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ABDOMINAL TRAUMA in pediatrics part one.

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Abdominal trauma in pediatrics refers to injuries or damage to the abdominal organs in children. It can occur due to various causes such as falls, motor vehicle accidents, sports-related injuries, and physical abuse. Children are more vulnerable to abdominal trauma due to their unique anatomical and physiological characteristics. Signs and symptoms include abdominal pain, tenderness, distension, vomiting, and signs of shock. Diagnosis involves physical examination, imaging studies, and laboratory tests. Management depends on the severity and may involve conservative treatment or surgical intervention. Prevention is crucial in reducing the incidence of abdominal trauma in children.

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Title: Sense of Taste Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology Qualifications: MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore) FCPS Physiology ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU) MPH (GC University, Faisalabad) MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan) Learning Objectives: Describe the structure and function of taste buds. Describe the relationship between the taste threshold and taste index of common substances. Explain the chemical basis and signal transduction of taste perception for each type of primary taste sensation. Recognize different abnormalities of taste perception and their causes. Key Topics: Significance of Taste Sensation: Differentiation between pleasant and harmful food Influence on behavior Selection of food based on metabolic needs Receptors of Taste: Taste buds on the tongue Influence of sense of smell, texture of food, and pain stimulation (e.g., by pepper) Primary and Secondary Taste Sensations: Primary taste sensations: Sweet, Sour, Salty, Bitter, Umami Chemical basis and signal transduction mechanisms for each taste Taste Threshold and Index: Taste threshold values for Sweet (sucrose), Salty (NaCl), Sour (HCl), and Bitter (Quinine) Taste index relationship: Inversely proportional to taste threshold Taste Blindness: Inability to taste certain substances, particularly thiourea compounds Example: Phenylthiocarbamide Structure and Function of Taste Buds: Composition: Epithelial cells, Sustentacular/Supporting cells, Taste cells, Basal cells Features: Taste pores, Taste hairs/microvilli, and Taste nerve fibers Location of Taste Buds: Found in papillae of the tongue (Fungiform, Circumvallate, Foliate) Also present on the palate, tonsillar pillars, epiglottis, and proximal esophagus Mechanism of Taste Stimulation: Interaction of taste substances with receptors on microvilli Signal transduction pathways for Umami, Sweet, Bitter, Sour, and Salty tastes Taste Sensitivity and Adaptation: Decrease in sensitivity with age Rapid adaptation of taste sensation Role of Saliva in Taste: Dissolution of tastants to reach receptors Washing away the stimulus Taste Preferences and Aversions: Mechanisms behind taste preference and aversion Influence of receptors and neural pathways Impact of Sensory Nerve Damage: Degeneration of taste buds if the sensory nerve fiber is cut Abnormalities of Taste Detection: Conditions: Ageusia, Hypogeusia, Dysgeusia (parageusia) Causes: Nerve damage, neurological disorders, infections, poor oral hygiene, adverse drug effects, deficiencies, aging, tobacco use, altered neurotransmitter levels Neurotransmitters and Taste Threshold: Effects of serotonin (5-HT) and norepinephrine (NE) on taste sensitivity Supertasters: 25% of the population with heightened sensitivity to taste, especially bitterness Increased number of fungiform papillae

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These simplified slides by Dr. Sidra Arshad present an overview of the non-respiratory functions of the respiratory tract. Learning objectives: 1. Enlist the non-respiratory functions of the respiratory tract 2. Briefly explain how these functions are carried out 3. Discuss the significance of dead space 4. Differentiate between minute ventilation and alveolar ventilation 5. Describe the cough and sneeze reflexes Study Resources: 1. Chapter 39, Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 14th edition 2. Chapter 34, Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, 26th edition 3. Chapter 17, Human Physiology by Lauralee Sherwood, 9th edition 4. Non-respiratory functions of the lungs https://academic.oup.com/bjaed/article/13/3/98/278874

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These lecture slides, by Dr Sidra Arshad, offer a quick overview of the physiological basis of a normal electrocardiogram. Learning objectives: 1. Define an electrocardiogram (ECG) and electrocardiography 2. Describe how dipoles generated by the heart produce the waveforms of the ECG 3. Describe the components of a normal electrocardiogram of a typical bipolar lead (limb II) 4. Differentiate between intervals and segments 5. Enlist some common indications for obtaining an ECG 6. Describe the flow of current around the heart during the cardiac cycle 7. Discuss the placement and polarity of the leads of electrocardiograph 8. Describe the normal electrocardiograms recorded from the limb leads and explain the physiological basis of the different records that are obtained 9. Define mean electrical vector (axis) of the heart and give the normal range 10. Define the mean QRS vector 11. Describe the axes of leads (hexagonal reference system) 12. Comprehend the vectorial analysis of the normal ECG 13. Determine the mean electrical axis of the ventricular QRS and appreciate the mean axis deviation 14. Explain the concepts of current of injury, J point, and their significance Study Resources: 1. Chapter 11, Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 14th edition 2. Chapter 9, Human Physiology - From Cells to Systems, Lauralee Sherwood, 9th edition 3. Chapter 29, Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, 26th edition 4. Electrocardiogram, StatPearls - https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK549803/ 5. ECG in Medical Practice by ABM Abdullah, 4th edition 6. Chapter 3, Cardiology Explained, https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK2214/ 7. ECG Basics, http://www.nataliescasebook.com/tag/e-c-g-basics

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Title: Sense of Smell Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology Qualifications: MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore) FCPS Physiology ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU) MPH (GC University, Faisalabad) MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan) Learning Objectives: Describe the primary categories of smells and the concept of odor blindness. Explain the structure and location of the olfactory membrane and mucosa, including the types and roles of cells involved in olfaction. Describe the pathway and mechanisms of olfactory signal transmission from the olfactory receptors to the brain. Illustrate the biochemical cascade triggered by odorant binding to olfactory receptors, including the role of G-proteins and second messengers in generating an action potential. Identify different types of olfactory disorders such as anosmia, hyposmia, hyperosmia, and dysosmia, including their potential causes. Key Topics: Olfactory Genes: 3% of the human genome accounts for olfactory genes. 400 genes for odorant receptors. Olfactory Membrane: Located in the superior part of the nasal cavity. Medially: Folds downward along the superior septum. Laterally: Folds over the superior turbinate and upper surface of the middle turbinate. Total surface area: 5-10 square centimeters. Olfactory Mucosa: Olfactory Cells: Bipolar nerve cells derived from the CNS (100 million), with 4-25 olfactory cilia per cell. Sustentacular Cells: Produce mucus and maintain ionic and molecular environment. Basal Cells: Replace worn-out olfactory cells with an average lifespan of 1-2 months. Bowman’s Gland: Secretes mucus. Stimulation of Olfactory Cells: Odorant dissolves in mucus and attaches to receptors on olfactory cilia. Involves a cascade effect through G-proteins and second messengers, leading to depolarization and action potential generation in the olfactory nerve. Quality of a Good Odorant: Small (3-20 Carbon atoms), volatile, water-soluble, and lipid-soluble. Facilitated by odorant-binding proteins in mucus. Membrane Potential and Action Potential: Resting membrane potential: -55mV. Action potential frequency in the olfactory nerve increases with odorant strength. Adaptation Towards the Sense of Smell: Rapid adaptation within the first second, with further slow adaptation. Psychological adaptation greater than receptor adaptation, involving feedback inhibition from the central nervous system. Primary Sensations of Smell: Camphoraceous, Musky, Floral, Pepperminty, Ethereal, Pungent, Putrid. Odor Detection Threshold: Examples: Hydrogen sulfide (0.0005 ppm), Methyl-mercaptan (0.002 ppm). Some toxic substances are odorless at lethal concentrations. Characteristics of Smell: Odor blindness for single substances due to lack of appropriate receptor protein. Behavioral and emotional influences of smell. Transmission of Olfactory Signals: From olfactory cells to glomeruli in the olfactory bulb, involving lateral inhibition. Primitive, less old, and new olfactory systems with different path

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