Introduction in poetry: nature of poetry, tools, history, terms (periods, styles and movements, technical means, tropes, measures of verse, verse forms, national poetry... Poetry is traditionally a written art form (although there is also an ancient and modern poetry which relies mainly upon oral or pictorial representations) in which human language is used for its aesthetic qualities in addition to, or instead of, its notional and semantic content. The increased emphasis on the aesthetics of language and the deliberate use of features such as repetition, meter and rhyme, are what are commonly used to distinguish poetry from prose, but debates over such distinctions still persist, while the issue is confounded by such forms as prose poetry and poetic prose. Some modernists (such as the Surrealists) approach this problem of definition by defining poetry not as a literary genre within a set of genres, but as the very manifestation of human imagination, the substance which all creative acts derive from.

2. Poetry Kaleidoscope
Nicolae Sfetcu
Published by MultiMedia Publishing
Copyright 2018 Nicolae Sfetcu

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Published by: MultiMedia Publishing
ISBN: 978-606-033-099-8
Main sources: my own articles, Wikipedia under the CC BY-SA 3.0 license, and other sources
Text license: CC BY-SA 3.0
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Contents
Poetry Kaleidoscope ............................................................................................................................................1
1 Poetry.................................................................................................................................................................. 28
Nature of poetry........................................................................................................................................ 28
Tools.............................................................................................................................................................. 29
History .......................................................................................................................................................... 30
1.1 Nature of Poetry..................................................................................................................................... 31
1.1.1 Prose Poetry .................................................................................................................................... 31
1.1.2 Poem and Song ............................................................................................................................... 32
1.1.2.1 Poesybeat...................................................................................................................................... 32
1.2 End-stopping ........................................................................................................................................... 32
1.3 Groups and Movements....................................................................................................................... 33
1.3.1 Confessionalism ............................................................................................................................. 33
1.3.2 Black Mountain Poets .................................................................................................................. 34
Background................................................................................................................................................. 34
Projective Verse ........................................................................................................................................ 34
The Main Black Mountain Poets ......................................................................................................... 34
Legacy of the Black Mountain Poets.................................................................................................. 35
1.3.3 Deep Image....................................................................................................................................... 35
1.4 Poetic closure .......................................................................................................................................... 35
1.5 Poetic diction........................................................................................................................................... 35
Greece and Rome...................................................................................................................................... 36
Germanic languages................................................................................................................................. 36

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Asia................................................................................................................................................................. 37
Poetic diction in English ........................................................................................................................ 37
1.6 Action Poetry........................................................................................................................................... 39
1.7 Ethnopoetics............................................................................................................................................ 39
1.8 Poets............................................................................................................................................................ 39
1.8.1 Poetaster........................................................................................................................................... 41
1.8.2 Poetess............................................................................................................................................... 42
1.8.3 National Poets................................................................................................................................. 43
List of national poets............................................................................................................................... 43
Sobriquets ................................................................................................................................................... 44
1.8.4 War Poets.......................................................................................................................................... 45
World War I ................................................................................................................................................ 45
Spanish Civil War...................................................................................................................................... 46
World War II............................................................................................................................................... 46
Later wars.................................................................................................................................................... 46
1.8.5 Poète maudit ................................................................................................................................... 46
1.9 Poetry Analysis ....................................................................................................................................... 47
Overview...................................................................................................................................................... 47
Tools for poetry analysis ....................................................................................................................... 52
Approaches to poetry analysis............................................................................................................ 59
1.10 Poetry Prizes and Awards................................................................................................................ 60
Lists of poetry prizes and awards...................................................................................................... 61
1.10.1 Poet Laureat.................................................................................................................................. 64
Origin of the term..................................................................................................................................... 64

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History .......................................................................................................................................................... 64
List of Poets Laureate.............................................................................................................................. 66
Poets Laureate in other countries...................................................................................................... 67
1.11 Poetry Reading..................................................................................................................................... 68
1.12 World Poetry Day................................................................................................................................ 68
2 National Poetry ............................................................................................................................................... 69
2.1 American Poetry..................................................................................................................................... 69
Poetry in the colonies ............................................................................................................................. 69
Postcolonial poetry.................................................................................................................................. 70
An American idiom .................................................................................................................................. 71
Modernism and after............................................................................................................................... 71
World War II and after ........................................................................................................................... 72
American poetry now ............................................................................................................................. 73
2.1.1 Cowboy Poetry................................................................................................................................ 74
Prominent cowboy poets....................................................................................................................... 76
2.2 Arabic Poetry........................................................................................................................................... 76
Pre-Islamic poetry.................................................................................................................................... 76
Poetry under Islam .................................................................................................................................. 77
Court poets.................................................................................................................................................. 78
Modern poetry........................................................................................................................................... 79
Poetic forms................................................................................................................................................ 79
2.2.1 Ghazal................................................................................................................................................. 80
Details of the form.................................................................................................................................... 81
The theme.................................................................................................................................................... 82

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Ghazal singers............................................................................................................................................ 83
2.2.2 Muwashshah.................................................................................................................................... 84
2.3 Australian Poetry................................................................................................................................... 84
2.4 Bengali Poetry......................................................................................................................................... 85
2.5 British Poetry .......................................................................................................................................... 85
2.5.1 Anglo-Welsh Poetry...................................................................................................................... 85
2.5.2 English Poetry................................................................................................................................. 85
The earliest English poetry................................................................................................................... 86
The Anglo-Norman period and the Later Middle Ages.............................................................. 87
The Renaissance in England................................................................................................................. 88
The Restoration and 18th century..................................................................................................... 91
The Romantic movement ...................................................................................................................... 92
Victorian poetry........................................................................................................................................ 92
The 20th century ...................................................................................................................................... 94
English poetry now.................................................................................................................................. 98
2.5.2.1 Heroic Couplets........................................................................................................................... 98
2.5.2.1.1 Heroic Verse...........................................................................................................................100
2.5.2.2 Old English Poetry ...................................................................................................................101
2.5.3 Irish Poetry ....................................................................................................................................107
Early Irish poetry....................................................................................................................................107
Medieval/Early modern.......................................................................................................................108
Gaelic poetry in the 17th century.....................................................................................................109
The 18th century ....................................................................................................................................109
The 19th century ....................................................................................................................................111

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The 20th century ....................................................................................................................................113
Irish poetry now .....................................................................................................................................116
2.5.3.1 Aisling...........................................................................................................................................117
2.5.4 Welsh Poetry .................................................................................................................................117
History ........................................................................................................................................................117
Forms ..........................................................................................................................................................118
2.5.4.1 Awdl ..............................................................................................................................................118
2.5.4.2 Cynghanedd................................................................................................................................118
Forms of cynghanedd............................................................................................................................118
2.5.4.3 Englyn...........................................................................................................................................119
The Eight Types.......................................................................................................................................120
Examples....................................................................................................................................................121
2.5.5 Hudibrastic.....................................................................................................................................122
2.5.6 Mock-heroic...................................................................................................................................123
2.6 Burmese Poetry....................................................................................................................................124
2.6.1 Than-Bauk......................................................................................................................................124
2.6.2 Ya-Du................................................................................................................................................124
2.7 Cambodian - Pathya vat.....................................................................................................................125
2.8 Canadian Poetry ...................................................................................................................................125
English-Canadian Poetry .....................................................................................................................125
French-Canadian Poetry......................................................................................................................128
2.9 Chinese Poetry ......................................................................................................................................128
Early poetry..............................................................................................................................................129
Classical poetry .......................................................................................................................................129

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Later classical poetry............................................................................................................................129
Modern poetry.........................................................................................................................................130
2.9.1 Ci.........................................................................................................................................................130
Famous Ci Poets......................................................................................................................................131
2.9.2 Shi......................................................................................................................................................131
Origins.........................................................................................................................................................131
Gushi............................................................................................................................................................131
Jintishi.........................................................................................................................................................131
Examples of Tang poetry.....................................................................................................................132
2.9.3 Yue fu................................................................................................................................................133
2.10 Filipino - Tanaga................................................................................................................................133
History of the Tanaga............................................................................................................................134
The Modern Tanaga...............................................................................................................................134
Tanaga in other Languages.................................................................................................................134
2.11 French Poetry .....................................................................................................................................134
Important French poets.......................................................................................................................135
2.11.1 Ballade...........................................................................................................................................136
2.11.2 Chansons de Geste....................................................................................................................136
Subjects ......................................................................................................................................................136
Origins.........................................................................................................................................................137
Performance.............................................................................................................................................137
The poems themselves.........................................................................................................................138
Legacy .........................................................................................................................................................139
2.11.3 Reverdie........................................................................................................................................139

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2.11.4 Rondeau........................................................................................................................................139
2.11.5 Rondelet........................................................................................................................................140
Other uses..................................................................................................................................................140
2.11.6 Vers de Société...........................................................................................................................140
2.11.7 Virelai ............................................................................................................................................142
Example......................................................................................................................................................142
2.11.7.1 Virelai ancien ..........................................................................................................................143
2.11.7.2 Virelai nouveau ......................................................................................................................143
An Example...............................................................................................................................................144
2.11.8 Virelay ...........................................................................................................................................145
2.12 Hebrew and Jewish Epic Poetry ..................................................................................................145
2.13 Indian Epic Poetry.............................................................................................................................146
2.14 Italian Poetry.......................................................................................................................................147
2.14.1 Ballata............................................................................................................................................147
2.14.2 Dodecasyllable ...........................................................................................................................147
2.14.3 Fescennine Verses ....................................................................................................................147
2.14.4 Hendecasyllable.........................................................................................................................148
2.14.5 Sicilian octave.............................................................................................................................148
2.15 Japanese Poetry..................................................................................................................................150
Ancient........................................................................................................................................................150
From the late ancient to Middle........................................................................................................154
Important Poets (premodern)...........................................................................................................158
Important poets (Modern)..................................................................................................................158
Important collections and works .....................................................................................................158

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2.15.1 Dodoitsu .......................................................................................................................................158
2.15.2 Haiku..............................................................................................................................................159
Origin and evolution..............................................................................................................................160
Modern haiku...........................................................................................................................................162
Haiku in the West ...................................................................................................................................162
Contemporary English-language haiku .........................................................................................164
Internet and television.........................................................................................................................165
2.15.2.1 Kimo ...........................................................................................................................................165
2.15.2.2 SciFaiku.....................................................................................................................................165
2.15.3 Renga .............................................................................................................................................166
History ........................................................................................................................................................167
How to Make a Renga............................................................................................................................167
Terms of Renga........................................................................................................................................168
2.15.4 Senryu............................................................................................................................................170
2.15.5 Shichigon-zekku ........................................................................................................................171
Composition..............................................................................................................................................171
2.15.6 Waka ..............................................................................................................................................172
Forms of Waka.........................................................................................................................................172
Poetic culture ...........................................................................................................................................175
History of Waka development...........................................................................................................175
Tanka written in English .....................................................................................................................178
2.16 Kannada Poetry..................................................................................................................................179
Pre-history ................................................................................................................................................179
Haiku before Haiku!...............................................................................................................................179

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Bhakti..........................................................................................................................................................179
Navodaya (New birth)..........................................................................................................................180
Navya (New).............................................................................................................................................180
Other genres.............................................................................................................................................180
Awards........................................................................................................................................................180
Reaching people......................................................................................................................................181
2.17 Korean Poetry.....................................................................................................................................181
2.17.1 Sijo ..................................................................................................................................................181
2.18 Lao - Glawn ..........................................................................................................................................183
2.19 Malay - Pantun....................................................................................................................................183
2.20 Old Norse Poetry ...............................................................................................................................184
Metrical Forms ........................................................................................................................................185
Eddaic poetry...........................................................................................................................................185
Skaldic poetry ..........................................................................................................................................185
2.20.1 Edda................................................................................................................................................186
Etymology..................................................................................................................................................186
The Poetic Edda.......................................................................................................................................187
The Younger Edda..................................................................................................................................187
2.21 Provençal - Alba.................................................................................................................................187
2.22 Rune Poems.........................................................................................................................................188
Fe...................................................................................................................................................................188
Ur ..................................................................................................................................................................188
Þurs..............................................................................................................................................................189
As ..................................................................................................................................................................189

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Reidh............................................................................................................................................................189
Kaun.............................................................................................................................................................189
Hagall...........................................................................................................................................................189
Naud.............................................................................................................................................................190
Is....................................................................................................................................................................190
Ar ..................................................................................................................................................................190
Sol.................................................................................................................................................................190
Tyr ................................................................................................................................................................190
Bjarken .......................................................................................................................................................190
Madr.............................................................................................................................................................190
Logr..............................................................................................................................................................190
Yr...................................................................................................................................................................191
Anglo-Saxon only runes .......................................................................................................................191
Abecedarium Nordmannicum ...........................................................................................................193
2.23 Russian Poetry....................................................................................................................................194
2.23.1 Bylina.............................................................................................................................................194
2.23.2 Chastushka ..................................................................................................................................194
Examples....................................................................................................................................................195
2.24 Serbian Epic Poetry ..........................................................................................................................197
Structure ....................................................................................................................................................197
Corpus.........................................................................................................................................................197
Modern Serbian Epic Poetry ..............................................................................................................198
Excerpts......................................................................................................................................................198
Quotes.........................................................................................................................................................199

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2.25 Spanish Poetry....................................................................................................................................199
2.26 Spanish American Poetry...............................................................................................................199
Flor y Canto...............................................................................................................................................200
From the Preconquest to the beginning of Colonialization....................................................200
2.26.1 Décima...........................................................................................................................................201
2.27 Tamil - Kural........................................................................................................................................201
2.28 Ukrainian - Duma ..............................................................................................................................201
2.29 Urdu Poetry .........................................................................................................................................202
Genres.........................................................................................................................................................202
Pen names (Takhallus).........................................................................................................................202
2.29.1 Beher..............................................................................................................................................203
2.29.2 Maqta.............................................................................................................................................204
2.29.3 Qaafiyaa ........................................................................................................................................204
2.29.4 Radif...............................................................................................................................................205
2.30 Vietnamese - Luc Bat........................................................................................................................206
Example......................................................................................................................................................206
2.30.1 Song Thất Lục Bát .....................................................................................................................207
3 Periods..............................................................................................................................................................208
3.1 Ancient Poetry.......................................................................................................................................208
3.1.1 Augustan Poetry...........................................................................................................................208
Overview....................................................................................................................................................208
Alexander Pope, the Scribblerans, and poetry as social act...................................................209
Translation and adaptation as statement .....................................................................................211
Sentiment and the poetry of the individual..................................................................................212

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3.1.2 Choliambic Verse.........................................................................................................................213
3.1.3 Glyconic ...........................................................................................................................................213
3.1.4 Saturnian.........................................................................................................................................214
The Saturnian as quantitative............................................................................................................215
The Saturnian as accentual.................................................................................................................217
The Saturnian in non-Latin Italic......................................................................................................218
3.1.5 Tristubh...........................................................................................................................................220
3.2 Medieval Poetry....................................................................................................................................220
Medieval vernacular literature .........................................................................................................220
4 Styles .................................................................................................................................................................222
4.1 Acrostic ....................................................................................................................................................222
4.2 Concrete Poetry....................................................................................................................................222
4.3 Christian Poetry....................................................................................................................................223
Overview of Christian poetry.............................................................................................................223
Examples of Christian Poems.............................................................................................................225
4.3.1 Biblical Poetry...............................................................................................................................225
Characteristics of Ancient Hebrew Poetry....................................................................................226
Division of the poetical portions of the Hebrew Bible.............................................................232
Extent of Poetry in the Old Testament...........................................................................................233
4.4 Death Poem ............................................................................................................................................234
4.5 Digital Poetry.........................................................................................................................................235
4.6 Dramatic poetry....................................................................................................................................235
Dramatic verse.........................................................................................................................................236
The closet drama ....................................................................................................................................236

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Dramatic poetry in general.................................................................................................................236
4.6.1 Aubade.............................................................................................................................................237
4.7 Eclogue.....................................................................................................................................................237
Ancient Eclogues.....................................................................................................................................238
Modern Eclogues ....................................................................................................................................238
4.8 Epigram....................................................................................................................................................238
Ancient Greek...........................................................................................................................................238
Ancient Roman ........................................................................................................................................239
Poetic epigrams.......................................................................................................................................240
Non-poetic epigrams.............................................................................................................................241
4.9 Epitah........................................................................................................................................................242
Famous Epitaphs ....................................................................................................................................242
Other Epitaphs.........................................................................................................................................243
4.10 Epithalamium .....................................................................................................................................244
History ........................................................................................................................................................244
Development as a Literary Form......................................................................................................244
4.11 Erasure Poetry....................................................................................................................................245
4.12 Found Poetry.......................................................................................................................................245
4.13 Gnomic Poetry....................................................................................................................................247
4.14 Ideogramme ........................................................................................................................................248
4.14.1 Ideogrammic method..............................................................................................................248
4.15 Idyll.........................................................................................................................................................249
4.16 Jazz Poetry............................................................................................................................................249
The Harlem Renaissance .....................................................................................................................249

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Bebop and the Beat Generation........................................................................................................250
Modern Jazz Poetry................................................................................................................................250
4.17 Kyrielle ..................................................................................................................................................251
Name and form........................................................................................................................................251
An example................................................................................................................................................251
4.18 Lament...................................................................................................................................................252
4.19 Light Poetry.........................................................................................................................................252
4.19.1 Doggerel........................................................................................................................................253
4.19.2 McWhirtle ....................................................................................................................................254
4.20 Limerick Poetry..................................................................................................................................255
Structure ....................................................................................................................................................255
History ........................................................................................................................................................255
Well-known authors..............................................................................................................................257
Recurring themes ...................................................................................................................................258
Spelling.......................................................................................................................................................259
Limericks in other languages than English ..................................................................................262
4.21 Lyric poetry .........................................................................................................................................264
History ........................................................................................................................................................264
Themes .......................................................................................................................................................265
Forms ..........................................................................................................................................................265
Metrics........................................................................................................................................................266
Rhyme and alliteration.........................................................................................................................266
4.21.1 Anacreontics ...............................................................................................................................266
4.21.2 Cantiga de Amigo ......................................................................................................................267

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4.21.3 Ode..................................................................................................................................................268
Greek origins............................................................................................................................................268
Ode in Continental Europe..................................................................................................................268
English ode................................................................................................................................................269
Ode in music.............................................................................................................................................270
4.21.3.1 Antistrophe..............................................................................................................................270
4.21.3.2 Epode .........................................................................................................................................270
Epodes of Horace....................................................................................................................................271
4.21.3.3 Palinode ....................................................................................................................................271
Examples....................................................................................................................................................271
4.22 Narrative Poetry................................................................................................................................272
4.22.1 Ballad.............................................................................................................................................273
Origin and form.......................................................................................................................................273
Characteristics.........................................................................................................................................273
Broadsheet ballads.................................................................................................................................274
Border ballads..........................................................................................................................................275
Literary ballads .......................................................................................................................................276
Ballad opera..............................................................................................................................................276
Jazz ballad..................................................................................................................................................276
4.22.1.1 Ballad Meter ............................................................................................................................276
4.22.2 Epic.................................................................................................................................................276
Oral epics or world folk epics............................................................................................................277
Epics in literate societies.....................................................................................................................277
4.22.2.1 National Epic...........................................................................................................................277

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Western......................................................................................................................................................277
Oriental.......................................................................................................................................................278
4.22.2.2 World Folk-epics....................................................................................................................279
4.22.3 Epyllion.........................................................................................................................................279
4.23 Pantoum................................................................................................................................................279
4.24 Paradelle...............................................................................................................................................283
Derivation..................................................................................................................................................283
Form ............................................................................................................................................................283
The Paradelle Now.................................................................................................................................284
4.25 Partimen ...............................................................................................................................................284
4.26 Performance Poetry .........................................................................................................................284
Poetry in Oral Cultures.........................................................................................................................285
The Advent of Printing .........................................................................................................................285
The 20th Century....................................................................................................................................286
The 1970s and After..............................................................................................................................286
4.26.1 Dub Poetry...................................................................................................................................288
4.26.2 Slam Poetry .................................................................................................................................288
Slam and academia ................................................................................................................................289
History ........................................................................................................................................................290
Competition..............................................................................................................................................290
Competition types..................................................................................................................................291
4.27 Roses are red.......................................................................................................................................292
4.28 Scrypt.....................................................................................................................................................293
Technique..................................................................................................................................................293

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History ........................................................................................................................................................295
4.29 Sound Poetry.......................................................................................................................................296
4.30 Schools of Poetry...............................................................................................................................297
4.30.1 Martian Poetry...........................................................................................................................300
4.30.2 Modernist Poetry ......................................................................................................................300
4.30.3 Romantic Poetry........................................................................................................................301
Usage ...........................................................................................................................................................301
Pioneers of romantic poetry ..............................................................................................................301
The flowering of romantic poetry in England .............................................................................301
4.30.4 Symbolist Poetry.......................................................................................................................301
5 Technical means ...........................................................................................................................................302
5.1 Accent.......................................................................................................................................................302
5.2 Anacrusis.................................................................................................................................................302
5.3 Assonance ...............................................................................................................................................302
Examples....................................................................................................................................................303
5.4 Cæsura......................................................................................................................................................303
Examples....................................................................................................................................................303
Classification ............................................................................................................................................304
5.5 Dissonance..............................................................................................................................................305
5.6 Kennings..................................................................................................................................................305
Modern kennings....................................................................................................................................306
5.7 Meter.........................................................................................................................................................307
Fundamentals ..........................................................................................................................................307
Technical Terms......................................................................................................................................307

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Common Feet ...........................................................................................................................................308
Dissent ........................................................................................................................................................312
5.7.1 Foot ...................................................................................................................................................313
The poetic feet .........................................................................................................................................313
5.7.1.1 Amphibrach................................................................................................................................315
5.7.1.2 Anapaest......................................................................................................................................315
5.7.1.3 Choriamb.....................................................................................................................................316
5.7.1.3.1 Choriambic Verse .................................................................................................................316
5.7.1.4 Iamb ..............................................................................................................................................318
5.7.1.4.1 Common Metre......................................................................................................................318
5.7.1.4.2 Iambic Heptameter..............................................................................................................318
5.7.1.4.3 Iambic Pentameter...............................................................................................................319
A Simple Example...................................................................................................................................319
Rhythmic Variation................................................................................................................................320
History in English...................................................................................................................................321
5.7.1.4.4 Iambic Trimeter....................................................................................................................321
5.7.1.5 Pyrrhic..........................................................................................................................................321
5.7.1.6 Spondee .......................................................................................................................................322
5.7.1.7 Tribrach.......................................................................................................................................323
5.7.1.8 Trochee ........................................................................................................................................323
5.7.2 Dactyl................................................................................................................................................324
5.7.2.1 Dactylic Hexameter.................................................................................................................324
5.7.2.2 Double Dactyl ............................................................................................................................325
5.7.3 Decasyllable...................................................................................................................................326

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5.7.4 Elegy .................................................................................................................................................327
5.7.4.1 Elegiac ..........................................................................................................................................327
5.7.4.1.1 Elegiac couplet.......................................................................................................................327
5.7.5 Hendecasyllabic ...........................................................................................................................328
5.7.6 Vedic meter....................................................................................................................................328
5.7.7 Poulter's Measure........................................................................................................................329
5.8 Rhyme.......................................................................................................................................................329
Etymology..................................................................................................................................................329
Examples....................................................................................................................................................329
Types of rhyme........................................................................................................................................330
Rhyme in English....................................................................................................................................331
Rhyme in French.....................................................................................................................................331
Rhyme in Hebrew...................................................................................................................................333
Rhyme in Latin.........................................................................................................................................333
5.8.1 Classification of Rhymes...........................................................................................................333
Traditional Pure Rhyme.......................................................................................................................333
Pararhyme.................................................................................................................................................333
Assonance Rhyme ..................................................................................................................................334
Consonance Rhyme................................................................................................................................334
Syllable Rhyme ........................................................................................................................................334
Uneven Rhyme.........................................................................................................................................335
Other types of rhyme ............................................................................................................................335
5.8.2 Rhyme Scheme .............................................................................................................................335
5.8.3 Chain Rhyme..................................................................................................................................337

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5.8.4 Eye Rhyme......................................................................................................................................337
5.8.5 Feminine Rhyme..........................................................................................................................338
5.8.6 Half Rhyme.....................................................................................................................................339
5.8.7 Holorime .........................................................................................................................................339
Holorime in English...............................................................................................................................339
Holorime in French................................................................................................................................339
Other examples........................................................................................................................................340
5.8.8 Internal Rhyme.............................................................................................................................340
Examples....................................................................................................................................................340
5.8.9 Nursery Rhyme.............................................................................................................................340
Popular culture........................................................................................................................................342
5.8.9.1 Mares Eat Oats ..........................................................................................................................342
Lyrics...........................................................................................................................................................342
History ........................................................................................................................................................343
5.8.10 Pararhyme ...................................................................................................................................343
5.8.11 Sprung Rhythm..........................................................................................................................343
Example......................................................................................................................................................343
5.8.12 Triolet............................................................................................................................................344
Examples....................................................................................................................................................344
5.8.13 Pruning Poem.............................................................................................................................345
5.9 Stichomythia..........................................................................................................................................346
5.10 Structural elements..........................................................................................................................347
5.10.1 Line.................................................................................................................................................347
5.10.1.1 Acatalectic................................................................................................................................347

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5.10.1.2 Acephalous Line.....................................................................................................................347
5.10.1.3 Alexandrine .............................................................................................................................347
5.10.1.4 Asclepiad...................................................................................................................................349
5.10.1.5 Catalectic...................................................................................................................................349
5.10.1.6 Dimeter/Couplet....................................................................................................................351
5.10.1.7 Feminine Ending....................................................................................................................351
5.10.1.8 Heptameter..............................................................................................................................351
5.10.1.9 Hexameter................................................................................................................................352
5.10.1.10 Monometer............................................................................................................................352
5.10.1.11 Octameter ..............................................................................................................................353
5.10.1.12 Pentameter............................................................................................................................353
5.10.1.13 Tetrameter ............................................................................................................................354
5.10.1.14 Trimeter .................................................................................................................................354
5.10.2 Couplet..........................................................................................................................................354
5.10.2.1 Closed Couplet........................................................................................................................355
5.10.3 Stroph............................................................................................................................................355
5.10.4 Stanza ............................................................................................................................................356
5.10.4.1 Chant Royal..............................................................................................................................357
An Example...............................................................................................................................................357
5.10.4.2 Cinquain....................................................................................................................................360
5.10.4.3 Envoi...........................................................................................................................................361
Form ............................................................................................................................................................361
Early Use....................................................................................................................................................361
Development............................................................................................................................................361

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An Example...............................................................................................................................................362
5.10.4.4 Habbie Stanza .........................................................................................................................363
5.10.4.5 Onegin Stanza .........................................................................................................................364
5.10.4.6 Ottava Rima .............................................................................................................................365
Form ............................................................................................................................................................365
History ........................................................................................................................................................365
Some examples........................................................................................................................................365
5.10.4.7 Quatrain ....................................................................................................................................366
Basic Forms...............................................................................................................................................366
Other forms...............................................................................................................................................368
5.10.4.8 Rhyme Royal ...........................................................................................................................368
Form ............................................................................................................................................................368
History ........................................................................................................................................................369
Some Examples........................................................................................................................................369
Ballade Royal............................................................................................................................................370
5.10.4.9 Sapphics....................................................................................................................................370
5.10.4.10 Spenserian Stanza ..............................................................................................................370
5.10.4.11 Terza rima .............................................................................................................................371
Form ............................................................................................................................................................371
History ........................................................................................................................................................371
Some Examples........................................................................................................................................372
5.10.4.12 Verse Paragraph..................................................................................................................374
6 Verse..................................................................................................................................................................375
6.1 Accentual Verse ....................................................................................................................................375

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6.2 Alliterative verse..................................................................................................................................375
Common Germanic origins and features.......................................................................................376
Old English poetic forms......................................................................................................................377
Old Norse poetic forms.........................................................................................................................380
German forms ..........................................................................................................................................383
6.2.1 Anglo-Saxon...................................................................................................................................383
6.3 Blank verse.............................................................................................................................................384
History of English blank verse...........................................................................................................385
6.4 Clerihew...................................................................................................................................................389
Examples....................................................................................................................................................389
6.5 Free verse................................................................................................................................................392
Some types of Free Verse ....................................................................................................................392
History ........................................................................................................................................................392
Precursors.................................................................................................................................................393
6.6 Grook ........................................................................................................................................................393
6.7 Libel...........................................................................................................................................................394
Classical roots ..........................................................................................................................................394
Renaissance English examples..........................................................................................................395
6.8 Monostich................................................................................................................................................396
6.9 Nonet.........................................................................................................................................................396
6.10 Nonsense Verse..................................................................................................................................396
6.11 Octave ....................................................................................................................................................401
6.12 Roundelay ............................................................................................................................................402
6.13 Sestina....................................................................................................................................................402

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Example......................................................................................................................................................402
How to.........................................................................................................................................................403
6.14 Solage.....................................................................................................................................................403
Examples....................................................................................................................................................404
6.15 Sonnet....................................................................................................................................................404
The Italian Sonnet ..................................................................................................................................404
The English Sonnet ................................................................................................................................406
The Modern Sonnet ...............................................................................................................................409
6.15.1 Caudate sonnet ..........................................................................................................................409
6.15.2 Crown of sonnets ......................................................................................................................410
6.15.3 Curtal sonnet ..............................................................................................................................410
6.15.4 Petrarchan sonnet ....................................................................................................................411
6.15.5 Quatorzain ...................................................................................................................................412
6.15.6 Sestet..............................................................................................................................................413
6.15.7 Shakespearean sonnet ............................................................................................................414
6.15.8 Sonnet cycle ................................................................................................................................414
6.15.9 Spenserian sonnet ....................................................................................................................414
6.16 Syllabic Verse......................................................................................................................................414
6.17 Tercet.....................................................................................................................................................415
6.18 Terzanelle.............................................................................................................................................415
6.19 Villanelle ...............................................................................................................................................416
Derivation..................................................................................................................................................416
Form ............................................................................................................................................................416
The villanelle in English.......................................................................................................................417

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Example......................................................................................................................................................418
About the author ..............................................................................................................................................419
Nicolae Sfetcu................................................................................................................................................419
Contact........................................................................................................................................................419
Publishing House..............................................................................................................................................420
MultiMedia Publishing ..............................................................................................................................420

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1 Poetry
Poetry (ancient Greek: ποιεω (poieo) = I create) is traditionally a written art form
(although there is also an ancient and modern poetry which relies mainly upon oral or
pictorial representations) in which human language is used for its aesthetic qualities in
addition to, or instead of, its notional and semantic content. The increased emphasis on the
aesthetics of language and the deliberate use of features such as repetition, meter and
rhyme, are what are commonly used to distinguish poetry from prose, but debates over
such distinctions still persist, while the issue is confounded by such forms as prose poetry
and poetic prose. Some modernists (such as the Surrealists) approach this problem of
definition by defining poetry not as a literary genre within a set of genres, but as the very
manifestation of human imagination, the substance which all creative acts derive from.
Poetry often uses condensed form to convey an emotion or idea to the reader or listener, as
well as using devices such as assonance, alliteration and repetition to achieve musical or
incantatory effects. Furthermore, poems often make heavy use of imagery, word
association, and musical qualities. Because of its reliance on "accidental" features of
language and connotational meaning, poetry is notoriously difficult to translate. Similarly,
poetry's use of nuance and symbolism can make it difficult to interpret a poem or can leave
a poem open to multiple interpretations.
It is difficult to define poetry definitively, especially when one considers that poetry
encompasses forms as different as epic narratives and haiku. Needless to say, many poets
have given their own definitions. Carl Sandburg said that, "poetry is the synthesis of
hyacinths and biscuits." Robert Frost once said "Poetry is the first thing lost in translation."
Nature of poetry
Poetry can be differentiated from prose, which is language meant to convey meaning in a
less condensed way, using more logical or narrative structures. This does not imply poetry
is illogical. Poetry is often created from the desire to escape the logical, as well as
expressing feelings and other expressions in a tight, condensed manner. English Romantic
poet John Keats termed this escape from logic Negative Capability.
Prose poetry combines the characteristics of poetry with the superficial appearance of
prose. Other forms include narrative poetry and dramatic poetry, used to tell stories and so
resemble novels and plays.
The Greek verb ποιέω [poiéō (= I make or create)], gave rise to three words: ποιητής
[poiētḗs (= the one who creates)], ποίησις [poíēsis (= the act of creation)] and ποίημα
[poíēma (= the thing created)]. From these we get three English words: poet (the creator),
poesy (the creation) and poem (the created). A poet is therefore one who creates and
poetry is what the poet creates. The underlying concept of the poet as creator is not

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uncommon. For example, in Anglo-Saxon a poet is a scop (shaper or maker) and in Scots
makar.
Tools
Sound
Perhaps the most vital element of sound in poetry is rhythm. Often the rhythm of each line
is arranged in a particular meter. Different types of meter played key roles in Classical,
Early European, Eastern and Modern poetry. In the case of free verse, the rhythm of lines is
often organized into looser units of cadence. Robinson Jeffers, Marianne Moore, and
William Carlos Williams were three notable poets who rejected the idea that meter was a
critical element of poetry, claiming it was an unnatural imposition into poetry.
Poetry in English and other modern European languages often uses rhyme. Rhyme at the
end of lines is the basis of a number of common poetic forms, such as ballads, sonnets and
rhyming couplets. However, the use of rhyme is not universal. Much modern poetry avoids
traditional rhyme schemes. Classical Greek and Latin poetry did not use rhyme. Rhyme did
not enter European poetry until the High Middle Ages, when adopted from the Arabic
language. Arabs have always used rhymes extensively, most notably in their long, rhyming
qasidas. Some classical poetry forms, such as Venpa of the Tamil language, had rigid
grammars (to the point that they could be expressed as a context-free grammar), which
ensured a rhythm. Alliteration played a key role in structuring early Germanic and English
forms of poetry, alliterative verse. The alliterative patterns of early Germanic poetry and
the rhyme schemes of Modern European poetry include meter as a key part of their
structure, which determines when the listener expects instances of rhyme or alliteration to
occur. Alliteration and rhyme, when used in poetic structures, help emphasise and define a
rhythmic pattern. By contrast, the chief device of Biblical poetry in ancient Hebrew was
parallelism, a rhetorical structure in which successive lines reflected each other in
grammatical structure, sound structure, notional content, or all three; which lent itself to
antiphonal or call-and-response performance.
Sound plays a more subtle role in free verse poetry by creating pleasing, varied patterns
and emphasizing or illustrating semantic elements of the poem. Alliteration, assonance,
consonance, dissonance and internal rhyme are among the ways poets use sound. Euphony
refers to the musical, flowing quality of words arranged in an aesthetically pleasing way.
Form
Poetry depends less on linguistic units of sentences and paragraphs. The structural
elements are the line, couplet, strophe, stanza, and verse paragraph.
Lines may be self-contained units of sense, as in the well-known lines from William
Shakespeare's Hamlet:

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To be, or not to be: that is the question.
Alternatively a line may end in mid-phrase or sentence:
Whether 'tis nobler in the mind to suffer
this linguistic unit is completed in the next line,
The slings and arrows of outrageous fortune.
This technique is called enjambment, and is used to create expectation, adding dynamic
tension to the verse.
In many instances, the effectiveness of a poem derives from the tension between the use of
linguistic and formal units. With the advent of printing, poets gained greater control over
the visual presentation of their work. As a result, the use of these formal elements, and of
the white space they help create, became an important part of the poet's toolbox.
Modernist poetry tends to take this to an extreme, with the placement of individual lines or
groups of lines on the page forming an integral part of the poem's composition. In its most
extreme form, this leads to concrete poetry.
Rhetoric
Rhetorical devices such as simile and metaphor are frequently used in poetry. Aristotle
wrote in his Poetics that "the greatest thing by far is to be a master of metaphor". Since the
rise of Modernism, some poets have opted for reduced use of these devices, attempting the
direct presentation of things and experiences. Surrealists have pushed rhetorical devices to
their limits, making frequent use of catachresis.
History
Poetry as an art form predates literacy. Poetry was employed as a means of recording oral
history, storytelling (epic poetry), genealogy, and law. Poetry is often closely identified with
liturgy in pre-literate societies. Many of the scriptures currently held to be sacred by
contemporary religious traditions with their roots in antiquity were composed as poetry
rather than prose to aid memorization and help guarantee the accuracy of oral
transmission in pre-literate societies. As a result many of the poems surviving from the
ancient world are a form of recorded cultural information about the people of the past, and
their poems are prayers or stories about religious subject matter, histories about their
politics and wars, and the important organizing myths of their societies.
The use of verse to transmit cultural information continues today. Many English-speaking
Americans know that "in 1492, Columbus sailed the ocean blue". An alphabet song teaches
the names and order of the letters of the alphabet; another jingle states the lengths and
names of the months in the Gregorian calendar. Some writers believe poetry has its origins