SUBMERGED HORIZONTAL PLATE FOR COASTAL RETREATING CONTROL: THE CASE OF POLIGN...marmar83
Many sites along the Apulian coast (SE Italy) are composed of weathered and fractured carbonate rocks, affected by intense erosion and frequent sliding. A detailed research of the University of Bari (Andriani and Walsh, 2007) highlighted that from 1997 through 2003, the cliff retreat rate varied from 0.01 to 0.1 myr-1, mostly as a consequence of wave action. In the case of Polignano a Mare, a small town 30 km far from Bari, the erosive process seems to be seriously affecting the stability of buildings. Here, because of the bathymetry, the traditional rubble mound breakwaters are not suited. As an alternative, a rigid horizontal submerged plate on piles is here considered. Since there is no universally accepted theory nor formula to calculate the hydraulic performance of such kind of structure physical models have been constructed at HR Wallingford and subjected to random wave attacks. This paper discusses results of those tests.
This is a revision of the previous post on the same topic. There I tried to develop my own algebra of symbols to represent coarse grained (spatially integrated) hydrological system. Later on I understood that Petri networks were already there and useful to obtain the same result. The graphs obtained in such a way where, besides, studied in several places, and many contributes of literature convergent from other disciplines, can be used for hydrological scopes.
The idea is to build an algebra of object to represent (water) budgets giving a clear idea of the type of interactions that the budget is subject to.
Any symbol should correspond to a mathematical term or a group of mathematical terms. The number and the collocation of parameters of the models should be clear.
SUBMERGED HORIZONTAL PLATE FOR COASTAL RETREATING CONTROL: THE CASE OF POLIGN...marmar83
Many sites along the Apulian coast (SE Italy) are composed of weathered and fractured carbonate rocks, affected by intense erosion and frequent sliding. A detailed research of the University of Bari (Andriani and Walsh, 2007) highlighted that from 1997 through 2003, the cliff retreat rate varied from 0.01 to 0.1 myr-1, mostly as a consequence of wave action. In the case of Polignano a Mare, a small town 30 km far from Bari, the erosive process seems to be seriously affecting the stability of buildings. Here, because of the bathymetry, the traditional rubble mound breakwaters are not suited. As an alternative, a rigid horizontal submerged plate on piles is here considered. Since there is no universally accepted theory nor formula to calculate the hydraulic performance of such kind of structure physical models have been constructed at HR Wallingford and subjected to random wave attacks. This paper discusses results of those tests.
This is a revision of the previous post on the same topic. There I tried to develop my own algebra of symbols to represent coarse grained (spatially integrated) hydrological system. Later on I understood that Petri networks were already there and useful to obtain the same result. The graphs obtained in such a way where, besides, studied in several places, and many contributes of literature convergent from other disciplines, can be used for hydrological scopes.
The idea is to build an algebra of object to represent (water) budgets giving a clear idea of the type of interactions that the budget is subject to.
Any symbol should correspond to a mathematical term or a group of mathematical terms. The number and the collocation of parameters of the models should be clear.
Uma equipe de astrônomos norte-americanos descobriu o par de buracos negros supermassivos mais próximos até agora no universo.
O par de buracos negros está localizado no centro do quasar chamado de PKS 1302-102, a aproximadamente 3.5 bilhões de anos-luz de distância.
Esses dois buracos negros estão separados de apenas uma semana-luz e estão num movimento espiral um em direção ao outro que deve acabar com uma colisão cataclísmica.
Em contraste, o par de buracos negros mais próximos descoberto até então estava separado de aproximadamente 20 anos-luz.
Reference velocity sensitivity for the marine internal multiple attenuation a...Arthur Weglein
In this note, we present a review of the inverse scattering series internal multiple attenuation
algorithm for land data (Matson, 1997). In particular, we look at internal multiple attenuation
since it is a dominant issue when processing land data. The requirements of four-component
data and reference velocity for a 2D earth is shown. Effects due to velocity errors includes
artifacts in the (P, S) data (Matson, 1997) and the algorithm’s sensitivity to reference velocity.
Two analytic examples for 1D normal incidence (Weglein and Matson, 1998) and 1D non-normal
incidence (Nita and Weglein, 2005) are used to demonstrate the inner working of this algorithm.
We extend their analysis to investigate velocity sensitivity. In conclusion, accurate near surface
reference velocities are essential to properly predict internal multiples except for the 1-D normal
incidence case.
IOSR Journal of Applied Physics (IOSR-JAP) is an open access international journal that provides rapid publication (within a month) of articles in all areas of physics and its applications. The journal welcomes publications of high quality papers on theoretical developments and practical applications in applied physics. Original research papers, state-of-the-art reviews, and high quality technical notes are invited for publications.
A new universal formula for atoms, planets, and galaxiesIOSR Journals
In this paper a new universal formula about the rotation velocity distribution of atoms, planets, and galaxies is presented. It is based on a new general formula based on the relativistic Schwarzschild/Minkowski metric, where it has been possible to obtain expressions for the rotation velocity - and mass distribution versus the distance to the atomic nucleus, planet system centre, and galactic centre. A mathematical proof of this new formula is also given. This formula is divided into a Keplerian(general relativity)-and a relativistic(special relativity) part. For the atomic-and planet systems the Keplerian distribution is followed, which is also in accordance with observations.
According to the rotation velocity distribution of the galaxies the rotation velocity increases very rapidly from the centre and reaches a plateau which is constant out to a great distance from the centre. This is in accordance with observations and is also in accordance with the main structure of rotation velocity versus distance from different galaxy measurements.
Computer simulations were also performed to establish and verify the rotation velocity distributions in the atomic – planetary- and galaxy system, according to this paper. These computer simulations are in accordance with observations in two and three dimensions. It was also possible to study the matching percentage in these calculations showing a much higher matching percentage between theoretical and observational values by this new formula.
Mechanical wave descriptions for planets and asteroid fields: kinematic model...Premier Publishers
Models with wave dynamics and oscillations in the solar system are presented. A solitonial solution (Korteweg-de Vries), for a density field, is related to the formations of planets. A new nonlinear equation for a solitonial, will be derived, and denoted ‘J-T equation’. The linearized version has solutions, which are small vibrations with eigen frequency proportional to the parameters describing the solitonial wave, around a constant level, which is 2/3 of the maximum solitonial density. The location and orbital motion of Mercury and Venus are compared with wave dynamics. The tidal effect for Earth is analysed in terms of dynamics. Related phenomena for other planetary objects are discussed in conjunction with assuming a Roche limit.
Wave-Current Interaction Model on an Exponential Profileijceronline
We develop a model that approximates the exponential depth, which exhibits the behavior of linear depth particularly in the surf zone. The main effect of the present exponential depth is found in the shoaling zone, where the depth remains finite. The basic description and the outcome is essentially rip currents where in the surf zone the wave behavior is the same as found in the linear depth case. In the shoaling zone the present exponential depth exhibits the hypergeometric functions.
Advances in Rock Physics Modelling and Improved Estimation of CO2 Saturation, Giorgos Papageorgiou - Geophysical Modelling for CO2 Storage, Leeds, 3 November 2015
Obtaining three-dimensional velocity information directly from reflection sei...Arthur Weglein
This paper present a formalism for obtaining the subsurface
velocity configuration directly from reflection seismic data.
Our approach is to apply the results obtained for inverse
problems in quantum scattering theory to the reflection
seismic problem. In particular, we extend the results of
Moses (1956) for inverse quantum scattering and Razavy
(1975) for the one-dimensional (1-D) identification of the
acoustic wave equation to the problem of identifying the
velocity in the three-dimensional (3-D) acoustic wave equation
from boundary value measurements. No a priori knowledge
of the subsurface velocity is assumed and all refraction,
diffraction, and multiple reflection phenomena are
taken into account. In addition, we explain how the idea of
slant stack in processing seismic data is an important part
of the proposed 3-D inverse scattering formalism.
Uma equipe de astrônomos norte-americanos descobriu o par de buracos negros supermassivos mais próximos até agora no universo.
O par de buracos negros está localizado no centro do quasar chamado de PKS 1302-102, a aproximadamente 3.5 bilhões de anos-luz de distância.
Esses dois buracos negros estão separados de apenas uma semana-luz e estão num movimento espiral um em direção ao outro que deve acabar com uma colisão cataclísmica.
Em contraste, o par de buracos negros mais próximos descoberto até então estava separado de aproximadamente 20 anos-luz.
Reference velocity sensitivity for the marine internal multiple attenuation a...Arthur Weglein
In this note, we present a review of the inverse scattering series internal multiple attenuation
algorithm for land data (Matson, 1997). In particular, we look at internal multiple attenuation
since it is a dominant issue when processing land data. The requirements of four-component
data and reference velocity for a 2D earth is shown. Effects due to velocity errors includes
artifacts in the (P, S) data (Matson, 1997) and the algorithm’s sensitivity to reference velocity.
Two analytic examples for 1D normal incidence (Weglein and Matson, 1998) and 1D non-normal
incidence (Nita and Weglein, 2005) are used to demonstrate the inner working of this algorithm.
We extend their analysis to investigate velocity sensitivity. In conclusion, accurate near surface
reference velocities are essential to properly predict internal multiples except for the 1-D normal
incidence case.
IOSR Journal of Applied Physics (IOSR-JAP) is an open access international journal that provides rapid publication (within a month) of articles in all areas of physics and its applications. The journal welcomes publications of high quality papers on theoretical developments and practical applications in applied physics. Original research papers, state-of-the-art reviews, and high quality technical notes are invited for publications.
A new universal formula for atoms, planets, and galaxiesIOSR Journals
In this paper a new universal formula about the rotation velocity distribution of atoms, planets, and galaxies is presented. It is based on a new general formula based on the relativistic Schwarzschild/Minkowski metric, where it has been possible to obtain expressions for the rotation velocity - and mass distribution versus the distance to the atomic nucleus, planet system centre, and galactic centre. A mathematical proof of this new formula is also given. This formula is divided into a Keplerian(general relativity)-and a relativistic(special relativity) part. For the atomic-and planet systems the Keplerian distribution is followed, which is also in accordance with observations.
According to the rotation velocity distribution of the galaxies the rotation velocity increases very rapidly from the centre and reaches a plateau which is constant out to a great distance from the centre. This is in accordance with observations and is also in accordance with the main structure of rotation velocity versus distance from different galaxy measurements.
Computer simulations were also performed to establish and verify the rotation velocity distributions in the atomic – planetary- and galaxy system, according to this paper. These computer simulations are in accordance with observations in two and three dimensions. It was also possible to study the matching percentage in these calculations showing a much higher matching percentage between theoretical and observational values by this new formula.
Mechanical wave descriptions for planets and asteroid fields: kinematic model...Premier Publishers
Models with wave dynamics and oscillations in the solar system are presented. A solitonial solution (Korteweg-de Vries), for a density field, is related to the formations of planets. A new nonlinear equation for a solitonial, will be derived, and denoted ‘J-T equation’. The linearized version has solutions, which are small vibrations with eigen frequency proportional to the parameters describing the solitonial wave, around a constant level, which is 2/3 of the maximum solitonial density. The location and orbital motion of Mercury and Venus are compared with wave dynamics. The tidal effect for Earth is analysed in terms of dynamics. Related phenomena for other planetary objects are discussed in conjunction with assuming a Roche limit.
Wave-Current Interaction Model on an Exponential Profileijceronline
We develop a model that approximates the exponential depth, which exhibits the behavior of linear depth particularly in the surf zone. The main effect of the present exponential depth is found in the shoaling zone, where the depth remains finite. The basic description and the outcome is essentially rip currents where in the surf zone the wave behavior is the same as found in the linear depth case. In the shoaling zone the present exponential depth exhibits the hypergeometric functions.
Advances in Rock Physics Modelling and Improved Estimation of CO2 Saturation, Giorgos Papageorgiou - Geophysical Modelling for CO2 Storage, Leeds, 3 November 2015
Obtaining three-dimensional velocity information directly from reflection sei...Arthur Weglein
This paper present a formalism for obtaining the subsurface
velocity configuration directly from reflection seismic data.
Our approach is to apply the results obtained for inverse
problems in quantum scattering theory to the reflection
seismic problem. In particular, we extend the results of
Moses (1956) for inverse quantum scattering and Razavy
(1975) for the one-dimensional (1-D) identification of the
acoustic wave equation to the problem of identifying the
velocity in the three-dimensional (3-D) acoustic wave equation
from boundary value measurements. No a priori knowledge
of the subsurface velocity is assumed and all refraction,
diffraction, and multiple reflection phenomena are
taken into account. In addition, we explain how the idea of
slant stack in processing seismic data is an important part
of the proposed 3-D inverse scattering formalism.
The Effect of Bottom Sediment Transport on Wave Set-Upijceronline
In this paper we augment the wave-averaged mean field equations commonly used to describe wave set-up and wave-induced mean currents in the near-shore zone, with an empirical sediment flux law depending only on the wave-induced mean current and mean total depth. This model allows the bottom to evolve slowly in time, and is used to examine how sediment transport affects wave set-up in the surf zone. We show that the mean bottom depth in the surf zone evolves according to a simple wave equation, whose solution predicts that the mean bottom depth decreases and the beach is replenished. Further, we show that if the sediment flux law also allows for a diffusive dependence on the beach slope then the simple wave equation is replaced by a nonlinear diffusion equation which allows a steady-state solution, the equilibrium beach profile
Wavelet estimation for a multidimensional acoustic or elastic earthArthur Weglein
A new and general wave theoretical wavelet estimation
method is derived. Knowing the seismic wavelet
is important both for processing seismic data and for
modeling the seismic response. To obtain the wavelet,
both statistical (e.g., Wiener-Levinson) and deterministic
(matching surface seismic to well-log data) methods
are generally used. In the marine case, a far-field
signature is often obtained with a deep-towed hydrophone.
The statistical methods do not allow obtaining
the phase of the wavelet, whereas the deterministic
method obviously requires data from a well. The
deep-towed hydrophone requires that the water be
deep enough for the hydrophone to be in the far field
and in addition that the reflections from the water
bottom and structure do not corrupt the measured
wavelet. None of the methods address the source
array pattern, which is important for amplitude-versus-
offset (AVO) studies.
Wavelet estimation for a multidimensional acoustic or elastic earth- Arthur W...Arthur Weglein
A new and general wave theoretical wavelet estimation
method is derived. Knowing the seismic wavelet
is important both for processing seismic data and for
modeling the seismic response. To obtain the wavelet,
both statistical (e.g., Wiener-Levinson) and deterministic
(matching surface seismic to well-log data) methods
are generally used. In the marine case, a far-field
signature is often obtained with a deep-towed hydrophone.
The statistical methods do not allow obtaining
the phase of the wavelet, whereas the deterministic
method obviously requires data from a well. The
deep-towed hydrophone requires that the water be
deep enough for the hydrophone to be in the far field
and in addition that the reflections from the water
bottom and structure do not corrupt the measured
wavelet. None of the methods address the source
array pattern, which is important for amplitude-versus-
offset (AVO) studies
International Journal of Computational Engineering Research(IJCER)ijceronline
International Journal of Computational Engineering Research(IJCER) is an intentional online Journal in English monthly publishing journal. This Journal publish original research work that contributes significantly to further the scientific knowledge in engineering and Technology
Invited Seminar presented at the VIA Forum Astroparticle Physics Forum COSMOVIA
21 March 2020
http://viavca.in2p3.fr/2010c_o_s_m_o_v_i_a__forum_sd24fsdf4zerfzef4ze5f4dsq34sdteerui45788789745rt7yr68t4y54865h45g4hfg56h45df4h86d48h48t7uertujirjtiorjhuiofgrdsqgxcvfghfg5h40yhuyir/viewtopic.php?f=73&t=3705&sid=c56cbf76f87536fc4c3ff216d9edaba2
Author: O.M. Lecian
Speaker: O.M. Lecian
Abstract: The LHAASO experiment is aimed at detecting highly-energetic particles of cosmological origin within a large
range of energies.
The sensitivity of the experimental apparatus can within the frameworks of statistical fluctuations of the
background.
Acceleration and lower-energy particles can be analyzed.
The anisotropy mass composition of cosmic rays can analytically described.
The LHAASO Experiment is also suited for detecting particles of cosmological origin originated from the breach
(and/or other kinds of modifications) of particle theories paradigms comprehending other symmetry groups.
Some physical implications of anisotropies can be looked for.
The study of anisotropy distribution for particles of cosmological origin as well as the anisotropies of their velocities
both in the case of a flat Minkowskian background as well as in the case of curved space-time can be investigated,
as far as the theoretical description of the cross-section is concerned, as well as for the theoretical expressions of
such quantities to be analyzed.
The case of a geometrical phase of particles can be schematized by means of a geometrical factor.
Particular solutions are found under suitable approximations.
A comparison with the study of ellipsoidal galaxies is achieved.
The case of particles with anisotropies in velocities falling off faster than dark matter (DM) is compared.
The study of possible anisotropies in the spatial distribution of cosmological particles can therefore be described
also deriving form the interaction of cosmic particles with the gravitational field, arising at quantum distances, at
the semiclassical level and at the classical scales, within the framework of the proper description of particles
anisotropies properties.
Directional Spreading Effect on a Wave Energy ConverterElliot Song
The results demonstrate the importance of tuning the WEC system for specific wave environments to harvest most energy and to avoid potential capsize due to hurricanes etc.
Within the framework of the general theory of relativity (GR) the modeling of the central symmetrical
gravitational field is considered. The mapping of the geodesic motion of the Lemetr and Tolman basis on
their motion in the Minkowski space on the world lines is determined. The expression for the field intensity
and energy where these bases move is obtained. The advantage coordinate system is found, the coordinates
and the time of the system coincide with the Galilean coordinates and the time in the Minkowski space.
2137ad - Characters that live in Merindol and are at the center of main storiesluforfor
Kurgan is a russian expatriate that is secretly in love with Sonia Contado. Henry is a british soldier that took refuge in Merindol Colony in 2137ad. He is the lover of Sonia Contado.
2137ad Merindol Colony Interiors where refugee try to build a seemengly norm...luforfor
This are the interiors of the Merindol Colony in 2137ad after the Climate Change Collapse and the Apocalipse Wars. Merindol is a small Colony in the Italian Alps where there are around 4000 humans. The Colony values mainly around meritocracy and selection by effort.
thGAP - BAbyss in Moderno!! Transgenic Human Germline Alternatives ProjectMarc Dusseiller Dusjagr
thGAP - Transgenic Human Germline Alternatives Project, presents an evening of input lectures, discussions and a performative workshop on artistic interventions for future scenarios of human genetic and inheritable modifications.
To begin our lecturers, Marc Dusseiller aka "dusjagr" and Rodrigo Martin Iglesias, will give an overview of their transdisciplinary practices, including the history of hackteria, a global network for sharing knowledge to involve artists in hands-on and Do-It-With-Others (DIWO) working with the lifesciences, and reflections on future scenarios from the 8-bit computer games of the 80ies to current real-world endeavous of genetically modifiying the human species.
We will then follow up with discussions and hands-on experiments on working with embryos, ovums, gametes, genetic materials from code to slime, in a creative and playful workshop setup, where all paticipant can collaborate on artistic interventions into the germline of a post-human future.
The Legacy of Breton In A New Age by Master Terrance LindallBBaez1
Brave Destiny 2003 for the Future for Technocratic Surrealmageddon Destiny for Andre Breton Legacy in Agenda 21 Technocratic Great Reset for Prison Planet Earth Galactica! The Prophecy of the Surreal Blasphemous Desires from the Paradise Lost Governments!
The perfect Sundabet Slot mudah menang Promo new member Animated PDF for your conversation. Discover and Share the best GIFs on Tenor
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Explore the multifaceted world of Muntadher Saleh, an Iraqi polymath renowned for his expertise in visual art, writing, design, and pharmacy. This SlideShare delves into his innovative contributions across various disciplines, showcasing his unique ability to blend traditional themes with modern aesthetics. Learn about his impactful artworks, thought-provoking literary pieces, and his vision as a Neo-Pop artist dedicated to raising awareness about Iraq's cultural heritage. Discover why Muntadher Saleh is celebrated as "The Last Polymath" and how his multidisciplinary talents continue to inspire and influence.
1. AVO principles, processing and inversion
CREWES Research Report — Volume 18 (2006) 1
AVO principles, processing and inversion
Hong Feng and John C. Bancroft
ABSTRACT
In this paper, we will review the basic principles of AVO and introduce some
amplitude preserving algorithms. Seismic data processing sequences for AVO analysis
and some algorithms for AVO inversion will be discussed. Topics related to AVO, such
as rock physics, AVO modeling, AVO interpretation, and AVO pitfalls are beyond the
scope of this report.
INTRODUCTION
The AVO (amplitude variation with offset) technique assesses variations in seismic
reflection amplitude with changes in distance between shot points and receivers. AVO
analysis allows geophysicists to better assess reservoir rock properties, including porosity,
density, lithology and fluid content.
Around 1900, Knott and Zoeppritz developed the theoretical work necessary for AVO
theory (Knott, 1899; Zoeppritz, 1919), given the P-wave and S-wave velocities along
with the densities of the two bounding media. They developed equations for plane-wave
reflection amplitudes as a function of incident angle. Bortfeld (1961) simplified
Zoeppritz’s equation, making it easier to understand how reflection amplitudes depend on
incident angle and physical parameters. Koefoed (1955) described the relationship of
AVO to change in Poisson’s ratio across a boundary. Koefoed’s results were based on the
exact Zoeppritz equation. The conclusions drawn by Koefoed are the basis of today’s
AVO interpretation.
Rosa (1976) and Shuey (1985) did breakthrough work related to predicting lithology
from AVO, inspired by Koefoed’s article. Ostrander (1982) illustrated the interpretation
benefits of AVO with field data, accelerating the second era of amplitude interpretation.
Allen and Peddy (1993) collected seismic data, well information, and interpretation from
the Gulf Coast of Texas and published a practical look at AVO that documented not only
successes but also the interpretational pitfalls learned from dry holes.
Today, AVO analysis is widely used in hydrocarbon detection, lithology identification,
and fluid parameter analysis, due to the fact that seismic amplitudes at layer boundaries
are affected by the variations of the physical properties just above and below the
boundaries. In recent years, a growing number of theories and techniques in seismic data
acquisition, processing, and seismic data interpretation have been developed, updated,
and employed. AVO analysis in theory and practice is becoming increasingly attractive.
PRINCIPLES OF AVO
When seismic waves travel into the earth and encounter layer boundaries with velocity
and density contrasts, the energy of the incident wave is partitioned at each boundary.
2. Feng and Bancroft
2 CREWES Research Report — Volume 18 (2006)
Specifically, part of the incident energy associated with a compressional source is mode-
converted to a shear wave; then both the compressional and shear wave energy are partly
reflected from and partly transmitted through each of these layer boundaries.
The fraction of the incident energy that is reflected depends upon the angle of
incidence. Analysis of reflection amplitudes as a function of incidence angle can
sometimes be used to detect lateral changes in elastic properties of reservoir rocks, such
as the change in Poisson’s ratio. This may then suggest a change in the ratio of P wave
velocity to S wave velocity, which in turn may imply a change in fluid saturation within
the reservoir rocks.
Starting with the equations of motion and Hooke’s law, one can derive and solve the
wave equations for plane elastic waves in isotropic media. Then, using the equations of
continuity for the vertical and tangential components of stress and strain at a layer
boundary, plane wave solutions and Snell’s law that relates propagation angles to wave
velocities, one obtains the equation for computing the amplitudes of the reflected and
transmitted P- and S- wave. Figure 1 illustrates the wave propagation of incidence of
compressible wave at solid-solid interface.
FIG. 1. Waves generated at an interface by an incident P-wave.
Approximations of the Zoeppritz Equations
The Bortfeld Approximation
The Zoeppritz equations allow us to derive the exact plane wave amplitudes of a
reflected P wave as a function of angle, but do not give us an intuitive understanding of
how these amplitudes relate to the various physical parameters. Over the years, a number
of approximations to the Zoeppritz equations have been made. The first was by Bortfeld
in 1961. His approximation to the Zoeppritz equation for PP reflection amplitude is given
by
3. AVO principles, processing and inversion
CREWES Research Report — Volume 18 (2006) 3
θ
α
ββ
βα
βα
α
α
ρ
ρ
θρα
θρα
θ 2
2
1
2
2
2
1
21
12
1
2
1
2
111
222
sin
lnln
ln
2
cos
cos
ln
2
1
)(
−
⎥
⎥
⎥
⎥
⎦
⎤
⎢
⎢
⎢
⎢
⎣
⎡
−
++⎟⎟
⎠
⎞
⎜⎜
⎝
⎛
=R . (1)
An important aspect of Bortfeld’s equations is that they provide the interpreter with an
insight into the amplitude variation with offset as a function of rock properties. The first
term in Bortfeld’s PP equation is fluid-fluid reflection coefficient. The second term has
been called the rigidity term because of its dependence on the S-wave velocity, and thus
on the shear rigidity modulus. However, equation (1) does not explicitly indicate angle-
or offset- dependence of reflection amplitudes; therefore, its practical implementation for
AVO analysis has not been considered.
The Aki, Richards and Frasier Approximation
The Bortfeld approximation was further refined by Richards and Frasier (1976) and by
Aki and Richards (1980). The Aki, Richards and Frasier approximation is appealing
because it is written as three terms, the first involving P-wave velocity, the second
involving density, and the third involving S-wave velocity. Their formula can be written:
β
β
ρ
ρ
α
α
θ
Δ
+
Δ
+
Δ
= cbaR )( , (2)
where 2/)tan1()cos2/(1 22
θθ +==a , ]sin)/2[(5.0 222
θαβ−=b ,
)sin/4( 222
θαβ−=c , 2/)( 21 ααα += , 2/)( 21 βββ += , 2/)( 21 ρρρ += ,
12 ααα −=Δ , 12 βββ −=Δ , 12 ρρρ −=Δ , 2/)( ti θθθ += , and
]sin)/arcsin[( 12 it θααθ = .
In practice, one does not observe the separate effects of P wave reflectivity αα /Δ , S
wave reflectivity ββ /Δ and fractional change in density ρρ /Δ on the reflection
amplitude ( )θR . Instead, one observes changes in reflection amplitude as a function of
angle of incidence. Equation (2) can be rearranged in successive ranges of angle of
incidence as
)sin](tan
2
1
[
sin]24
2
1
[)](
2
1
[)(
22
2
2
2
2
2
θθ
α
α
θ
ρ
ρ
α
β
β
β
α
β
α
α
ρ
ρ
α
α
θ
−
Δ
+
Δ
−
Δ
−
Δ
+
Δ
+
Δ
=R
. (3)
Equation (3) contains three terms. It was rearranged by Shuey (1985) in terms of
Poisson’s ratio rather than S wave velocity to give his well known approximation, and
was also rearranged by Wiggins (1987) at Mobil, and published by Gelfand and Larner
(1986) as an approximation based on S and P wave reflectivity.
4. Feng and Bancroft
4 CREWES Research Report — Volume 18 (2006)
Setting the S wave to P wave velocity ratio, 5.0/ =αβ , then ignoring the third term in
equation (3),
θ
ρ
ρ
β
β
α
α
ρ
ρ
α
α
θ 2
sin]
2
1
2
1
[)](
2
1
[)(
Δ
−
Δ
−
Δ
+
Δ
+
Δ
=R . (4)
Letting
)(
2
1
ρ
ρ
α
α Δ
+
Δ
≅pR , (5)
and
)(
2
1
ρ
ρ
β
β Δ
+
Δ
≅sR , (6)
equation (4) becomes
θθ 2
sin)2()( spp RRRR −+= . (7)
From the equation above we can get
2/)( GRR ps −= , (8)
where G=Rp-2Rs.
This is the AVO attribute equation for estimating the shear wave reflectivity. Given
the AVO intercept pR and AVO gradient G attributes, simply take half of the difference
between the two attributes to derive the shear wave reflectivity sR as described by
equation (8).
Shuey’s Approximation
Shuey(1985) published a closed form approximation of the Zoeppritz equations which
involved ρα, andσ (Poisson’s ratio)
)sin(tan
2
sin]
)1(
[)( 222
20 θθ
α
α
θ
σ
σ
θ −
Δ
+
−
Δ
++= ARRR pp , (9)
where 2/)( 21 σσσ += , 21 σσσ +=Δ ,
σ
σ
−
−
+−=
1
21
)1(20 BBA , and
ρραα
αα
//
/
Δ+Δ
Δ
=B .
With various assumptions, we can simplify the equation (9) as
5. AVO principles, processing and inversion
CREWES Research Report — Volume 18 (2006) 5
θθ 2
sin)( GRR p += . (10)
This equation is linear if we plot R as a function of θ2
sin . We will then perform a
linear regression analysis on the seismic amplitudes to estimate intercept pR , and gradient
G. Before performing the linear regression, we must transform our data from constant
offset form to constant angle form.
The Smith and Gidlow Approximation
Smith and Gidlow(1987) gave another approximation based on the Aki and Richards
equation. They first rearranged equation (3) to get
θ
α
α
θ
ρ
ρ
β
β
α
β
ρ
ρ
α
α
θ 22
2
2
tan
2
1
sin]2[2)](
2
1
[)(
Δ
+
Δ
+
Δ
−
Δ
+
Δ
=R . (11)
And then they simplified equation (11) by removing the dependence on density by using
Gardner’s relationship
4/1
αρ a= . (12)
This can be differentiated to give
α
α
ρ
ρ Δ
=
Δ
4
1
. (13)
Substituting equation (13) into equation (11) gives
β
β
α
α
θ
Δ
+
Δ
= dcR )( , (14)
where θθ
α
β 22
2
2
tansin
2
1
8
5
+−=c and θ
α
β 2
2
2
sin4−=d .
Using this equation we can estimate αα /Δ and ββ /Δ by using generalized linear
inversion (GLI). The GLI solution in matrix form is given by
⎟
⎟
⎠
⎞
⎜
⎜
⎝
⎛
=
⎟
⎟
⎟
⎟
⎠
⎞
⎜
⎜
⎜
⎜
⎝
⎛
Δ
Δ
⎟
⎟
⎠
⎞
⎜
⎜
⎝
⎛
∑
∑
∑∑
∑∑
N
i ii
N
i ii
N
i i
N
i ii
N
i ii
N
i i
Xb
Xa
bba
baa
β
β
α
α
2
2
. (15)
The two parameters αα /Δ and ββ /Δ , estimated by using the least squares solution
given by equation (15), represent fractional changes in P and S wave velocity. As such,
they are related to P and S wave reflectivity, pp II /Δ and ss II /Δ , respectively.
6. Feng and Bancroft
6 CREWES Research Report — Volume 18 (2006)
Smith and Gidlow (1987) also derived two other types of weighted stacks, the
“Pseudo- Poisson’s ratio reflectivity and the “fluid factor”.
Goodway et al.(1998) gave another way to estimate the P wave and S wave fluctuation
based on transforming the Aki-Richards equation to the new variables pp II /Δ and
ss II /Δ
ρ
ρ
θ
α
β
θ
θ
α
β
θθ
Δ
−−
Δ
+
Δ
+=
]sin2tan
2
1
[
]sin4[)]tan1(
2
1
[)(
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
s
s
p
p
I
I
I
I
R
. (16)
Goodway et al. (1998) implemented a specific form of equation (16) to derive the
AVO attributes pp II /Δ and ss II /Δ . For a specific value of 2/ =βα and small angles
of incidence for which θθ sintan ≈ , the third term in equation (16) vanishes and equation
(16) takes the form
sp RRR )sin2()tan1()( 22
θθθ −+= . (17)
Following the estimation of the P wave and S wave fluctuation by using the
generalized linear inversion (GLI) given by equation (15), the P wave and S wave
impedance can be computed by integration.
In addition, Goodway et al. (1998) estimated two additional AVO attributes in terms
of Lame’s constant scaled by density-λρ and μρ
s
sp
I
II
2
22
2
=
−=
μρ
λρ
. (18)
Comparison of the Approximations of Zoeppritz’s Equation
There are numerous expressions for the linear approximation of Zoeppritz’s equation,
each with different emphasis. While Bortfeld (1961) emphasized the fluid and rigidity
terms which provided insight when interpreting fluid-substitution problems, Aki and
Richard’s equation emphasized the contribution of variations in the P- and S- wave
velocities and density. Shuey, after learning about the contributions of Koefoed and the
amplitude dependence on Poisson’s ratio, decided to cast Aki and Richards’s equation in
terms of Poisson’s ratio. One of the Shuey’s main contributions is that he identified how
various rock properties can be associated with near, mid, and far angle ranges. On the
right side of Shuey’s equation, the first term is the normal-incident reflectivity and this is
constant across all incident angles. The second term does not start to contribute
significantly until incident angles of 15 degree or greater are reached. The third term,
Shuey argued, is insignificant and can be ignored if the incident-angle range is less than
30 degrees.
7. AVO principles, processing and inversion
CREWES Research Report — Volume 18 (2006) 7
Both the first and second term in Shuey’s equation contain the normal-incident
reflection coefficient. Verm and Hilterman (1995) rearranged Shuey’s equation to
emphasize the rock property dependence on incident angle:
)sin
4
(tan
2
sin
)1(
sin
4
1
2
1
)(
2
2
2
22
2
2
2
2
θ
α
β
θ
α
α
θ
σ
σ
θ
α
β
ρ
ρ
α
α
θ
−
Δ
+
−
Δ
+
⎟⎟
⎠
⎞
⎜⎜
⎝
⎛
−⎟⎟
⎠
⎞
⎜⎜
⎝
⎛ Δ
+
Δ
=R
. (19)
With this new arrangement (equation (19)), the near angle response is basically
influenced by changes in acoustic impedance; the mid angle response is influenced by
variations in Poisson’s ratio, and the far angle, by variation in P-wave velocity.
AVO Classification
Rutherford and Williams’s classification of the reflection coefficient curves has
become the industry standard and it is associated respectively with 1970s classification of
bright spot, phase reversal, and dim out. The classification was developed for reflections
from hydrocarbon saturated formations. According to Rutherford and Williams’s
classification, the slope of the reflection coefficient curve is negative for all classes. The
reflection amplitude decreases with the angle of incidence. However, the absolute
amplitude can increase with angle of incidence as depicted for Class 2 and 3 AVO gas
saturated anomalies. Castagna et al. (1998) found that certain Class 3 gas saturated
anomalies can have slowly decreasing amplitudes with offset. These were named Class 4
AVO anomalies. However, the main diagnostic feature for the Class 4 anomalies is still
the large amplitude associated with the hydrocarbons.
FIG. 2. Classification of AVO Responses Class 1, Class 2, Class 3, and Class 4. (Rutherford and
Williams, 1989).
0
8. Feng and Bancroft
8 CREWES Research Report — Volume 18 (2006)
Class 1 (Dim out) anomalies have the following properties:
• Amplitude decreases with increasing angle, and may reverse phase on the far angle
stack
• Amplitude on the full stack is smaller for the hydrocarbon zone than for an
equivalent wet saturated zone.
• Wavelet character is peak-trough on near angle stack
• Wavelet character may or may not be peak-trough on the far angle stack.
Class 2 (Phase reversal) anomalies have the following properties:
• There is little indication of the gas sand on the near angle stack.
• The gas sand event increases amplitude with increasing angle. This attribute is
more pronounced than anticipated because of the amplitude decrease of the shale-
upon-shale reflections.
• The gas sand event may or may not be evident on the full stack, depending on the
far angle amplitude contribution to the stack.
• Wavelet character on the stack may or may not be trough-peak for a hydrocarbon
charged thin bed.
• Wavelet character is trough-peak on the far angle stack.
• Inferences about lithology are contained in the amplitude variation with incident
angle.
• AVO alone, unless carefully calibrated, cannot unambiguously distinguish a clean
wet sand from a gas sand, because both have similar (increasing ) behavior with
offset.
Class 3 (Bright spot) anomalies have the following properties:
• Hydrocarbon zones are bright on the stack section and on all angle limited stacks.
• The hydrocarbon reflection amplitude, with respect to the background reflection
amplitude, is constant or increases slightly with incident angle range. Even though
the amplitude of the hydrocarbon event can decrease with angle, as suggested for
the Class 4 AVO anomalies, the surrounding shale-upon-shale reflections normally
decrease in amplitude with angle at a faster rate.
• Wavelet character is trough-peak on all angle stacks. This assumes that the
dominant phase of the seismic wavelet is zero and the reservoir is below tuning
thickness.
9. AVO principles, processing and inversion
CREWES Research Report — Volume 18 (2006) 9
• Hydrocarbon prediction is possible from the stack section.
SEISMIC DATA PROCESSING FOR AVO/AVA ANALYSIS
AVO processing and analysis is intended to provide additional rock properties and
reservoir properties from seismic data beyond structural imaging. AVO analysis mainly
relies on fitting gradients to amplitude observations over a range of offsets. In order that
the resulting gradient fits be considered reliable, all steps in the data processing sequence
must accurately preserve the natural amplitude variations related to lithology and fluid
content. Velocities must be accurate and scaling must maintain relative amplitudes.
Interference due to noise and multiples or side effects related to their attenuation must be
carefully monitored. The amplitude bias introduced by various algorithms should be
taken into account.
Yilmaz (2001) addressed the detailed processing sequence in his book. There are three
important aspects of a processing sequence tailored for AVO analysis.
• The relative amplitudes of the seismic data must be preserved throughout the
analysis in order to recognize amplitude variation with offset.
• The processing sequence must retain the broadest possible signal band in the data
with a flat spectrum within the passband.
• Prestack amplitude inversion to derive the AVO attributes must be applied to
common reflection point (CRP) gathers.
Noise Attenuation
During the AVO processing there are various types of noise that distort the true
amplitudes of the seismic data. These noises have to be removed by different noise
suppression processes. Dey-Sarkar and Svatek (1993) defined three basic types of noise
that distort the amplitudes in the prestack domain. Type I noise is associated with source
generated noise, multiples, surface consistent effects. Fourier transform techniques and
surface-consistent computation can be used to remove these effects. Type II noise is
generally associated with instrumentation or cultural noise during data acquisition. Type
III noises are entirely due to wave propagation effects in a visco-elastic medium.
The approach proposed by Dey-Sarkar and Svatek (1993) is to calibrate the
amplitudes using some statistical algorithms. After removing Type I and Type II noises
from the prestack data, there are mainly two components of the amplitude left. The first
component is associated with the amplitude variation due to Type III noise. The second
component is associated with the reflection coefficient variation with offset. Dey-Sarkar
and Svatek (1993) estimate the first component (Type III noise) from a window of events
above the target event. The RMS amplitudes are computed for each offset and an
exponential decay function is fitted through the data points. The coefficient of this decay
function is the amplitude correction factor for the event. The coefficient is spatially
averaged to obtain a smoothly varying function. The advantages of this technique are, (1)
10. Feng and Bancroft
10 CREWES Research Report — Volume 18 (2006)
the robustness, (2) no subsurface parameters are assumed, and (3) no distortion is
produced in the data because of the slowly varying function.
Xu and Bancroft (1997) applied this method to the multi-component data acquired from
Blackfoot, Alberta (see Figure 3).
FIG. 3. (a) The gather before amplitude calibration. (b) The gather after amplitude calibration. (c)
The synthetic gather. ( Xu and Bancroft, 1997).
True Amplitude Radon Transform
When the data are severely contaminated by multiples, the Radon transform is a
popular tool for regularization and preprocessing of seismic data prior to migration, AVO
analysis and stratigraphic interpretation.
FIG. 4. Results of the improved semblance-weighted Radon method: (a) The model; (b) The
Radon panel; (c) The reconstructed gather; and (d) The residual gather. (Cao, Bancroft, 2004).
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
2
-1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
x 10
-8
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
2
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
2
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
2
Time(s)
Offset (m) q (s2/m2)
Time(s)
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
2
-1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
x 10
-8
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
2
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
2
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
2
Time(s)
Offset (m) q (s2/m2)
Time(s)
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
11. AVO principles, processing and inversion
CREWES Research Report — Volume 18 (2006) 11
We often use the Radon transform to suppress ground roll, coherent noise, and
multiples. Suppression of coherent noise greatly facilitates prestack migration velocity
analysis. However, for AVO analysis, it is most important to make sure that any removal
of noise does not degrade the signal component of the reflections.
Nurrul (1999) addressed how to remove the multiples and preserve the true amplitude
at the same time. A weighting approach was applied to the least squares Radon
transforms to preserve the amplitude.
Cao and Bancroft (2004) worked on the parabolic semblance-weighted Radon
transform with a Gauss-Seidel iterative method in the time domain. This approach can
enhance energy clusters along those trajectories which fit seismic events well in the
seismic dataset and weaken energy along those trajectories which badly fit seismic events.
Applied in the Gauss-Seidel sense, the semblance-weighted Radon approach produces
moderately high resolution results and the amplitude was well preserved (see Figure 4).
True Amplitude DMO
A true amplitude DMO approach for improving AVO analysis was demonstrated by
Ramos (1999). True-amplitude DMO can reduce the amplitude mix caused by the
smearing and the mis-positioning of reflection points. The main advantage of true
amplitude DMO compared to more traditional methods lies in its ability to perform a
better compensation of geometrical spreading losses with offset. He showed that the
application of true amplitude DMO on a real dataset with a real AVO anomaly resulted in
better estimation of more reliable amplitude, AVO gradient, better delineation and
enhancement of AVO anomalies (Figure 5).
For F-K DMO case, we can notice that there is a considerably smaller scatter of the
amplitudes around the background trend. This smaller scatter leads to a poor gradient
estimation, especially for the long offsets and steeply dipping events. The crossplots for
the true amplitude DMO case shows a significantly larger scatter and a better separation
of the anomalous values in the first and third quadrants, due to more accurate geometrical
spreading compensation for amplitudes at far offsets (Ramos et al., 1999).
FIG. 5. Cross plot gradient versus intercept for the seismic data processed with f-k DMO (left) and
true-amplitude DMO (right). (Ramos, 1999).
12. Feng and Bancroft
12 CREWES Research Report — Volume 18 (2006)
True Amplitude Migration
During the initial era of AVO analysis, one performed the analysis mainly on
common-midpoint (CMP) gathers of the unmigrated data. But for steeply dipping
reflectors and more complicated structure, the result of the AVO analysis often lacks
accuracy due to the effects of CMP smearing. It is worth analyzing AVO in common-
reflection-point (CRP) gathers after prestack migration.
Generally speaking, Kirchhoff migration can produce both reflection coefficients and
reflection angles at image locations, making it ideal for AVO analysis in areas of
moderate structural complexity. A lot of published examples have shown accurate
amplitudes after Kirchhoff migration. Factors affecting AVO analysis of Prestack
migration gather were addressed by Zhang (2002). Sparsity of azimuth sampling,
incorrect choice of migration weights and anti-aliasing filters can affect the AVO
signatures.
Tydel (1999) investigated the effect of the various true amplitude Kirchhoff migration
methods on AVO/AVA response. In his study, simple CMP AVO processing, true
amplitude PreSDM and the true amplitude MZO (Migration to Zero Offset) algorithm
was applied to an ensemble of individual common offset sections.
His main conclusion is that both true amplitude PreSDM and MZO are very well
suited for AVO/AVA analysis. The true amplitude PreSDM amplitude did not suffer
more from inaccuracies in the migration velocity than MZO amplitude. The angle
transform was more sensitive to migration velocity than reflection coefficients. PreSDM
has better noise reduction. Due to having no amplitude preserving antialiasing filter,
MZO will be more severely affected than PreSDM when applied to field data with
insufficient trace spacing.
Yilmaz (2001) pointed out that the phase shift method should be used for AVO
analysis, because differencing approximations to differential operators are used in finite
difference migrations. The usual implementation of Kirchhoff migration does not include
all the terms of the integral solution to the scalar wave equation. As such, the missing
terms can influence the amplitude and phase accuracy of the resulting migrated data.
AVO Processing Sequence
The success of the AVO technique relies not only on the algorithm but also the
processing sequence. However, amplitude preservation throughout the processing
sequence can be difficult to achieve. When seismic anomalies are extremely large, AVO
effects stand out, and sometimes the bias introduced by processing algorithms may not be
sensed at all. Small amplitude anomalies, often associated with the presence of liquid
hydrocarbons, normally show small expression, which can be completely lost or
destroyed by unsatisfactory data preconditioning. Allen and Peddy (1993) showed an
example where two of three processors failed to identify a subtle AVO anomaly at a gas
discovery.
The goal of true amplitude processing is to obtain reliable data for AVO analysis. The
biggest issue in AVO processing combines algorithms and processing parameters in a
13. AVO principles, processing and inversion
CREWES Research Report — Volume 18 (2006) 13
balanced way, creating the minimal amount of amplitude bias. Ramos (2001) pointed out
that the success of AVO technique relies considerably upon the processing sequence
employed, especially in the presence of strong multiples and reverberations. His study
also demonstrated that AVO should be used with caution as an exploration tool, but it can
be used more safely in areas where the calibration processing is possible.
AVO INVERSION
Smith and Gidlow (1987) developed the ground-breaking methodology, now
commonly used for transforming NMO corrected gathers into estimates of rock
properties, by the use of weighted stacking. The method calculates AVO fluctuation by
least squares fitting a curve that approximates the Zoeppritz equation to a crossplot of
reflection amplitudes as a function of reflection angle for a given CMP. Inversion is
performed using either a 2-term or 3-term approximation to the Zoeppritz equation. The
most commonly used approximations are those derived by Shuey (1985) for 2-term
inversion, and Aki and Richards (1980) for 3-term inversions.
A 2-term inversion effectively gives us just two AVO attributes, either AVO Intercept
and AVO Gradient or Normal Incidence Reflectivity and Poisson Reflectivity. While the
2-term inversion is growing in popularity through the acceptance of AVO crossplots as
an interpretation tool, it is often overlooked that the Shuey approximation is invalid
beyond about 30 degrees angle of incidence. A full 3-term inversion will solve for P-
wave reflectivity, S-wave reflectivity and density reflectivity and will generally honour
the Zoeppritz response accurately to about 50 degrees angle of incidence, which is
common in today's long-offset acquisition geometries. These attributes may then be
combined or inverted (through a process of Elastic Inversion) to calculate more indicative
hydrocarbon indicators such as Fluid Factor, Poisson Reflectivity or the Lamé parameters
of Lambda-Rho (λρ) and Mu-Rho (μρ) corresponding to the product of density and the
elastic properties of incompressibility and rigidity respectively.
Three terms inversion of P-P data
The idea of three terms least-squares inversion of P-P data is usually credited to Smith
and Gidlow (1987) who showed that the Aki and Richards approximation for ppR can be
inverted by least squares to estimate the fluctuation αα /Δ , ββ /Δ and ρρ /Δ ,. In their
method, P-P reflection data are assumed to provide estimates of ppR over a range of
source-receiver offsets. Thus, for each incident angleθ , an equation can be written like
β
β
ρ
ρ
α
α Δ
+
Δ
+
Δ
= cbaRpp , (20)
where 2/)tan1()cos2/(1 22
θθ +==a , ]sin)/2[(5.0 222
θαβ−=b ,
)sin/4( 222
θαβ−=c , 2/)( 21 ααα += , 2/)( 21 βββ += , 2/)( 21 ρρρ += ,
14. Feng and Bancroft
14 CREWES Research Report — Volume 18 (2006)
12 ααα −=Δ , 12 βββ −=Δ , 12 ρρρ −=Δ , 2/)( ti θθθ += , and
]sin)/arcsin[( 12 it θααθ = .
We note the explicit dependence on the incidence angle θ. Then, considering all
available offsets, a matrix equation can be constructed
⎥
⎥
⎥
⎦
⎤
⎢
⎢
⎢
⎣
⎡
Δ
Δ
Δ
⎥
⎥
⎥
⎥
⎦
⎤
⎢
⎢
⎢
⎢
⎣
⎡
=
⎥
⎥
⎥
⎥
⎥
⎦
⎤
⎢
⎢
⎢
⎢
⎢
⎣
⎡
ρρ
ββ
αα
θθθ
θθθ
θθθ
θ
θ
θ
/
/
/
)()()(
)()()(
)()()(
)(
)(
)(
222
111
2
1
nnnnpp
pp
pp
cba
cba
cba
R
R
R
. (21)
The left side of this equation is a column vector representing the amplitudes of a
particular P-P reflection as a function of offset. The n×3matrix on the right contains the
coefficients a, b, c computed at the appropriate incidence angle for each offset. This
matrix is approximately known if a background velocity model is available to raytrace in
order to obtain the incidence angles. Finally, the column vector on the right contains the
unknown fluctuation to be estimated. If there are more than three offsets, there are more
equations than unknowns and least-squares inversion is appropriate. Writing this equation
symbolically as R=CF, its least-square inverse is F=AR, where ( ) TT
CCCA
1−
= . Smith
and Gidlow were able to calculate the entries in the matrix A analytically and showed
that the algorithm F=AR is just a weighted stack. That is, F can be estimated, in principle,
by an equation of the form
)()(
,
kpp
offsetk
k RaF θθα ∑= . (22)
With similar equations, having different weighting functions, for ρβα FFF ,, . In this
equation, the sum is over all available offsets and the weights, )( ka θ , are known functions
of the background velocity and the incidence angle for the kth offset. Usually, it is
expected that the overall density effect on ppR is small and this implies that inversion for
ρβα FFF ,, will be problematic with noisy data.
Smith and Gidlow (1987) suggested using Gardner’s relation that 25.0
αρ k≈ (k is a
constant whose numerical value depends upon the system of units employed) to convert
the density dependence into an additional P-wave velocity term. An alternative approach
is the approach of Fatti et al. (1994) who reformulated the equations to invert for
fluctuation associated with P-wave and S-wave impedances:
ρβρβ
ραρα
/)(
/)(
Δ=
Δ=
J
I
F
F
. (23)
This avoids the use of Gardner’s rule but there is still an independent ρF term that
must be neglected. Fortunately, the coefficient of this term is generally small.
15. AVO principles, processing and inversion
CREWES Research Report — Volume 18 (2006) 15
Other Petrophysical Discrimination
A number of derived attributes may be used to highlight changes in lithology and pore
fluid content. Smith and Gidlow (1987) discussed two possibilities, the pseudo- Poisson’s
ratio reflectivity and the fluid factor reflectivity. These attributes can be directly
calculated from estimates of αα /Δ , ββ /Δ , or II /Δ and JJ /Δ . The pseudo- Poisson’s
ratio reflectivity or fractional Vp/Vs ratio is given by
J
J
I
I
JI
JI
q
q Δ
−
Δ
=
Δ
−
Δ
=
Δ
=
Δ
≡
Δ
β
β
α
α
βα
βα
/
)/(
/
)/(
. (24)
Equation (24) allows the calculation of normalized changes in Vp/Vs ratios, which can
be directly correlated to lithological and/or pore fluid content changes.
The fluid factor reflectivity is highly dependent upon local geology and measures
deviations from the ‘mudrock line’ of Castagna et al. (1985). The fluid factor is generally
considered accurate for water saturated clastic sedimentary rocks, but deviates
significantly for gas-saturated clastics, carbonates and igneous rocks. The ‘mudrock line’
is an empirical relation between α and β thought to typify shales. It is given by Castagna
et al. (1985) as
ββα 16.11360 +=+≈ ba . (25)
For a given locality, a and b should be derived from well-constrained, dipole sonic log
information. The derivation of the ‘fluid factor reflectivity’ from equation (25) is
straightforward, if we let g equal the deviation from the mudrock line
βα bag −−= . (26)
Note the parameter g will be zero for exact adherence to the ‘mudrock line’ of
equation (26). Now, the finite difference of equation (26),
βα Δ−Δ=Δ bg . (27)
And define the fluid factor fΔ ,
⎥
⎦
⎤
⎢
⎣
⎡
⎟
⎠
⎞
⎜
⎝
⎛
−
Δ
−
Δ
−
Δ
=⎟⎟
⎠
⎞
⎜⎜
⎝
⎛ Δ
−
Δ
=⎟
⎠
⎞
⎜
⎝
⎛ Δ
−
Δ
=
Δ
=Δ
α
β
ρ
ρ
α
β
β
β
α
β
α
α
α
β
α
α
α
b
J
J
b
I
I
bb
g
f 1 .(28)
Therefore any deviations from the fluid factor indicate a deviation from the ‘mudrock
line’ (equation 27). The potentially awkward step of calculating estimates of ρρ /Δ in
equation 28 above generally limits the use of the fluid factor reflectivity when inverting
for compressional and shear impedance.
Several authors have alluded to the need for greater physical insight into the
underlying physical rock properties contained in compressional and shear velocities
(Wright 1984, Thomsen, 1990, Castagna et al., 1993). From these observations it is
sensible to conclude the possible utility of extracting rigidity and shear modulus rock
properties directly from AVO analysis. Stewart (1995) provides a method for directly
16. Feng and Bancroft
16 CREWES Research Report — Volume 18 (2006)
extracting elastic modulus parameters from the Zoeppritz equation approximations of Aki
and Richards (1980). Stewart further advised that μλ / may be used to highlight pore-
fluid contrasts rather than changes in lithology. This concept was successfully tested by
Goodway et al. (1997) to show the potential of improved petrophysical discrimination
using Lame parameters μλμρλρ /,, . This method is summarized by the following set of
equations:
⎟
⎠
⎞
⎜
⎝
⎛ Δ
−
Δ
−
=
Δ
J
J
I
I 22
22
2
2
2)(
βα
βαλρ
λρ
, (29)
J
JΔ
=
Δ
2
)(
μρ
μρ
, (30)
q
q
J
J
I
I Δ
−
=⎟
⎠
⎞
⎜
⎝
⎛ Δ
−
Δ
−
=
Δ
2222
2
2
2
2
/
)/(
βαβαμλ
μλ
. (31)
For completeness, the fractional Poisson ratio and bulk modulus ratios can also be
defined,
q
q
J
J
I
I Δ
−−
=⎟
⎠
⎞
⎜
⎝
⎛ Δ
−
Δ
−−
=
Δ
)2)((
2
)2)((
2
2222
22
2222
22
βαβα
βα
βαβα
βα
σ
σ
, (32)
⎟
⎠
⎞
⎜
⎝
⎛ Δ
−
Δ
−
=
Δ
J
J
I
I 22
22
3
4
)3/4(
2)(
βα
βακρ
κρ
. (33)
Note equations 29, 30, 31, 32 and 33 represent weighted functions of the previously
derived estimates of II /Δ and JJ /Δ . In practice, the smoothed background model
provides the weights.
Joint AVO Inversion of PP and PS Data
Stewart (1990) derived the extension of the Smith-Gidlow approach that uses both PP
and PS reflections to constrain the reflectivity αα /Δ , ββ /Δ and ρρ /Δ . Larsen et al.
(1998) and Larsen (1999) presented a practical implementation of these ideas as applied
to the Blackfoot 3C-3D survey. Like Smith and Gidlow (1987), Stewart (1990) developed
exact analytic forms for the stacking weights of both PP and PS data. The algebraic
expressions for these weights are too complex to present here. In essence, the fluctuation
are estimated by equations of the form
)()()()(
,,
kps
offsetk
kkpp
offsetk
k RbRa θθθθ
α
α
∑∑ +=
Δ
. (34)
Where kθ is the P-wave incidence angle for the kth offset, )( ka θ are the stacking
weights for the PP reflection data, and )( kb θ are the weights for the PS reflection data.
Similar equations, with different weights, will estimate ββ /Δ , ρρ /Δ . The weights for
17. AVO principles, processing and inversion
CREWES Research Report — Volume 18 (2006) 17
the PP reflection data, )( ka θ , in this expression are generally quite different from the
analogous weights in the inversion using PP data alone.
As with the PP case, it is often preferable to bypass the estimation of ρρ /Δ . Larsen
(1999) shows that either the Smith-Gidlow approach using Gardner’s rule or the Fatti
approach of estimating impedance is possible. In the latter case, there is again
ρρ /Δ term that must be neglected. Interestingly, the possibility of a true three-parameter
inversion for αα /Δ , ββ /Δ , ρρ /Δ , is much more feasible with PP and PS data.
Margrave and Stewart (2001) used the PP and PS joint inversion and documented its
performance, in comparison with PP data alone, using the 3C-3D survey at Blackfoot
field. Like the PP method, the joint method is implemented as a weighted stack but with
different weights and twice the statistical leverage. The joint method gives markedly
superior estimates of the P-wave and S-wave impedance fluctuation, but only moderately
better estimates of the pseudo-Poisson’s ratio.
Other Non-linear Inversion Methods
In the previous section the inversion methods discussed are linear inversion methods.
For linear inversion, it is not a global optimization algorithm. This means that the
possibility exists for the algorithm to become “trapped” in a local minimum. However, a
non-linear inversion algorithm can skip the local minimum to find the global minimum.
The most commonly used non-linear inversion algorithms are the genetic, artificial neural
network and Monte Carlo algorithms.
Mogensen (2000) applied artificial neural network solutions to estimate P-wave, S-
wave velocity, and Poisson’s ratio from simulated seismic data.
Mallick (2001) successfully applied prestack genetic inversion in continuous prestack
inversion, hybrid inversion, and geo-hazard studies such as pore pressure prediction and
shallow water flow (SWF) prediction.
SUMMARY
Approximately 30 research papers on AVO, which include the principles of AVO,
seismic data processing and inversion for AVO analysis were reviewed in this study. This
review is not intended to be exhaustive but should give the reader a good introduction to
the development of the theories and techniques of AVO processing and inversion. The
main trend in the AVO development is shifting from more theoretical studies to more
applications, from P-wave seismic data to multicomponent seismic data. This trend
results in successful solutions to more and more challenging problems encountered by
scientists in petroleum exploration.
18. Feng and Bancroft
18 CREWES Research Report — Volume 18 (2006)
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We would like to thank the CREWES sponsors for their financial assistance in this
project and J. Wong for helping edit this paper.
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