1-What is meant by the \"social construction of categories\"? In what ways are concepts such as gender, race, sexual orientation, social class, and exceptionality social categories? 2- which says that contacts between groups will improve intergroup relations when the contact is characterized by these four conditions: 1. equal status, 2. cooperation rather than competition, 3, sanction by authorities such as teachers and administrators, and 4. interpersonal interactions in which students become acquainted as individuals. Allport wrote this in 1954. Is it still valid? Why do you believe as you do? Cite examples/give explanation for why you believe as you do. Solution Social construction of categories: A social construct or construction concerns the meaning, notion, or connotation placed on an object or event by a society, and adopted by the inhabitants of that society with respect to how they view or deal with the object or event. In that respect, a social construct as an idea would be widely accepted as natural by the society, but may or may not represent a reality shared by those outside the society, and would be an \"invention or artifice that society.\" A major focus of social constructionism is to uncover the ways in which individuals and groups participate in the construction of their perceived social reality. It involves looking at the ways social phenomena are created, institutionalized, known, and made into tradition by humans. The major categories under the Social construction are: Gender: Sexual orientation: Race: Exceptionality: Contacts between groups will improve intergroup relations: The Contact hypothesis has been described as one of the best ways to improve relations among groups that are experiencing conflict. Gordon W. Allport (1954) is often credited with the development of the contact hypothesis, also known as Intergroup Contact Theory. Over the past half-century, Allport’s (1954) revised Contact Hypothesis has been a guiding framework for strategies designed to reduce intergroup bias and conflict. This hypothesis proposes that simple contract between groups is not sufficient to improve intergroup relations. Certain prerequisite features must be present for contact between groups to reduce bias successfully. These characteristics of contact include equal status between the groups, cooperative competitive) intergroup interaction, opportunities for personal acquaintance between the members, especially with those whose personal characteristics do not support stereotypic expectations, and supportive norms by authorities within and outside of the contact situation. Although it is difficult to establish all of these conditions in contact situations, this formula is effective when these conditions are met. Allport\'s proposal was that properly managed contact between the groups should reduce these problems and lead to better interactions. To obtain beneficial effects, the situation must include positive contact. Some of the criter.

1. 1-What is meant by the "social construction of categories"? In what ways are concepts such as
gender, race, sexual orientation, social class, and exceptionality social categories?
2- which says that contacts between groups will improve intergroup relations when the contact is
characterized by these four conditions: 1. equal status, 2. cooperation rather than competition, 3,
sanction by authorities such as teachers and administrators, and 4. interpersonal interactions in
which students become acquainted as individuals.
Allport wrote this in 1954. Is it still valid? Why do you believe as you do? Cite examples/give
explanation for why you believe as you do.
Solution
Social construction of categories:
A social construct or construction concerns the meaning, notion, or connotation placed
on an object or event by a society, and adopted by the inhabitants of that society with respect to
how they view or deal with the object or event. In that respect, a social construct as an idea
would be widely accepted as natural by the society, but may or may not represent a reality shared
by those outside the society, and would be an "invention or artifice that society."
A major focus of social constructionism is to uncover the ways in which individuals and
groups participate in the construction of their perceived social reality. It involves looking at the
ways social phenomena are created, institutionalized, known, and made into tradition by humans.
The major categories under the Social construction are:
Gender:
Sexual orientation:
Race:
Exceptionality:
Contacts between groups will improve intergroup relations:
The Contact hypothesis has been described as one of the best ways to improve relations
among groups that are experiencing conflict. Gordon W. Allport (1954) is often credited with the
development of the contact hypothesis, also known as Intergroup Contact Theory.
Over the past half-century, Allport’s (1954) revised Contact Hypothesis has been a
guiding framework for strategies designed to reduce intergroup bias and conflict. This hypothesis
proposes that simple contract between groups is not sufficient to improve intergroup relations.
Certain prerequisite features must be present for contact between groups to reduce bias
successfully.

2. These characteristics of contact include equal status between the groups, cooperative
competitive) intergroup interaction, opportunities for personal acquaintance between the
members, especially with those whose personal characteristics do not support stereotypic
expectations, and supportive norms by authorities within and outside of the contact situation.
Although it is difficult to establish all of these conditions in contact situations, this formula is
effective when these conditions are met.
Allport's proposal was that properly managed contact between the groups should reduce
these problems and lead to better interactions. To obtain beneficial effects, the situation must
include positive contact. Some of the criteria are as follows:
Intergroup contact and prejudice towards African Americans
The majority of intergroup contact research has focused on reducing prejudice towards
African Americans. For example, in one study, Brown, Brown, Jackson, Sellers, and Manuel
(2003) investigated the amount of contact White athletes had with Black teammates and whether
the athletes played an individual or team sport. Team sports (e.g., football or basketball), as
opposed to individual sports (e.g., track or swimming), require teamwork and cooperative
interactions to win. Results showed that White athletes who played team sports reported less
prejudice than athletes who played individual sports.
Intergroup contact and prejudice towards Muslims in Europe
Savelkoul et al. (2011) in their study from the Netherlands found people living in regions
with high numbers of Muslims (i.e. those more exposed to unavoidable intergroup contacts) get
used to and are more experienced with their integration and express lesser perceived threats. In
addition, they also found that higher contacts with Muslim colleagues directly reduce anti-
Muslim attitudes. Similarly, Novotny and Polonsky (2011) in their survey among Czech and
Slovak university students documented that personal contact with Muslims and experience with
visiting an Islamic country associate with more positive attitudes towards Muslims. However
Agirdag et al. (2012) report that Belgian teachers working in schools that enroll a larger share of
Muslim students have more negative attitudes toward Muslim students than other teachers.