This document discusses police human resources and the selection process for police officers. It covers the 1964 Civil Rights Act which prohibited discrimination in hiring. It describes how affirmative action and quotas impacted police departments and led to challenges of entrance exams and selection standards that had disparate impacts. Minimum selection standards for education, background checks, physical agility tests and psychological evaluations are outlined. Training requirements including the police academy and field training are summarized. Factors like stress, performance, behavior differences by race and gender are briefly mentioned.

1. Police Human Resources

2. 1964 Civil Rights Act
Discrimination to consider a person’s race, color, sex,
national origin, or religion in hiring & personnel decisions.
State & local govt.s and their employees excluded.
AFFIRMATIVE ACTION & POLICE SELECTION

3. Created Equal Employment Opportunity Commission
(EEOC) to implement the law
Title VII of the 1964 Civil Rights Act

4.  1969 wave of class action employment discrimination
lawsuits filed in federal courts (violation of 14th
Amendment)
 Entrance examinations (I.Q. & aptitude tests) had
disparate impact on AA.
PDs were not able to demonstrate relt. btwn. job
performance & scores
 Many cases required PDs to hire according to quotas by
race
AFFIRMATIVE ACTION & POLICE SELECTION cont.

5. Intentional & unintentional discrimination must be
eliminated
Burden of proof is on the agency to show exclusion from a
job is due to job-related reasons (selection procedures are
necessary)
Griggs v Duke Power Co. (1971)

6. Amendment to 1964 Civil Rights Act, extended coverage to
State & local govt.s and their employees.
Affected police by prohibiting disparate:
 treatment (overt/direct) against individuals
 impact (indirect) against groups
1972 Equal Employment Opportunity Act

7.  Other PD selection standards & processes struck down
when courts found disparate impact
Height & weight (Hispanics & Females)
Physical agility tests (Females)
 Many PDs implemented different cutoff scores for males
& females
AFFIRMATIVE ACTION & POLICE SELECTION cont.

8. Amendments to 1964 Civil Rights Act, prohibited
discriminatory use of test scores.
“It shall be an unlawful employment practice for a respondent, in connection
with the selection or referral of applicants or candidates for employment or
promotion, to adjust the scores of, use different cutoff scores for, or otherwise
alter the results of, employment related tests on the basis of race, color,
religion, sex or national origin." (Section 106).
1991 Civil Rights Act

9. BB Minority Local Police Officers
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
1987 1990 1993 1997 2000 2003 2007
Percentof full-time
sworn personnel
BJS 2010. Local Police Departments 2007

10.  11.9% Black / African American (13.1% 2011 pop)
 10.3% Hispanic / Latino (16.7% 2011 pop)
 Underrepresented in law enforcement:
Institutional barriers
Personal preferences
Minorities in Policing Today
BJS 2010. Local Police Departments 2007
http://quickfacts.census.gov/qfd/states/00000.html

11. Women in Policing
1910 Alice Stebbin Wells
LAPD first official
policewoman

12. Women in Policing cont.
1966 Women officers
posing for gun
inspection, LAPD
 1970s FBI & Secret
Service
http://www.fototeka.com/lapd/gallery.html
Photographer: Unknown

13. BB Female Local Police Officers
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
1987 1990 1993 1997 2000 2003 2007
Percent of full-time
sworn personnel
BJS 2010. Local Police Departments 2007

14. BJS 2010. Women in Law Enforcement, 1987-2008
BB

15. BJS 2010. Women in Law Enforcement, 1987-2008
BB

16. Establishing Minimum Selection Standards
1959 Commission on Peace Officer Standards and
Training (POST) established by legislature to set
minimum standards in CA

17. CA POST Minimum Selection Standards
Local/Municipal Departments across US
Age
 21 avg. min.
 37, 45 & 50 most common max.

18. Residency
 varies
Vision
 depth perception, color & night blindness
Minimum Selection Standards cont.

19. CA POST Minimum Selection Standards cont.

20. BB Minimum Educational Requirement for New Officer
Recruits in Local Police Departments
86 83 81 82
4 5 8 67 8 9 91 1 1 1
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
1993 1997 2003 2007
Percent requiring High
School
Some College
2-yr degree
4-yr degree
BJS. 1996, 2000, 2006, 2010 Local Police Departments Series

21.  State
16% 2 yr deg
4% 4 yr deg
 Federal
Most 4yr deg
Education cont.

22.  1916 Vollmer proposed police have college degrees
 1931 Wickersham Commission recommended
increased educational standards for police
 1967 President’s Commission on LE and AOJ
recommended “all police personnel with general
enforcement powers have baccalaureate degrees”
Educational Standards

23.  Perceived shortage of applicants
 Discriminatory effect on minorities
Davis v Dallas (1985)
 Dept. might miss good officers
 Supervisors fear resistance
Perceived Disadvantages of Education

24. Greater:
 Maturity & base of information to make decisions
 Knowledge of American history, democratic principles &
constitutional values & rights
 Ability to make decisions w/o supervision, & adapt to
new strategies
 Understanding & tolerance of different ethnic &
educational backgrounds, & ability to communicate
Advantages of Education (PERF)

25. College educated officers:
 Fewer injuries, preventable accidents, sick days
 Higher levels of citizen satisfaction ratings
 Fewer citizen complaints
 Less likely to use force
 Less likely to be arrested for corruption
Police Performance & Education

26. CA POST Minimum Selection Standards cont.
 Standard for Local/Municipal, State & Federal

27. Establishing Minimum Selection Standards cont.
Drug History
1. Recency of usage
2. Patterns or frequency of usage
3. Types of drugs used
4. Involvement in sale or distribution
Drug tolerance on usage has evolved over time. With
more and more candidates experimenting and the
legalization of Marijuana (Colorado and Washington)
agencies are realigning their standards. e.g. Seattle PD
– although more conservative agencies endorse zero
tolerance (Scottsadale).

28. THE POLICE SELECTION PROCESS
 Format varies: civil service, essay, mc
 Larger the department, more likely it is required
 San Diego PD: eliminates 62% of applicants
CA POST Minimum Selection Standards cont.

29. Physical Agility Test
 Thomas v City of Evanston (1985) Must:
1. be based on job analysis that determines necessary physical
fitness for the job
2. represent content of the job
3. be scored to discern those capable of performing the job from
those who cannot
 Format varies
THE POLICE SELECTION PROCESS cont.

30. BB Physical Agility Test LAPD
Side Step (Agility) - This test measures coordination. You will have 10
seconds. You will perform the test twice and your final score will be the
average of the two trials.
Cable Pull (Strength) - You will have three seconds to pull outward in a
horizontal motion as hard as you can. The cable pull will determine how
many pounds of force you are able to generate. You will perform the test
three times and your final score will be the average of the three trials.
Stationary Bicycle (Endurance) - You will have two minutes to pedal as
fast as you can against a pre-set resistance. You will perform the test once
and your final score will be the number of revolutions you can do in the two
minutes.
Treadmill - This test measures aerobic capacity. The treadmill is
programmed to SIMULATE running 1.5 miles in 14 minutes on a track.
During the test, the speed and incline of the machine will vary and, as a
result, the actual test time is 10 minutes and 20 seconds. The pass/fail
score for this test is based upon your completion of this test for the
specified period.

31. Physical Agility Test Newport Beach
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=soJt-ni2KN4

32. THE POLICE SELECTION PROCESS cont.
 Personal History Form: employment history, education,
past residences, prior LE applications, driving record,
credit history, tattoos, references
 Pre-history questionnaire – relevant to resources (financial,
time saving, etc.)
CA POST Minimum Selection Standards cont.

33. THE POLICE SELECTION PROCESS cont.
Background Investigation cont.
 Interview with background investigator
 Polygraph
 Voice Stress Analyzer

34. THE POLICE SELECTION PROCESS cont.
CA POST Minimum Selection Standards cont.
 Experience, problem solving, communication skills,
motivation, interpersonal skills

35. THE POLICE SELECTION PROCESS cont.
Medical Evaluation
 Vision, hearing, cardiovascular-respiratory system,
 body fat (22% male, 30% female)
CA POST Minimum Selection Standards cont.

36. THE POLICE SELECTION PROCESS cont.
Psychological Evaluation
 Personality test (MMPI, CPI)
 Psych interview
 Learning disabilities, ADD, psychiatric conditions may
disqualify

37. BB THE POLICE SELECTION PROCESS cont. Figure 3.5
BJS. 1996, 2000, 2006, 2010 Local Police Departments Series

38. TRAINING POLICE OFFICERS
Basic Training /Academy
 648 State & local LE
academies in US
 Avg. 613 hrs
CJ System
Law
Human values
Procedures
Activity/Task proficiency
Dept. Administration

39. BB Percent of Academies Providing CP Training
BJS. 2009. State & Local Law Enforcement Training Academies, 2006

40. Field Training Officer (FTO) Programs
 1/3 of academies have a mandatory field training
component
 Avg. 309 hrs
 Recruits work under supervision of FTOs who provide
daily evaluation of performance
TRAINING POLICE OFFICERS cont.

41. BB TRAINING POLICE OFFICERS cont.
BJS. 2009. State & Local Law Enforcement Training Academies, 2006

42. In-Service Training / Continuing Professional Education
(CPE)
 Roll call/Briefing
 Departmental in-service sessions
 Specialized academy courses
 Extensive in-service
 Computer based training
TRAINING POLICE OFFICERS cont.

43. BB In-Service Training / CPE cont.
BJS 2010. Local Police Departments 2007

44. Lateral Expansion
Specialization within a department
Vertical Expansion
Upward movement or promotion
Limited
Service requirement
Irregular
Formal testing process
POLICE OFFICER CAREER
DEVELOPMENT

46. BB Median Annual Wages (2008)
Local State Federal Median
Police & Sheriff’s
Patrol officers
51,020 57,270 46,620 51,410
Detectives & Criminal
Investigators
55,930 53,910 73,170 60,910
Police & Detective
Supervisors
74,820 75,370 89,930 75,490
BLS. Occupational Outlook Handbook 2010-11 Edition

47. BB Average Salaries
for Sworn Full-Time Positions (2008)
Position Min. Salary Max. Salary
Police Chief 90,570 113,930
Deputy Chief 74,834 96,209
Captain 72,761 91,178
Lieutenant 65,688 79,268
Sergeant 58,739 70,349
Corporal 49,421 61,173
BLS. Occupational Outlook Handbook 2010-11 Edition

48. Desired Qualities (LEAA)
 Sensitivity
 Honesty
 Judgment
 Initiative
 Persuasiveness
 Reliability

49. POLICE STRESS
Stress: “anything that places an adjustive demand on the
organism” (Selye)
Eustress - Positive
Distress - Negative
• Agreement that it exists
• Little agreement on sources / causes, effects or extent
Personal adjustment problem
Structural problem

50. Sources of Police Stress
Typology (Carter 1994)
1. Life threatening – potential & perception of injury &
death
2. Social isolation
3. Organizational – formal & informal
4. Functional – related to performance of assigned duties
5. Personal – origins in off-duty life
6. Physiological – changes in physiology & health
7. Psychological – (could include most of the above)

51. 1994 Police Stress Survey
• 60 item survey
• Random sample of 110 NY State police officers,
103 completed (93%)
• Top 3 stressors:
1. Killing someone in line of duty
2. Fellow officer killed
3. Physical attack
• Lowest ranked stressor: racial conflicts

52. Effects of Police Stress
Police Suicide
• Difficulty in studying:
Info not collected or accessible
misclassification as accidents or undetermined
deaths
• Several studies indicate higher rates among police in
comparison to other occupations
Difference disappears when gender & economic status
controlled for

53. Effects of Police Stress Police Suicide cont.
1994 Police Suicide Project (NYPD)
• 57 suicides (1985-1994)
• Relationship problems & depression were leading
factors where a contributing factor was identified
• 53 committed with officer’s gun

54. Effects of Police Stress cont.
Alcoholism & Drug Abuse
• 25% of police officers have serious problems with
alcohol abuse
• 67% of officers studied admitted to drinking while on duty
• Conflicting figures likely a result of underreporting
• 10% of offices have serious drug problems
anabolic steroids

55. Reducing Police Stress
Reactive Strategies
• Counseling, alcohol/drug treatment
• Train officers to cope with and reduce stress
• Training in nutrition, healthcare, exercise
Proactive
• Clarification of role
• Reduce uncertainty

57.  1900 2.7% Black / African American (police &
firefighters)
 1940 less than 1% Black / African American
(police)
 1970 2.7% Hispanic / Latino
Minorities in Policing

58.  Education
Local
82% High school or GED min.
6% Some college
9% 2 yr deg
1% 4 yr deg
Establishing Minimum Selection Standards cont.
BJS 2010. Local Police Departments 2007

59. • Background & Record check
100% Criminal record - no felony convictions,
certain misdemeanors
99% Background investigation
99% Driving record
61% Credit History
Establishing Minimum Selection Standards cont.
BJS 2010. Local Police Departments 2007

60. Personal Attribute Screening Methods
• 99% Personal Interview
• 72% Psychological evaluation
• 48% Written aptitude test
• 46% Personality inventory
• 26% Polygraph
• 5% Voice stress analyzer
THE POLICE SELECTION PROCESS
BJS 2010. Local Police Departments 2007

61. Physical Attribute Screening Methods
• 89% Medical exam
• 83% Drug test
• 60% Physical agility test
THE POLICE SELECTION PROCESS cont.
BJS 2010. Local Police Departments 2007

62. CA POST Minimum Selection Standards cont

63. Physical Agility Test Henrico County, VA

64. BB
LAPD
Selection
Process

65. Black officers:
 more likely to be involved in use of force & deadly force
situations
 more aggressive patrol style
 less lenient with black citizens
Minority group officers:
 less antagonistic to the public, display greater ties to the
community
Differences in Officer Behavior by Race

66. Female officers:
 used firearms less frequently, fewer instances of
injuring citizens, no more likely to be injured
 domestic violence – more sympathetic to victims
Gilligan (1982) “Morality of Care” v “Morality of Justice”
Differences in Officer Behavior by Gender

67.  Higher ratings from their superiors
Dade County, FL
BB Police Performance & Education cont.
Officer Level of
Education
Percent Chance of a
“superior” performance rating
High school 50
2 yr degree 65
4 yr degree 73

68.  Fewer disciplinary actions
Florida (1997-2002)
BB Police Performance & Education cont.
Officer Level of
Education
Percent of
Disciplinary Actions
Percent of Lost
Certifications
High school 75 77
2 yr degree 12 12
4 yr degree 12 11