/client who has need of improving their spinal stability. After reading these two articles, I feel instructing a patient/client to incorporate an abdominal brace can help prevent injury from occurring during the prescribed exercise program. McGill (2016) also claims that his studies have shown an instant reduction in pain levels in many of his patients when abdominal bracing is used. When abdominal bracing is used in combination with the exercises described by Okubo, et al. (2010), I believe we can help patients/clients avoid injury during exercise, while also improving the overall stability of the spine by strengthening the muscles associated with lumbar stability.
Josh Y
2. I chose to review the articles by Ishida, Suehiro, Kurozumi, and Watanabe (2016) and Grenier and McGill (2007). Both studies made use of electromyography, which helped to quantify their data, rather than basing it on subjects’ perceptions of or description of what they felt during the study. The overarching purpose of both studies was to examine core stability and how different techniques contribute to core stability
Grenier and McGill (2007) examined abdominal hollowing and abdominal bracing. To test the two techniques, subjects were handed either a bilateral or asymmetrical weight in their hands. Electromyographic findings showed that the abdominal brace increased stability by 32%.
Ishida, Suehiro, Kurozumi, and Watanabe (2016) studied abdominal bracing and expiration in relation to sudden trunk loading. Subjects were loaded while at rest and while performing each of the stabilization techniques (expiration and bracing). The timing of when the loading would be applied was unknown to the subjects. There proved to be no difference between expiration and braci ...
Post exercise cold water immersion benefits are not greater than the placebo ...Fernando Farias
This study examined the effects of cold water immersion (CWI), thermoneutral water immersion placebo (TWP), and thermoneutral water immersion control (TWI) on recovery from high-intensity interval training. Thirty males performed interval sprints followed by 15 minutes of one of the three recovery conditions. The study found that ratings of readiness for exercise, pain, and vigor were significantly better in CWI and TWP compared to TWI, but similar between CWI and TWP. This suggests that the benefits of CWI may be partly due to the placebo effect rather than just physiological factors.
Relationship between cortisol, perceived stress, and mindfulness meditationRachael Blais
The study examined the effects of a 30-minute mindfulness meditation session on perceived stress levels and cortisol levels in college students. 39 undergraduate students were randomly assigned to either a meditation group or a control group. Personality traits, health behaviors, perceived stress scales, and cortisol samples were measured. Results found no significant differences in perceived stress or cortisol levels between the meditation and control groups, suggesting a brief mindfulness meditation did not reduce stress. However, emotional stability was found to negatively correlate with perceived stress levels.
Stress management is important for athletes to regulate competition demands and maintain optimal performance and well-being. Stress can negatively impact performance if perceived stress levels are too high. The transactional theory of stress describes stressors as environmental demands and coping as cognitive and behavioral efforts to manage stressors. Common coping strategies include problem-focused coping, emotion-focused coping, avoidance-focused coping, approach-focused coping, and appraisal-focused coping. Effective stress management techniques for athletes include preparation, building self-efficacy and confidence, meditation, and setting goals.
This document discusses effective physical treatments for chronic low back pain. It finds that exercise is one of the few clearly effective treatments, with systematic reviews finding exercise reduces pain and disability. While exercise is effective, the optimal implementation is unclear. Two example programs discussed are group general exercise and individually supervised specific spinal stabilization exercise. The document also discusses laser therapy for chronic back pain, but notes no systematic review has evaluated its efficacy.
3 2009-effect of two yoga-based relaxation techniques on memory scores and st...Elsa von Licy
1) A study compared the effects of two yoga relaxation techniques (cyclic meditation and supine rest) on memory scores and state anxiety in 57 male participants.
2) Both techniques improved memory scores and reduced state anxiety, but cyclic meditation produced greater improvements compared to supine rest.
3) Cyclic meditation involves alternating yoga postures with relaxation, while supine rest involves lying down in a classic relaxation posture. The results suggest that including movement, as in cyclic meditation, may facilitate attention, memory, and anxiety reduction more than relaxation alone.
Postexercise Cold Water Immersion Benefits Are Not Greater than the Placebo E...Fernando Farias
A CWI placebo is also as effective as
CWI itself in the recovery of muscle strength over 48 h.
This can likely be attributed to improved subjective ratings
of pain and readiness for exercise, suggesting that the hy-
pothesized physiological benefits surrounding CWI may
be at least partly placebo related.
Heart Rate Variability and Occupational Stress: Future DirectionsAnnex Publishers
This editorial discusses future directions for research on heart rate variability (HRV) and occupational stress. It notes that occupational stress poses significant social and economic costs. While HRV has been identified as an important biological marker of stress, questions remain about the underlying mechanisms. The development of portable ECG devices allows for more advanced tracking of workplace strain. However, more research is still needed on using HRV in an occupational stress context. Potential areas for future research include using HRV biofeedback as an intervention for occupational stress and better understanding the relationships between HRV and other subjective and objective stress indicators.
This document discusses the psychological benefits of exercise. It outlines several common benefits such as improved mood, reduced stress, increased self-esteem, and improved body image. It also examines specific psychological variables like depression, anxiety, stress, and mood states. The literature shows that both aerobic and anaerobic exercise can positively impact these mental health factors. Overall, the document advocates that personal trainers promote both the physical and psychological advantages of exercise to their clients.
Biomechanical Analysis of The Complete Core ConditionerBrandon Hossack
This study analyzed the Complete Core Conditioner machine to see if it provided an increase in core exercise intensity over traditional floor exercises. 9 subjects performed 3 core exercises (prone leg raise, supine crunch, supine leg crunch) on both the machine and floor while motion capture recorded range of motion and velocity. The results showed that the machine provided a statistically significant increase in range of motion but no change in velocity compared to floor exercises. Therefore, the machine effectively increased exercise intensity through a higher range of motion. However, more research is needed to validate long term benefits.
COMPARATIVE STUDY OF SLOW AND FAST SURYANAMASKAR ON PHYSIOLOGICAL FUNCTIONYogacharya AB Bhavanani
Numerous scientific studies have reported beneficial physiological changes after short and long term yoga training. Suryanamaskar is an integral part of modern yoga training and may be performed either in a slow or rapid manner. As there are few studies on suryanamaskar we conducted this study to study differential effect of 6 months training in the fast and slow versions. 42 school children in the age group of 12 to 16 were randomly divided into two groups of 21 each. Group I and Group II received 6 months training in performance of slow suryanamaskar (SSN) and fast suryanamaskar (FSN) respectively. Training in SSN produced a significant decrease in diastolic pressure. In contrast, training in FSN produced a significant increase in systolic pressure. Although there was a highly significant increase in hand grip strength and hand grip endurance in both the groups, the increase in hand grip endurance in FSN group was significantly more than in SSN group. MIP and MEP increased significantly in both groups and the increase of MIP in the FSN group was more significant as compared to SSN. Training in SSN reduced the resting diastolic pressure and rate-pressure-product, which, indicates a decrease in load on the heart. In contrast, FSN increased diastolic pressure and rate-pressure-product. The present study shows suryanamaskar has positive physiological benefits as evidenced by changes in pulmonary function, respiratory pressures, handgrip strength, handgrip endurance and resting cardiovascular parameters. It also demonstrates that there are differences between performance of suryanamaskar in a slow and fast manner and that the effects of FSN are similar to physical aerobic exercises whereas the effects of SSN are similar to those of Yoga training.
Psychological assessment of overtrainingSportlyzer
Psychological tools are used in assessing overtraining because they are:
* Practical and quite reliable
* The results can be analyzed quickly
* Assumptions can be made on the individual or team level
1) Aerobic exercise improves subjective sleep quality through multiple mechanisms such as improved mood, light exposure during exercise, and changes in hormone secretion.
2) Studies show that aerobic exercise programs over 12-16 weeks significantly improve subjective sleep quality scores according to questionnaires. However, factors like mood and light exposure during exercise also influence sleep quality.
3) Both subjective and objective sleep measures like polysomnography show improvements with regular aerobic exercise, though more research is still needed to fully understand the direct impacts of exercise on sleep. Overall, aerobic exercise promotes better sleep quality and total health.
Development and validation of psychic energyMalika Sharma
This document describes the development and validation of a Psychic Energy Assessment Scale for gymnasts. It began with generating statements to measure psychic energy based on a literature review. An initial 7-item scale was administered to 120 gymnasts and exploratory factor analysis identified a 2-factor model explaining 57.98% of variance. A 5-item scale was then administered to 65 gymnasts and factor analysis supported a 1-factor model explaining 47.39% of variance. The scale aims to measure arousal awareness and regulation as important psychological factors for gymnast performance. Establishing validity and reliability indicated the 5-item scale is a valid and reliable measure of psychic energy for use in training and identifying strengths and weaknesses.
To Compare The Effect Of Proprioceptive Neuromuscular Facilitation Program Ve...IOSR Journals
Abstract: Low back pain has been a matter of concern, affecting up to 90% of population at some point in
their lifetime, up to 50% have more than one episode. People of all age group can be affected by this menace
irrespective to their gender and quality of life. It has become one of the leading causes for the visit to physician
thus also puts a heavy burden on the currency of the country. Physiotherapy is the most widely used form of
treatment adopted for gaining relief from low back pain. The exercises include stretching, strengthening, range
of motion exercises, McKenzie therapy and core stability exercises other techniques like Proprioceptive
neuromuscular facilitation program etc. It has been concluded in various studies core stability exercises and
Proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation are beneficial in low back pain patients but comparison of their effect
needs to be established to provide early and better relief from the disability. Therefore objective of the study was
to compare the effect of Proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation program and Core stabilization exercises on
low back pain patients. 40 subjects aged 30 – 50 years with low back pain for more than 4 weeks were made
part of the study based on inclusion and exclusion criteria and were then divided into two groups named A, B.
Group A received Proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation and group B received Core stabilization exercises
and hot pack given initially for 10-15 minutes to the lower back. The exercise program was given for 4 weeks
with a total of 24 sessions and progression of the activity was made within the tolerance of the patient. Pre and
post treatment readings were taken of pain, Oswestry Disability Questionnaire and Functional Reach Test.
Results were analyzed using paired, unpaired t- test. Results showed that there is significant effect on pain,
Oswestry Disability Questionnaire and Functional Reach Test in the two groups but group A was clinically
more significant than groups B. The study concluded that patients with low back pain are benefitted more by
Proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation program. So, Proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation program
should be practiced more.
Keywords: Low Back Pain, Core Stabilization Exercises, Proprioceptive Neuromuscular Facilitation.
Changes During Passive Recovery In Lower Limbs Tiredness After Strenuous WorkoutIOSR Journals
Abstract: Lower limbs tiredness is a widely accepted indicator for recovery state prediction. The study was
designed and purposed to know the rate and trend of lower limbs tiredness recovery after strenuous workout in
passive state. Ten athletes from LNIPE, Gwalior having almost similar anthropometric measurements,
physiological capacity, chronological age(18-19 year), training age(5-6 year), event(sprinters) etc. residing in
same campus having similar daily routine were selected as participant in this experiment. The experiment was
conducted in a highly controlled environment using sophisticate equipments. Target Heart Rate Zone of the
workout lasting for 20 minutes was 80%-90% of their Maximum Heart Rate. Three readings including pre, post
and 30 minutes post workout was considered for both the two tests (Isometric Leg Strength Test and Sergeant
Jump Test) selected for the purpose. rANOVA was employed separately to derive out meaningful information
from the raw data. In both the tests well controlled workout for 20 minutes resulted in significant increase state
of post workout readings. With passage of time after 30 minutes post passive recovery there was no
improvement in state of tiredness. Thus scope of future research is there in planning out means and methods to
promote lower limbs tiredness recovery during this post recovery period.
Keyword: Isometric Leg Strength Test, Sergeant Jump Test, Recovery, rANOVA
2 Brain activation and exhaustion - Kilty et al 2011-annotated.pdfJorgeSilva638591
1) The study investigated how communication between the mid/anterior insular cortex and motor cortex changes during a fatiguing cycling exercise using electroencephalography (EEG).
2) Results showed that lagged phase synchronization, a measure of intracortical communication, significantly increased between the mid/anterior insular cortex and motor cortex at the end of the fatiguing cycling exercise compared to the beginning.
3) Lagged phase synchronization returned to baseline levels during a recovery cycling period after subjects stopped exercising, indicating the increased communication was specific to the fatigued state.
8 smits 2014 - Pacing and Decision Making in Sport and Exercise The Roles TRA...JorgeSilva638591
O documento discute os papéis da percepção e da ação na regulação da intensidade do exercício no contexto do ritmo e da tomada de decisão. A percepção, como as sensações de fadiga, é estudada em relação ao ritmo, enquanto a tomada de decisão envolve a seleção de ações. Uma abordagem ecológica integra percepção e ação no comportamento interativo.
This study evaluated a new method of monitoring exercise training called the session rating of perceived exertion (RPE) method. The session RPE method uses a participant's perceived exertion after a training session as a marker of training intensity. The study compared the session RPE method to an objective heart rate (HR) monitoring method during steady state and interval cycling, as well as basketball practice. It found a consistent relationship between the two monitoring methods, though the session RPE scores were generally higher. Even with different subjects, the relationships between the methods were similar. The study concluded the session RPE method is a valid way to quantify training during various types of exercise when objective monitoring is not possible.
The document discusses how decision-making theories can help explain how athletes regulate their muscular work rate during self-paced endurance activities. It describes that athletes must make strategic decisions before events and tactical decisions during events to maximize performance while avoiding premature fatigue. The review examines rational and heuristic decision-making models and how they may explain observations from competitive environments. While both models can explain some behaviors, the complex nature of competitions implies rational decision-making is unlikely. Enhanced understanding of the decision-making process could help understand performance regulation.
The document discusses the differences between physical activity and exercise. Physical activity is defined broadly as any bodily movement produced by skeletal muscles that results in energy expenditure, while exercise is a planned, structured subset of physical activity aimed at improving or maintaining physical fitness. All exercise is considered a type of physical activity, but not all physical activity is exercise. Physical activity interventions should focus on increasing total activity rather than just exercise.
2 2009-a review of the scientific studies on cyclic meditationElsa von Licy
This document summarizes several scientific studies that have been conducted on the effects of cyclic meditation (CM). CM is a technique that combines yoga postures with guided meditation. Studies have found that practicing CM leads to increased parasympathetic nervous system activity and reduced sympathetic nervous system activity, as indicated by changes in heart rate variability. CM also reduces oxygen consumption, energy expenditure, and physiological arousal to a greater extent than simply resting. CM may improve attention and cognitive performance while also inducing a relaxed state. The combination of physical and mental elements in CM appears to provide benefits for stress reduction, autonomic nervous system balance, and cognitive functioning.
Respond to the 5 post below.100-200 wordsAPA FORMAT (NO TITLE PA.docxaudeleypearl
Respond to the 5 post below.100-200 words
APA FORMAT (NO TITLE PAGE NEEDED)
Due Sunday January 26, 2020
Adam J
1. After selecting and reading two of the provided articles, I was able to notice some differences and similarities between the two studies. As I read the article by Grenier and McGill (2007), the focus seemed to be on explaining the methods of improving lumbar stability and determining which of these two methods was more efficient at providing stability to this region. Through this study, Grenier and McGill found that when comparing abdominal hollowing and abdominal bracing, major differences could be found. In fact, through this study, we are able to see that the strategy of abdominal bracing provided a 32% improvement in the observed stability of the lumbar spine. Although Okubo, et al. (2010) were also concerned with lumbar stability, their study focused more on specific exercises that maximize specific abdominal muscle activation. The information presented by Okubo, et al. shows that different exercises are necessary if our goal is to improve the overall stability of our lumbar spine.
The information gleaned from the two articles described above are both important when working with a patient/client who has need of improving their spinal stability. After reading these two articles, I feel instructing a patient/client to incorporate an abdominal brace can help prevent injury from occurring during the prescribed exercise program. McGill (2016) also claims that his studies have shown an instant reduction in pain levels in many of his patients when abdominal bracing is used. When abdominal bracing is used in combination with the exercises described by Okubo, et al. (2010), I believe we can help patients/clients avoid injury during exercise, while also improving the overall stability of the spine by strengthening the muscles associated with lumbar stability.
Josh Y
2. I chose to review the articles by Ishida, Suehiro, Kurozumi, and Watanabe (2016) and Grenier and McGill (2007). Both studies made use of electromyography, which helped to quantify their data, rather than basing it on subjects’ perceptions of or description of what they felt during the study. The overarching purpose of both studies was to examine core stability and how different techniques contribute to core stability
Grenier and McGill (2007) examined abdominal hollowing and abdominal bracing. To test the two techniques, subjects were handed either a bilateral or asymmetrical weight in their hands. Electromyographic findings showed that the abdominal brace increased stability by 32%.
Ishida, Suehiro, Kurozumi, and Watanabe (2016) studied abdominal bracing and expiration in relation to sudden trunk loading. Subjects were loaded while at rest and while performing each of the stabilization techniques (expiration and bracing). The timing of when the loading would be applied was unknown to the subjects. There proved to be no difference between expiration and braci ...
Post exercise cold water immersion benefits are not greater than the placebo ...Fernando Farias
This study examined the effects of cold water immersion (CWI), thermoneutral water immersion placebo (TWP), and thermoneutral water immersion control (TWI) on recovery from high-intensity interval training. Thirty males performed interval sprints followed by 15 minutes of one of the three recovery conditions. The study found that ratings of readiness for exercise, pain, and vigor were significantly better in CWI and TWP compared to TWI, but similar between CWI and TWP. This suggests that the benefits of CWI may be partly due to the placebo effect rather than just physiological factors.
Relationship between cortisol, perceived stress, and mindfulness meditationRachael Blais
The study examined the effects of a 30-minute mindfulness meditation session on perceived stress levels and cortisol levels in college students. 39 undergraduate students were randomly assigned to either a meditation group or a control group. Personality traits, health behaviors, perceived stress scales, and cortisol samples were measured. Results found no significant differences in perceived stress or cortisol levels between the meditation and control groups, suggesting a brief mindfulness meditation did not reduce stress. However, emotional stability was found to negatively correlate with perceived stress levels.
Stress management is important for athletes to regulate competition demands and maintain optimal performance and well-being. Stress can negatively impact performance if perceived stress levels are too high. The transactional theory of stress describes stressors as environmental demands and coping as cognitive and behavioral efforts to manage stressors. Common coping strategies include problem-focused coping, emotion-focused coping, avoidance-focused coping, approach-focused coping, and appraisal-focused coping. Effective stress management techniques for athletes include preparation, building self-efficacy and confidence, meditation, and setting goals.
This document discusses effective physical treatments for chronic low back pain. It finds that exercise is one of the few clearly effective treatments, with systematic reviews finding exercise reduces pain and disability. While exercise is effective, the optimal implementation is unclear. Two example programs discussed are group general exercise and individually supervised specific spinal stabilization exercise. The document also discusses laser therapy for chronic back pain, but notes no systematic review has evaluated its efficacy.
3 2009-effect of two yoga-based relaxation techniques on memory scores and st...Elsa von Licy
1) A study compared the effects of two yoga relaxation techniques (cyclic meditation and supine rest) on memory scores and state anxiety in 57 male participants.
2) Both techniques improved memory scores and reduced state anxiety, but cyclic meditation produced greater improvements compared to supine rest.
3) Cyclic meditation involves alternating yoga postures with relaxation, while supine rest involves lying down in a classic relaxation posture. The results suggest that including movement, as in cyclic meditation, may facilitate attention, memory, and anxiety reduction more than relaxation alone.
Postexercise Cold Water Immersion Benefits Are Not Greater than the Placebo E...Fernando Farias
A CWI placebo is also as effective as
CWI itself in the recovery of muscle strength over 48 h.
This can likely be attributed to improved subjective ratings
of pain and readiness for exercise, suggesting that the hy-
pothesized physiological benefits surrounding CWI may
be at least partly placebo related.
Heart Rate Variability and Occupational Stress: Future DirectionsAnnex Publishers
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This document discusses the psychological benefits of exercise. It outlines several common benefits such as improved mood, reduced stress, increased self-esteem, and improved body image. It also examines specific psychological variables like depression, anxiety, stress, and mood states. The literature shows that both aerobic and anaerobic exercise can positively impact these mental health factors. Overall, the document advocates that personal trainers promote both the physical and psychological advantages of exercise to their clients.
Biomechanical Analysis of The Complete Core ConditionerBrandon Hossack
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COMPARATIVE STUDY OF SLOW AND FAST SURYANAMASKAR ON PHYSIOLOGICAL FUNCTIONYogacharya AB Bhavanani
Numerous scientific studies have reported beneficial physiological changes after short and long term yoga training. Suryanamaskar is an integral part of modern yoga training and may be performed either in a slow or rapid manner. As there are few studies on suryanamaskar we conducted this study to study differential effect of 6 months training in the fast and slow versions. 42 school children in the age group of 12 to 16 were randomly divided into two groups of 21 each. Group I and Group II received 6 months training in performance of slow suryanamaskar (SSN) and fast suryanamaskar (FSN) respectively. Training in SSN produced a significant decrease in diastolic pressure. In contrast, training in FSN produced a significant increase in systolic pressure. Although there was a highly significant increase in hand grip strength and hand grip endurance in both the groups, the increase in hand grip endurance in FSN group was significantly more than in SSN group. MIP and MEP increased significantly in both groups and the increase of MIP in the FSN group was more significant as compared to SSN. Training in SSN reduced the resting diastolic pressure and rate-pressure-product, which, indicates a decrease in load on the heart. In contrast, FSN increased diastolic pressure and rate-pressure-product. The present study shows suryanamaskar has positive physiological benefits as evidenced by changes in pulmonary function, respiratory pressures, handgrip strength, handgrip endurance and resting cardiovascular parameters. It also demonstrates that there are differences between performance of suryanamaskar in a slow and fast manner and that the effects of FSN are similar to physical aerobic exercises whereas the effects of SSN are similar to those of Yoga training.
Psychological assessment of overtrainingSportlyzer
Psychological tools are used in assessing overtraining because they are:
* Practical and quite reliable
* The results can be analyzed quickly
* Assumptions can be made on the individual or team level
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3) Both subjective and objective sleep measures like polysomnography show improvements with regular aerobic exercise, though more research is still needed to fully understand the direct impacts of exercise on sleep. Overall, aerobic exercise promotes better sleep quality and total health.
Development and validation of psychic energyMalika Sharma
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To Compare The Effect Of Proprioceptive Neuromuscular Facilitation Program Ve...IOSR Journals
Abstract: Low back pain has been a matter of concern, affecting up to 90% of population at some point in
their lifetime, up to 50% have more than one episode. People of all age group can be affected by this menace
irrespective to their gender and quality of life. It has become one of the leading causes for the visit to physician
thus also puts a heavy burden on the currency of the country. Physiotherapy is the most widely used form of
treatment adopted for gaining relief from low back pain. The exercises include stretching, strengthening, range
of motion exercises, McKenzie therapy and core stability exercises other techniques like Proprioceptive
neuromuscular facilitation program etc. It has been concluded in various studies core stability exercises and
Proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation are beneficial in low back pain patients but comparison of their effect
needs to be established to provide early and better relief from the disability. Therefore objective of the study was
to compare the effect of Proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation program and Core stabilization exercises on
low back pain patients. 40 subjects aged 30 – 50 years with low back pain for more than 4 weeks were made
part of the study based on inclusion and exclusion criteria and were then divided into two groups named A, B.
Group A received Proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation and group B received Core stabilization exercises
and hot pack given initially for 10-15 minutes to the lower back. The exercise program was given for 4 weeks
with a total of 24 sessions and progression of the activity was made within the tolerance of the patient. Pre and
post treatment readings were taken of pain, Oswestry Disability Questionnaire and Functional Reach Test.
Results were analyzed using paired, unpaired t- test. Results showed that there is significant effect on pain,
Oswestry Disability Questionnaire and Functional Reach Test in the two groups but group A was clinically
more significant than groups B. The study concluded that patients with low back pain are benefitted more by
Proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation program. So, Proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation program
should be practiced more.
Keywords: Low Back Pain, Core Stabilization Exercises, Proprioceptive Neuromuscular Facilitation.
Changes During Passive Recovery In Lower Limbs Tiredness After Strenuous WorkoutIOSR Journals
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designed and purposed to know the rate and trend of lower limbs tiredness recovery after strenuous workout in
passive state. Ten athletes from LNIPE, Gwalior having almost similar anthropometric measurements,
physiological capacity, chronological age(18-19 year), training age(5-6 year), event(sprinters) etc. residing in
same campus having similar daily routine were selected as participant in this experiment. The experiment was
conducted in a highly controlled environment using sophisticate equipments. Target Heart Rate Zone of the
workout lasting for 20 minutes was 80%-90% of their Maximum Heart Rate. Three readings including pre, post
and 30 minutes post workout was considered for both the two tests (Isometric Leg Strength Test and Sergeant
Jump Test) selected for the purpose. rANOVA was employed separately to derive out meaningful information
from the raw data. In both the tests well controlled workout for 20 minutes resulted in significant increase state
of post workout readings. With passage of time after 30 minutes post passive recovery there was no
improvement in state of tiredness. Thus scope of future research is there in planning out means and methods to
promote lower limbs tiredness recovery during this post recovery period.
Keyword: Isometric Leg Strength Test, Sergeant Jump Test, Recovery, rANOVA
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6 Abbiss 2015 Effort x Exertion.pdf
1. REVIEW ARTICLE
Role of Ratings of Perceived Exertion during Self-Paced Exercise:
What are We Actually Measuring?
Chris R. Abbiss1 • Jeremiah J. Peiffer2 • Romain Meeusen3,4 • Sabrina Skorski5,6
Ó Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2015
Abstract Ratings of perceived exertion (RPE) and effort
are considered extremely important in the regulation of
intensity during self-paced physical activity. While effort
and exertion are slightly different constructs, these terms
are often used interchangeably within the literature. The
development of perceptions of both effort and exertion is a
complicated process involving numerous neural processes
occurring in various regions within the brain. It is widely
accepted that perceptions of effort are highly dependent on
efferent copies of central drive which are sent from motor
to sensory regions of the brain. Additionally, it has been
suggested that perceptions of effort and exertion are inte-
grated based on the balance between corollary discharge
and actual afferent feedback; however, the involvement of
peripheral afferent sensory feedback in the development of
such perceptions has been debated. As such, this review
examines the possible difference between effort and
exertion, and the implications of such differences in
understanding the role of such perceptions in the regulation
of pace during exercise.
Key Points
Rating of perceived exertion scales have been used
within the literature to assess both effort and
exertion, although evidence exists to suggest that
these are slightly different constructs.
It is plausible that the neural processes involved in
the development of perceptions of effort and exertion
differ.
Examination of the difference between effort and
exertion may aid in improving our understanding of
the role these perceptions have in the regulation of
pace during exercise.
1 Introduction
The distribution of speed or energy expenditure throughout
an exercise task is known as pacing and is extremely
important to overall performance. As a result, research
aimed at understanding the underpinning mechanisms
influencing the selection of pace during exercise has dra-
matically increased within recent years. From this research,
the regulation of intensity during exercise appears largely
regulated by complex relationships between the brain and
other physiological systems, with several models proposed
& Chris R. Abbiss
c.abbiss@ecu.edu.au
1
Centre for Exercise and Sports Science Research, School
of Exercise and Health Sciences, Edith Cowan University,
270 Joondalup Drive, Joondalup, WA 6027, Australia
2
School of Psychology and Exercise Science, Murdoch
University, Murdoch, WA, Australia
3
Department of Human Physiology, Vrje Universiteit Brussel,
Brussels, Belgium
4
School of Public Health, Tropical Medicine and
Rehabilitation Sciences, James Cook University,
Townsville, QLD, Australia
5
Institute of Sports and Preventive Medicine,
Saarland University, Saarbrücken, Germany
6
UC Research Institute for Sport and Exercise,
University of Canberra, Canberra, ACT, Australia
123
Sports Med
DOI 10.1007/s40279-015-0344-5
2. to explain this phenomena, including the central governor
model [1], teloanticipatory theory [2], pacing awareness
model [3], psychobiological model [4, 5], the flush model
[6], perceptions-based model [7] and complex systems
model [8, 9]. Many of these models indicate that afferent
sensory feedback from various physiological systems is
received by the thalamus and regulated within the brain [1,
2, 5, 9]. This information, in addition to several other
factors such as knowledge of the task duration/distance
remaining, memory of past similar experiences, motivation
and mood [5, 10], is believed to be important in the reg-
ulation of pace.
Important aspects within many of the abovementioned
models include the participants’ perception of exertion,
perception of effort and the task demands [7, 11]. Indeed, it
has been suggested that exercise intensity is regulated
based on one’s perceived exertion in order to ensure that
‘catastrophic’ or ‘critical’ disturbances to homeostasis do
not occur [1, 2]. This is supported by the relatively stable
increase in perceived exertion that is typically observed
during high-intensity, self-paced exercise (i.e. a time trial)
[12, 13]. Indeed, it has been proposed that the product of
the momentary perceived exertion and the fraction of dis-
tance remaining (referred to as a hazard score) may provide
an indication of changes in intensity during self-paced
exercise [11]. Importantly, it has also been suggested that
one’s perception of effort is centrally derived and largely
unaffected by peripheral afferent sensory feedback; how-
ever, the role of afferent feedback in the regulation of
intensity during self-paced exercise has been debated [14–
16]. Such uncertainty may be associated with slight but
important differences between the terms effort and exertion
and the measurement tools used to assess an individual’s
perceptions during exercise. As such, the purpose of this
review was to (i) highlight possible issues associated with
the measurement of perceptions of effort and exertion; (ii)
outline the role of the brain in the development of such
perceptions; and (iii) provide suggestions for research to
better understand the role of such perceptions on the reg-
ulation of pace during exercise.
2 Monitoring Perceptions of Effort and Exertion
To date, a number of subjective tools have been developed
to determine a participants’ localized (i.e. chest, arms or
legs) or whole-body ratings of perceived exertion (RPE)
during exercise [17, 18]. The most common of these
include Borg’s 6–20 rating of perceived exertion scale, and
Borg’s CR-10 and CR-100 scales. Modifications of these
scales have also been developed to examine symptomatic
breathlessness (Modified Borg Dyspnoea Scale) or pain
during exercise [17]. These scales are very easy to use and
as a result have been extremely valuable in understanding
the psychophysiological stress experienced by humans
during physical activity [18–20]. Regardless, the factors
that influence one’s RPE during exercise are extremely
complicated as RPE is believed to be influenced by
numerous factors, including effort, strain, pain, discomfort
and/or fatigue [2]. A higher RPE is typically associated
with increased physiological stress and fatigue. Indeed,
numerous studies have shown that significant physiological
perturbations, such as an increase in heart rate, ventilation,
oxygen consumption, and metabolic acidosis (decrease
pH), result in greater RPE [17, 21, 22]. Consequently, the
association between changes in RPE and physiological
status (i.e. oxygen consumption, heart rate) have been used
as evidence of the strong concurrent validity of the RPE
scale [17, 23, 24].
Clearly, RPE is an important variable in understanding
the psychophysiological stress experienced during a variety
of physical tasks; however, it is possible that administration
of RPE scales differs slightly among laboratories. Notably,
throughout the literature RPE has been referred to as per-
ceived exertion and a perception or sense of effort [25].
Some studies have also alternated between the terms per-
ceived exertion and perceived exhaustion [26]. However, it
has been proposed that the exertion, which may be asso-
ciated with physical and physiological stress induced as a
result of exercise, is distinctly different from perceptions of
effort [27, 28]. Indeed, exertion has been defined as the
‘‘degree of heaviness and strain experienced in physical
work’’ [17], whereas effort may be defined as ‘the amount
of mental or physical energy being given to a task’. Con-
fusion between these terms is even evident in the original
derivative of the RPE scale where in Borg’s manuscript
entitled Psychophysical Bases of Perceived Exertion it is
stated that ‘‘there is a great demand for perceptual effort in
order to better understand man at work’’ [18]. Later in the
manuscript, Borg states that ‘‘the individual’s perception of
exertion during physical work is interesting’’ and that in his
opinion ‘‘perceived exertion is the best indicator of the
degree of physical strain’’ [18]. Thirty-plus years on, this
confusion still exists, with the American College of Sports
Medicine current comment on perceived exertion stating
that RPE ‘‘is a psychophysiological scale, meaning it calls
on the mind and body to rate one’s perception of effort’’
[29]. Recently, it has also been suggested that ‘perceived
exertion’ is a conscious manifestation of the feelings of
effort produced by exercise [7, 30, 31].
Directions given to participants, or the precision of the
questions asked when implementing an RPE scale, could
influence the response given and as a result may have
considerable implications in understanding the psy-
chophysiological stress during a task and the role of RPE in
the regulation of self-paced exercise. Indeed, it is important
C. R. Abbiss et al.
123
3. to consider the particular research question which RPE is
being used to assess when administering RPE scales.
Within sports science research RPE is often taken as a
secondary measure in order to vaguely describe one’s
sensations during exercise. As such, it is plausible that the
primary research measure, and ultimately the study design,
may influence one’s interpretation of the RPE scale and the
response given. While clear instructions are provided as to
how to deliver Borg’s RPE scales, these instructions may
not be ideal since they mention both exertion and effort
[17]. Furthermore, while the anchor points provided with
the scale (i.e. light, somewhat hard, maximal exertion) may
assist participants in understanding the purpose of the
scale, it is possible that the terminology used when
describing this or similar scales may influence the inter-
pretation of the scale. Indeed, a recent study by Swart et al.
[27] has found that participants are able to distinguish
between physical perceived exertion (using a modified
Borg Scale) and task effort and awareness. Furthermore, it
was found in this study that there was dissociation between
these two variables when exercising at low or maximal (i.e.
all-out) intensities (Fig. 1). In agreement with these find-
ings, we have also observed differences in the rate of
increase in perceptions of pain (% change = 6.9 ± 4.1),
exertion (16.4 ± 7.6) and effort (2.0 ± 2.2) during three
repeated maximal, high-intensity 4-min efforts (unpub-
lished data). Furthermore, we have found that during sin-
gle-leg cycling, perceived exertion may be lower but
perceptions of effort and pain are similar to double-leg
cycling [32]. Possible differences between effort and
exertion may also explain why many participants are
unable to reach maximal exertion during various exercise
tasks. For instance, while the Borg scale’s upper anchor is
20 (i.e. maximal exertion), the published criterion for the
determination of maximal aerobic capacity has been a
rating equal to or greater than 17–18 (i.e. very hard) [33].
Clearly therefore, a large proportion of participants who
complete a graded exertion test fail to reach maximal
exertion, despite participants being asked to exercise to
volitional exhaustion. However, it is plausible that if
exercise is limited by muscle strength, anaerobic energy
contribution or other similar factors, the participants’ effort
is maximal but exertion slightly lower. However, to date
few studies have used a number of these perceptual scales
concurrently during exercise [27, 32] and thus the differ-
ence, importance and relationship between these variables
is not entirely clear. Furthermore, the independent influ-
ence of each of these perceptions on pacing and perfor-
mance during exercise is not known.
It is plausible that alterations in the contribution of
central and peripheral fatigue that occur during exercise
can influence the association between effort and exertion.
De Morree and Marcora [25] observed significantly higher
RPE values with a corresponding lower power output at the
beginning (minutes 1 and 3) of a 15-min cycling time trial
after a pre-exercising eccentric fatiguing protocol (100
drop-jumps). The authors state that maintaining the same
pace with fatigued locomotor muscles would have resulted
in higher RPE and premature exhaustion [25]; hence,
participants decide to reduce their pace so that the RPE
does not reach its maximum before the end of the trial.
Furthermore, when the capacity to produce force is
reduced, more effort than normal is required for the same
task [15]. However, in this study participants were given
standard instructions on how to rate their perception of
effort on Borg’s 6–20 RPE scale. As previously mentioned,
effort may be defined as ‘the amount of mental or physical
energy being given to a task’. Hence, it is plausible that the
higher RPE values observed were because participants
were, at least in part, rating the amount of mental and
physical energy they were investing in an attempt to
achieve a similar power output as in the non-fatigued
condition. In contrast, a recently published study analysing
the effects of accumulated short-term fatigue on perfor-
mance and pacing during a 40-km cycling time trial
showed significantly lower power output during a time trial
in a fatigued state, yet no difference in corresponding RPE
values, when introducing RPE as a ‘‘degree of heaviness
and strain experienced in physical work’’ (perceived
exertion) [34]. Together, these findings highlight the pos-
sibility that either the type of fatigue induced (i.e. acute vs.
accumulated; local vs. multifaceted), or the terminology
used when describing the Borg RPE scale, may have
influenced the response given.
Language and/or translation of terms may be another
important issue responsible for some confusion over the
use of the terms effort and exertion. According to the
Oxford English Dictionary [35], exertion and effort are
synonyms. Furthermore, when searching translations for
both words, dictionaries of various languages (e.g. German,
Spanish, Italian, Portuguese, Dutch and Japanese) often
provide the same word for both ‘effort’ and ‘exertion’.
Taking this into account, it is plausible that authors may
use both terms interchangeably. In a broader sense, it may
be speculated that speakers with English as a second lan-
guage use the RPE scale differently, depending on their
‘interpretation’ of the translated term. For example, the
German translation for effort and exertion is the same term
(‘Anstrengung’). Furthermore, depending on the context of
the term, ‘Anstrengung’ can be used with regard to the
degree of heaviness experienced or the degree of energy
given to a task. When reviewing manuscripts published by
German researchers, it appears that the explanation of
Borg’s RPE scale may be defined as an ‘‘expression of the
subjective feeling of the heaviness of a given work load or
intensity’’ [36]. Hence, several factors seem to influence
Understanding Effort and Exertion
123
4. the introduction and delivery of the RPE scale, especially
when translated into other languages, including (i) the
translation of the original definition; (ii) the ‘interpretation’
of the translated term; and (iii) the instructors’ and par-
ticipants’ understanding of these terms.
3 Perceptions and the Brain
3.1 Neural Regulation of Perceptions
To fully understand the complex relationship between
exertion, effort and pacing, an appreciation of how such
perceptions are developed and regulated within the brain
is necessary. Indeed, the development of perceptions,
interpretation of language and sensations associated with
effort and exertion during exercise involve multiple
regions within the brain. The brain is an organ of com-
munication. Neurons within the brain connect in networks
that communicate with each other to provide multiple
functions. This network organization is particularly evi-
dent with regard to cognition, which involves the partic-
ipation of diverse brain areas, including parts of the
limbic system such as the hippocampus, amygdala, frontal
cortex, thalamus, etc. Multisensory integration in the
brain deals with the processing of information from the
different sensory modalities, such as sight, sound, touch,
smell, self-motion and taste [37]. Multisensory integration
also deals with interaction of various sensory modalities
and how each sensory modality influences other pro-
cessing [38]. Furthermore, during intensive exercise this
is made even more complicated by considerable distur-
bances to physiological homeostasis, creating the need for
considerable communication and computing within the
brain and with peripheral physiological systems. As such,
perceptions may reflect how the brain integrates and
categorizes the input signals resulting from various dif-
ferent stimuli.
Perceptions of effort and exertion are believed to be
closely related to activity within various areas of the motor
cortex, including the premotor and primary motor areas
[39]. Indeed, the well-accepted corollary discharge theory
postulates that an efference copy of the central motor
command is sent directly from motor to sensory areas of
the brain in order to assist in the generation of perceptions
associated with motor output (Fig. 2) [40–43]. As such, the
close relationship between RPE and muscle activity (i.e.
electromyography) during exercise is thought to be largely
influenced by a central feed-forward neurophysiological
mechanism whereby as motor unit recruitment and firing
Fig. 1 Linear relationship
between TEA and P-RPE during
a a progressive exercise test,
b 100-km time trial,
c submaximal ride at 70 % of
the power during the 100-km
time trial, and d intermittent
sprints. TEA task effort and
awareness, P-RPE physical
ratings of perceived exertion,
* indicates slope and intercepts
significantly different from both
a and b [p 0.001],
** indicates slope and intercepts
significantly different from
a and b [p 0.001].
Reproduced from Swart et al.
[27], with permission
C. R. Abbiss et al.
123
5. frequency increase, the number of efferent copies received
by sensory regions within the brain also increases [39, 44,
45]. This theory is supported by the relationship between
perceptions of effort or exertion and the increase in central
drive required to exercise at higher intensities and/or dur-
ing periods of muscle weakening resulting from peripheral
fatigue [46] or partial paralysis [47, 48]. Indeed, we have
recently shown that elevated peripheral fatigue and a
concomitant increase in central drive is associated with an
increase in RPE during constant-load, high-intensity
cycling [46]. Furthermore, De Morree et al. [39] have also
recently observed an association between perceived effort
and the amplitude of the movement-related cortical
potential, which reflects activity within the premotor and
motor areas of the brain [49]. Based on this, the authors
suggested that perception of effort might arise from the
primary motor cortex [39]; however, the authors also
highlighted the possibility that perceived effort may be
associated with activity in neural centres upstream of the
primary motor cortex, and possibly even the motor cortex
[39, 50]. Due to their involvement in homeostatic control,
awareness [51], emotion, error detection, motivation and
pain [52], higher brain centres such as the insular cortex
and cingulate cortex are believed to be extremely important
in perceptions that are associated with physical activity
[30, 53, 54]. Supporting this, Fontes et al. [30] observed an
association between increased neuronal activity in the
posterior cingulate gyrus and precuneus and rating of
perceived exertion during cycling. Furthermore, an
increased activation of the right anterior insular cortex has
been documented with increased perceived exertion during
dynamic exercise [55, 56]. Interestingly, it has also been
found that increases in activation of regions within the
insular cortex and anterior cingulate cortex may be the
direct result of central command per se, and independent of
muscle metaboreflex activation or changes in blood pres-
sure [56].
In addition to the efference copy, afferent information is
believed to be extremely important in the development of
perceptions of effort and exertion during exercise (Fig. 2)
[31, 47]. Indeed, it is believed that effort is associated with
not only corollary commands received by the sensory
cortex but also expected reafference arising from the motor
drive (Fig. 2) [40, 47]. Indeed, Luu et al. [47] showed that
by reducing muscle force using a neuromuscular blockade,
sensations of heaviness were reduced, presumably due to
reduced peripheral feedback associated with paralysis of
muscle spindle intrafusal fibres, since it was assumed that
motor command must have been elevated. Aligned with
this hypothesis, it has recently been proposed that exercise-
induced pain is an important contributing factor in the
regulation of work intensity and is thus important in pacing
during exercise [57]. It has been shown that an opioid
analgesic to selectively block the activity in ascending
sensory pathways results in elevated RPE during a 5-km
cycling time trial [58]. However, within this study,
impaired muscle afferent feedback was also associated
with altered central motor drive [58], and thus it remains
unclear whether an alteration in corollary command, rather
than changes in afferent feedback, was the dominant
mechanism responsible for altered RPE. Regardless, based
on the current literature it appears reasonable to suggest
that such regions of the brain are responsible for the inte-
gration of physiological afferent signals from the periphery
to promote emotional and conscious control of perceptual
stress during exercise [30]. Under such a hypothesis, per-
ceptions of both effort and exertion are likely to be dictated
by not only the discrepancy or balance between predicted
and actual sensory feedback but also other complex psy-
chological factors such as memory/prior experience of
similar exercise [2], motivation [8], positive and negative
affect [10] and awareness [2].
However, it should be noted that the aforementioned
blockade studies have examined sensations of heaviness
Fig. 2 Neural regulation of perceptions associated with motor drive.
An efference copy of the neural drive is sent from the motor to
sensory regions of the brain in order to develop a forward model of
predicted sensory feedback. This predicted sensory feedback is
compared with actual sensory feedback, resulting in a match or
mismatch, which alters the development of perceptions. Reproduced
from Bubic et al. [40], with permission
Understanding Effort and Exertion
123
6. [47] or perceived exertion [58, 59], and as a result the role
of afferent feedback in the regulation of sensations of effort
and performance is not entirely clear [14–16]. Due to the
slight differences in the definition and interpretation of
exertion and effort, it is plausible that the dominant cause
of such perceptions differs. Indeed, since effort is associ-
ated with ‘the amount of mental or physical energy being
given to a task’ it seems plausible that the efference copy
of central command is likely to be important. Conversely,
since exertion refers to the sensations associated with the
‘strain experienced during a physical task’, it is possible
that actual sensory feedback may have a greater influence
when integrated to develop such perceptions. Borg seems
to have shared this assumption in stating that ‘‘the overall
perceived exertion rating integrates various information,
including many signals elicited from the peripheral work-
ing muscles and joints, from the central cardiovascular and
respiratory functions, and from the central nervous sys-
tems. All these signals, perceptions, and experiences are
integrated into a configuration of perceived exertion’’ [18].
Highlighting the difference between effort and exertion to
participants when examining perceptual responses during
motor tasks may assist in better understanding the central
and peripheral origins of such perceptions and their role in
the regulation of fatigue during exercise.
3.2 Neurochemistry and Perceptions
Clearly, the development and regulation of sensations, such
as exertion or effort, involve complex processes within
motor, sensory and other regions of the brain. The inter-
actions of these systems can be characterized by the dif-
ferent neurotransmitters that dictate and create the
communication between neurons in different brain regions
and neuronal pathways. As such, understanding the func-
tion of various neurotransmitters is important in under-
standing perceptions and their role during self-paced
exercise. There are several candidate neurotransmitters that
influence the neural functions outlined above (Sect. 3.1),
and it is clear that these neurotransmitter systems will work
‘in concert’ to establish the integration of all information
and information processing in the brain. Monoaminergic
neurons modulate a wide range of functions in the central
nervous system. Noradrenergic neurons are involved in
cardiovascular function, sleep and analgesic responses,
while dopaminergic neurons are linked with motor function
and motivation, and serotonergic activity is associated with
pain, fatigue, appetite and sleep [60]. Other transmitters,
such as adenosine, glutamate, gamma-butyric acid and
others, are also influenced by disturbances of homeostasis.
All are linked with limbic processing of signals and will
crosstalk during exercise [61]. The influence of neuro-
transmitters in the integration of signals within the brain is
likely to be especially important during intensive and/or
long-duration exercise. Indeed, it has been found that even
acute exercise increases the release of neurotransmitters in
several brain areas [61]. Our recent research showed that
not only climatic stress but also pharmacological manipu-
lation of the neurotransmitters has the ability to cause
changes in endurance performance [62]. Furthermore, it
has been found that such pharmacological manipulation
alters pacing, specifically in the early phases of an exercise
task [63]. For instance, manipulations of serotonin, espe-
cially noradrenaline, result in a decrease in power output
during the early stages of a time trial. However, dopamine
reuptake inhibition has the opposite effect and subjects are
able to maintain a higher power output compared with
placebo. When neurotransmission is manipulated through a
selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor, subjects are often
unable to perform an end sprint, indicating an absence of a
reserve capacity or motivation to increase power output
[62].
Although pacing and/or overall performance may be
altered when neurotransmitters are manipulated, typically
no differences in perceived exertion or thermal stress are
observed when compared with placebo trials [64–67]. It
has been proposed that participants continuously modify
their pace in order to match the momentary perceived
exertion with the expected level of exertion at a given point
during an exercise task [11]. As such, drugs acting to
enhance brain dopamine would change the initial antici-
patory setting of work rate by elevating arousal and moti-
vational levels. Under such circumstances, perceived
exertion may be reduced, resulting in a mismatch between
the actual and template perceived exertion. Consequently,
this would lead to an increased work rate and heat pro-
duction, until the conscious perceived exertion returns to
anticipated levels. In contrast to dopamine, an increase in
brain noradrenaline concentration has detrimental effects
on power output and thus exercise performance. Despite
the lower power output when manipulating the noradren-
ergic system, perceived exertion between conditions has
been shown to be similar [62].
Taken together, it appears that performance-enhancing
or -retarding effects of central nervous system drugs on
endurance performance are reflected by changes in the
distribution of pace during exercise. In the presence of
larger climatic stress, subjects seem to adapt their strategy
specifically in the earlier phases of exercise. Such alter-
ations in exercise intensity may be in order to ensure
exercise is performed at a given level of perceived exertion
(i.e. the RPE template). Indeed, perceived exertion is typ-
ically not influenced by the drug treatments outlined above,
indicating that subjects maintain the same level of exertion,
regardless of the power output produced or the core tem-
perature achieved. Nonetheless, to date the majority of
C. R. Abbiss et al.
123
7. studies that have examined the association between pacing
and neurochemistry have examined perceptions of exertion
and thermal sensation, rather than perceived effort. Similar
manipulation trials may be valuable in better understanding
the relationship between pacing or exercise performance
and various perceptions, including both effort and exertion.
4 Future Research that May Aid in Better
Understanding the Role of Ratings of Perceived
Exertion in Pacing
Many of the issues outlined in this review centre on the
inconsistent use of the terms exertion and effort. We have
highlighted not only possible neurological differences in
the way individuals perceive exertion and effort but also
issues with the explanation of the perceived exertion scale.
Specifically, the instruction provided, or questions asked,
when implementing the scale are likely to influence the
measured outcomes. To address this issue, studies designed
to independently assess both effort and exertion are needed.
Such work should build on that of Swart et al. [27] and
examine the influence of an individual’s ability to dis-
tinctively differentiate exertion and effort. Given that there
is evidence for dissociation between perceptions of effort
and exertion during exercise of varying intensity [27] or
total muscle recruitment [32], it may be interesting to
conduct such research during various modes of exercise.
Indeed, manipulation of factors such as the level of
eccentric loading, exercise intensity, task familiarity or
external mental requirements may alter the association
between effort and exertion during physical activity.
Although extremely complicated, these studies should also
focus on the mechanisms and neural process responsible
for changes in perceived exertion and effort during exer-
cise. Examination of regional brain activity (i.e. functional
magnetic resonance imaging, electroencephalography or
cerebral blood flow) or alterations in neural function (i.e.
manipulation of neurotransmitters or direct current stimu-
lation) may assist in better understanding the neural pro-
cess responsible for the development of perceptions during
exercise.
Physiological disruptions to homeostasis associated with
the onset of fatigue appear to influence an individual’s
perception of exertion and effort [39, 46]. Therefore,
examining the association between varying models or
causes of fatigue (i.e. severity, central/mental vs. periph-
eral) will certainly assist in our understanding of the role of
such perception in sport and exercise performance. Such
research could incorporate many physiological or psycho-
logical manipulations that are known to alter fatigue
development (i.e. hypoxia, hyperthermia, physical fatigue,
pharmacological administration, deception/placebo, or
mental fatigue), which could assist in better understanding
possible differences between perceptions of effort and
exertion and their role in pacing, fatigue and performance.
Previous experience and memory is believed to be
important in the complex integration of the various factors
that are ultimately responsible for the perception of effort
and exertion [2]. Therefore, an individual’s level of
expertise could significantly influence the sensitivity of
such measures. Research aimed at examining the sensi-
tivity of perception of effort or exertion across a continuum
of ages and fitness levels would provide much-needed
information in this area. During such research, considera-
tion should also be given to the sensitivity of the scales
used. Indeed, different scales of varying sensitivity (i.e.
6–20, 1–10 or 0–100), and utilizing different anchor points
or descriptions, have been developed to monitor percep-
tions during exercise. As described in Sect. 2, one’s
interpretation of any given perceptual scale is likely to
depend on the anchor points or terminology used. As such,
research examining these anchors in order to determine the
most appropriate terminology for various perceptions is
warranted. In addition, examination of the Borg scale in
comparison to more flexible visual analogue scales could
provide insight into this area. However, it should also be
noted that since the descriptions and values within a given
scale will influence the precise outcome given, the com-
parison of information across scales is extremely compli-
cated. This has implications in the examination of possible
differences and relationships between such perceptions.
5 Conclusions
This review highlights the possible differences between
perceptions of effort and exertion. To date, few studies
have examined numerous perceptions during exercise, and
thus the potential difference, importance and relationship
between these variables is not well understood. It appears
that perceptions of both exertion and effort are regulated
within various regions of the brain based on the integration
of information relating to motor drive, afferent feedback
and numerous other factors, including prior experience,
awareness and motivation. In particular, perceptions of
effort may be largely influenced by an efference copy of
central motor command which is sent from motor to sen-
sory regions of the brain. Conversely, perceptions of
exertion during exercise may be influenced, at least in part,
by alterations in afferent feedback associated with distur-
bances to homeostasis. The relative contributions of
afferent feedback, efference copy of motor drive and the
integration of this information in the generation of such
perceptions is not yet fully understood. Since effort and
exertion are both likely to be extremely important in
Understanding Effort and Exertion
123
8. understanding the underpinning mechanisms influencing
the selection of pace, further research monitoring both of
these variables during exercise is warranted. Such work
may aid in better understanding the complex neural pro-
cesses that are important in fatigue development and pac-
ing, and during exercise.
Compliance with Ethics Standards No sources of funding were
used to assist in the preparation of this review. Chris R. Abbiss,
Jeremiah J. Peiffer, Romain Meeusen and Sabrina Skorski have no
conflicts of interest relating to the contents of this review.
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