Nir herr english abstract and short article 1999 Rock and soil system and water regime in Quercus ithaburensis oak forest in Alonim region Israel לצפייה באתר ולהורדת הקובץ ראה בקישור הבא: Look in the site: http://nirforestecosoil.com/

1. International conference of the Israeli Society of Ecology and Environmental Sciences. Jerusalem, 1999
ROCK AND SOIL SYSTEM AS THE MAJOR ECOLOGICAL FACTOR AFFECTING THE WATER REGIME IN QUERCUS ITHABURENSIS FOREST IN ALONIM-SHFAR’AM REGION
N. Herr *, A. Singer *, J. Riov **, E. Sass ***
*Department of Soil and Water, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, 76100 Rehovot, Israel.
**Department of Horticulture, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, 76100 Rehovot, Israel.
***Institute of Earth Sciences, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, 91904 Jerusalem, Israel.
ABSTRACT
Quercus ithaburensis forest in Alonim-Shfar’am region (Lower Galilee, Israel) exists only on specific sites. The structure of the sub-soil in the forested sites consists of chalky rock covered with Nari, brown shallow Rendzina, and soil pockets up to 1.5 meter deep which interrupt the Nari layer. The tree root-system is composed of a dense root mat located at the bottom of the shallow soil layer and deeper root system concentrations that are located in soil pockets. In the adjacent limestone and Terra Rossa area, where the forest doesn’t grow, there are no significant soil pockets and the soil lies above cracked rock.
The main factor responsible for the difference between the two soil-rock systems is their different water regimes, due to the structure of the soil layer, the presence of soil pockets and the hydraulic characteristics of the subsoil rock. Differences in nutrient availability are the result of the different water regime in both habitats. Improved water economy as the main factor and improved nutrient supply as a secondary factor, lead to improved conditions which enable growth of trees in the chalk habitat that is covered with Nari and Rendzina soil with its soil pockets.
KEWORDS

2. Brown rendzina; chalk; Quercus ithaburensis; soil moisture; soil pockets; water regime
INTRODUCTION
In the Alonim-Shefar’am region of the Lower Galilee of Israel, the Quercus ithaburensis forest thrives only in limited areas. The climate and the topographic conditions seem to be quite similar throughout the region, and preliminary observations suggested that factors related to soil and rock could be the reason for this phenomenon. The forest exists on a chalky rock that is covered by Nari hardpan and Rendzina soil, and is absent on limestone and associated Terra Rossa soil. The objective of this work was to examine in detail the hypothesis that soil and rock are responsible for the limited distribution of Q. ithaburensis in this region.
Q. ithaburensis in Israel occurs discontinuously in specific regions from the Golan Hights in the north to the Sharon Plain in the center of the country. This species probably reached Israel about 10,000 years ago, after the last Ice period, from south Turkey (Zohari, 1973; Stiller et al., 1984; Bar-Matthews et al., 1998). Its distribution in the past was broader than today. Cutting, grazing and temporary utilization of the land for cultivation of olives and vineyards probably affected the distribution of Q. ithaburensis. It seems that the forest (especially in the research region) regenerated again in the same boundaries after each disturbance of the natural situation. This is due to good regeneration by stump sprouts as well as regeneration from seed in the same suitable niches. Most of the forest in the region was cut during World War I, regenerated (Eig, 1933), partly cut during World War II, and regenerated in the same boundaries.
METHODS
The research region
Alonim-Shefar’am is a region of moderate hills up to 250 m above sea level. The geological base consists of chalky rocks of the Maresha formation (middle Eocene) in the west, changing to the west by interfingering with limestone of Timrat formation (Greenberg, 1963; Sneh, 1988). The chalk is covered by Nari calcrete hardpan (Greenberg, 1963; Yaalon & Singer, 1974; Wieder et al, 1994) and brown Rendzina soil, while the limestone is covered with Terra Rossa soil (Singer, 1969).
On the chalk that is homogenous in the west, natural vegetation consists of a maquis, while on the heterogeneous chalk in the transition zone grows a park-forest of Q. ithaburensis (without any accompanying species of trees and shrubs). On the limestone landscape there are no trees at al. In this research the park-forest is compared to the bare area.
Methods of research
A comparative mapping of rock, soil and vegetation was carried out by projecting the tree area from areal photographs on topographic map, and the forest distribution was analyzed using topographic, geologic and pedologic data by GIS. Sub-soil structure and location of

3. roots in relation to this structure were examined in hundreds of field sections. Moisture regime in the Rendzina and Terra Rossa soil was measured continuously for 3 years using gypsum soil moisture sensors and data loggers. There were two measurement stations in each of the two soil systems studied, one on a hill top and the other on the southern slope. In each station there were 5 sensors at a depth of 20 cm. The soil moisture data complemented by periodical gravimetric measurements at 10 sites in the research region. Gravimetric soil water content in soil pockets was measured at the end of the summer. Soil temperature was measured near each of the soil moisture sensors in the same system. Air temperature, humidity and precipitation were measured in the same stations. Other aspects that were examined included soil and rock characteristics, chemical composition of the soil and soil solution, tree water tension in trees, transpiration and stomatal conductance.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Forest distribution has been found to be largely dependent on the rock and soil characteristics. The topographic effect is minor and is in evidence only by the fact that in the northern aspect the percentage of the tree coverage increases with increase in slope up to an optimal degree, but the average percentage of coverage in the northern aspect is not higher than that in the other slopes, and the forest borders cross various aspects and slopes.
The structure of the sub-soil in the forest sites consists of chalky rock covered with Nari, brown or red-brown shallow Rendzina, and soil pockets up to 1.5 meter deep which interrupt the Nari layer. The tree root-system is composed of a dense root mat located at the bottom of the shallow soil layer and a deeper root system which is concentrated in soil pockets. Each tree occupies at least one soil pocket. In the limestone and Terra Rossa areas, where the forest does not grow, there are no significant soil pockets but the soil is somewhat deeper and lies above cracked rock. The soil-rock system varies greatly due to rock variations that were caused by the original sedimentation process and subsequent sliding, bending of layers and many faults. The rock variation leads to variations in the Nari structure and development of soil pockets. As a consequence, the root environment may differ considerably from one tree to another.
Water regime in the shallow soil. There were notable differences between the desiccation processes of the Terra Rossa and Rendzina soils during spring and summer (Fig. 1). The desiccation process in Terra Rosa was enhanced by events of hot and dry weather. The effect of spring showers on delaying the drying of this soil was short and limited. Terra Rossa usually reached complete dryness (a situation close to “air dryness”) by the end of August. In Rendzina, soils, in contrast, the desiccation rate was more moderate. The effect of spring showers in slowing down the drying process was more noticeable and lasted longer after each rain, while the effect of hot and dry weather was less pronounced compared with the Terra Rossa. Soil moisture persisted in Rendzina until the end of the summer and was observed at depths of 20 cm with tensions of about 20-40 bar. At this tension, tree roots are able to survive.
Moisture levels in soil pockets were high (tension of 1-4 bar), mainly at the bottom of the pockets, in cracks inside the walls and under large stones. This situation allows the tree to continue water uptake during the whole summer. In response to the first fall showers,

4. the Rendzina soils become wet more quickly and fully, and stayed wet longer than Terra Rossa. Therefore, the dry period of the upper soil layer ends earlier.
The reasons for the quicker and more thorough wetting of the Rendzina, and subsequently, its saturation over longer periods of time compared with Terra Rossa are:
 Relatively large Nari areas on the surface, which extend into the shallow subsoil, lead to formation of runoff water even after light rains, that allow the wetting of the root environment at the bottom of this layer. Continued downward penetration of water is probably limited by the laminar crust of the Nari hardpan.
 The chalky rock and the Nari hardpan maintain a high level of water saturation during the whole summer due to their high water holding capacity. The high effective saturation of the chalk and the Nari, their low water tension and moderate hydraulic conductivity permit water to move from the rock to the drying
05101520253035404550 Feb 19Mar 6Mar 21Apr 5Apr 20May 5May 20Jun 4Jun 19Jul 4Jul 19Aug 3Aug 18Sep 2Sep 17Oct 2Oct 17Nov 1Nov 16Dec 1Dec 16Dec 31 gravimetric water content (pecentage); rain ( mm); temperature (C) Average soil temperatureTerra Rossa 1: top of the hillRendzina 1: top of the hillTerra Rossa 2: southern slopeRendzina 2: southern slopeHourly rain (mm) Terra rossa 2Terra rossa 1Rendzina 1Rendzina 2S o i l t e m p r e t u r eSpring rainOutomn-winter rainSoil water content, soil temperature and precipitationin Terra Rossa on limestone and Rendzina on chalk with Narimeasured continuously from spring to winter, 1995Fig. 1: Date, 1995 . The points are every hour

5. soil, and thus retard the process of drying of the shallow soil and allow to maintain high levels of moisture in the soil pockets (Fig. 2). Thus the soil pockets function
as a “plant-pot” that is almost saturated with water.
Fig 2: Water flow in the rock-soil-tree system. Calculated by using data of soil and rock moisture measurements, retention curves of soil and rock hydraulic conductivity. Transpiration rate and water tension in leaf measured directly. The main water storage and main water flow is coming from the chalk under the soil pocket.
 In contrast, the Terra Rossa has no continuous rock exposure next to the surface, and the subsoil rock is cracked and dense. Soil pockets do not exist and the limestone does not absorb moisture.
 The Rendzina has a higher water holding capacity than Terra Rossa.
Tree responses to the soil water regime. Soil moisture, water availability in the soils at different sites, and tree responses are all related. In a habitat where soil moisture is high, the water tension in the leaves will be lower and stomatal conductance, growth parameters, acorn formation and the timing of leaf shedding are indicative of a better situation. When soil moisture is low, the tree water tension rises and tree activity decreases to a minimum. In general, due to dry soil conditions, the stomata closing mechanism is activated in order to regulate the water tension in the trees during the day and during the season (Tenhunen et al., 1987; Davies and Zhang, 1992). Transpiration rate decreases with the advancement of the summer, and is compatible with water movement from the rock to the soil pockets.

6. Nutrient availability – a secondary factor. The type of moisture regime of the soil-rock system leads to differences in mineral availability in the different soils. During winter the chalky rock is saturated with water and therefore aeration conditions in the soil pockets and the Rendzina are impaired. The nitrification process of the decomposable organic matter slows down, and because of the limited leaching in this system, the accumulated ammonium is not removed. In spring, when temperatures rise and the aeration conditions improve, the nitrification process is more complete, and the concentration of available nitrogen rises. The ratio ammonium/nitrate, that is high in winter, and high levels of nitrogen in spring, make the Rendzina habitat superior. In contrast, in the drying Terra Rossa, it can be assumed that the mobility of potassium and phosphorus decreases, and therefore absorption of these elements decreases toward the end of summer (as it found in the leaf chemical composition of seedlings). The drying up process apparently damages the selective uptake of the roots and leads to uncontrolled uptake of damaging elements.
CONCLUSIONS
In summary, it seems that the main cause of variation that is responsible for the difference between the two soil-rock systems is their different water regimes, due to the structure of the soil layer, soil pockets and the hydraulic characters of the subsoil rock. The differences in the mineral availability are the result of the water regime in both habitats. Improved water economy as the main factor and improved nutrient element supply as a secondary cause, lead to improved conditions for tree growth in the chalk habitat that is covered with Nari and Rendzina soil with its soil pockets.
REFERENCES
Bar-Mattews M., Ayalon M., Kaufman A. (1998). Eastern Mediterranean paleoclimate during the last 60,000 years as derived from cave deposits. In: Israel Geological Society, Annual Meeting, Mitzpe Ramon, Laser Pages Publishing.
Davies W. J., Zhang J., 1992. Root signals and the regulation of growth and development of plants in drying soil. Annu.Rev.Plant Physiol. Plant Mol. Biol., 42: 55-76.
Eig A. (1933). A historical-phytosociological essay on palestine forests of Quercus agilops L. ssp. Ithaburensis (Desc) in past and present. Beihefte Botanischem Centralblatt, 51 B: 225-272.
Greenberg Y., 1963. The Geology of Kfar Hahoresh-Illut region. Isr. J. Earth Sci., 12.
Singer A., 1969. The soils of the Lower Galilee. Soil Map 1:20,000 (unpublished)
Sneh A., 1988. Regional litostratigraphy of the Eocene Avdat group, Israel. Report GSI/26/88.

7. Stiller M., Erlich A., Poinqer U., Baruch U., Kaufman A., 1984. The late Holocene sediments of lake Kinneret (Israel) – multi – disciplinary study of a five meter core. In: Geological Survey of Israel, Current Research, 1983-1984, A. Erlich (ed.), 83-87.
Tenhunen J. D., Pearcy R. W., Lange O. l., 1987. Diurnal variation in leaf conductance and gas exchange in natural environments. In: Stomatal function, E. Zeiger ed., Stanford University Press, Calif.,USA
Zohari M.(1973). The geobotanical foundations of the middle east. Stuttgart: Gustav Fischer.

8. The conference of the Israel Seological Society. Eilat, 2001
Use of GPR in mapping and evaluating the rock-soil structure
as a part of an ecological research
Herr, N.,1 Kofman, L.2
1. Department of Soil and Water, Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Rehovot 76100
2. Laboratory for field systems, Technion Institute for Research and Development, Technion City, Haifa 32000
Surveys were made with GPR in the Alonim-Shefar’am region. The purpose of these surveys was to obtain data on the 3D structure of the complex rock-soil system prevailing in the area. The work performed was a stage of ongoing research its main purpose being the understanding of the relationship between ground factors and the growth of the forest and the maquis.
In the research area, a transition zone is exposed between the chalk and limestone facies of Timrat formation, and the chalk of Maresha formation (Avdat group). The chalk is covered with Nari hardpan and reddish-brown rendzina soil. The rock-soil system varies greatly due to rock variations of the original sedimentation and mass transport, bending of layers and faults. 3 layers of Nari are observed: The laminar crust, the upper Nari and the lower Nari. The laminar crust forms a sequence of surface that are partly covered by shallow soil. The rock variation leads to variations in the Nari structure. In weakness joints of it, many soil-pocket were formed.
The big diversity caused formation of various systems of rock-soil structure. These systems are habitats to various types of vegetation. Thus, it is on Timrat chalk covered with well-developed Nari and soil pockets that Quercus ithaburensis park-forest has developed. On the more porous chalk of Maresha formation the Nari is less developed, the soil is scarce and Quercus caliprrinos maquis has grew, its root going deep into the rock cracks.
Due to the complexity of the structure of the subsoil, the evaluation of its details is not easy by usual mapping. Use of the GPR enables “seeing” the subsoil structure with high resolution in variable depth ranges according to the frequency of the antenna used and the electrical conductivity of the rock and soil layers. Surveys carried out in park-forest on Timrat formation and in maquis on Maresha formation. The GPR equipped with two antennae: Antenna 500 MHz enabling imaging at very high resolution up to depth of 2.5 m and antenna 300 MHz up to of 4 m. surveys were performed along lines at intervals of 2-3 m and in lines broadside. Additional profiles were made later along strike and dip lines of layers and perpendicular to faults.
After the interpretation it was possible to determine changes between soil, rock and Nari layers thickness, inclination and lateral changes, joints, faults and soil pockets. This

9. information was used for planning a series of drillings at depth of 5 m. A correlation between the drilling and the GPR data enable understanding of the properties of the layers and their continuity in various directions as well as evaluation of the rock-soil system structure and its properties.
In continuation, it is planned to measure changes in the water content of the soil and rock between the drilling by means borehole antenna radar. This measurement, based on the knowledge of the rock-soil structure describe, will enable obtaining the water flow system in the rock toward the soil and roots by the hydraulic properties of the various layers.

10. The conference of the Israel Seological Society. Eilat, 2001
Detection and mapping of fault zones and karst caves
by GPR and Borehole Radar System
Kofman, L.1 Herr, N.,2
1. Laboratory for field systems, Technion Institute for Research and Development,
Technion City, Haifa 32000
2. Department of Soil and Water, Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Rehovot 76100
A great part of the construction in Israel is made in the mountains regions where geological faults (including active faults) and karstic phenomena are found as a result endangering the stability of structures. Construction above underground caves is highly dangerous as the pressures developing in the caves’ roof during an earthquake are liable to cause its collapse.
The GPR method has proven to be the most effective method detection of caves, voids and areal of faults and cracks in progress. This ability is mainly achieved by the highest resolution of this method – the highest among all geophysical methods, operating on ground surface.
In the survey in Alon Hagalil and Timrat (Alonim-Shefar’am region) characteristic imaging of faults lines were obtained. Geological faults observed on ground surface were identified by the GPR also in places that were not visible on surface level. The image thus obtained is one of diffraction development along the fault line and considerably more visible than that of rock cracks.
Locating underground caves and voids is done by identifying on the GPR data the reverberation picture generally occur in places, where the towed antennas pass during survey over some form of sub-surface opening. The reverberation picture is expressed by increase in amplitude of the reflections and the decrease in their frequency. It is logical to suppose, that the occurrence of the reverberation above the voids can be observed in cases when the antenna wavelength is similar to magnitude of the void diameter. Numerous voids were detected in surveys of various regions of Israel and actually found after digging or drilling.
Clay lenses in the rock may sometime cause a multireflection effect similar to the reverberation image. By combined use of the GPR survey using antennas towed on the ground surface, with the Borehole Antennas System (BAS), an absolute differentiation

11. between voids and clay lenses can be achieved. The BAS method emits and receives impulses passing between two antennas being lowered into the borehole. It is possible to obtain accurate data on size of caves and their location by analysis of the changes occurring in the parameters of the signals. Actual experiments in the Rafiah region proved the possibility of void detection ranging from 0.5 m in diameter and at depths of 1-10 m.
We suppose that the continuos voluminous GPR data on cave/void location below building sites, by combining the two georadar technologies, will considerably contribute to reinforcing of foundation existing and planned buildings and prevent construction of new ones above or in the vicinity of active faults.

12. The conference of the Israel Seological Society. Ma'agan, 2002
Mg in carbonate rocks as a major factor controlling rock- soil relationship in Judea and Avedat Groups, Mediterranean zone, Israel
Herr, N.,1 Frumkin, A.,2 Azaize, H.3
1. Soil and Water Department, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, 76100 Rehovot
2. Geography Department, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, 91905, Jerusalem
3. Research and Development Center the Galilee Society, 20200 Shefa’amr
Geomorphic and pedologic observations in the Mediterranean climatic zone of Israel show that limestone and dolomite display a different soil-rock interaction. The difference is reflected in karren-field structure, soil pockets- rock-karren interaction, and the relationship between shallow and deeper karst features. Dolomites apparently develop larger karren formations, deeper soil pockets, and intensive karstification. Micritic limestone of Avdat Group tends to support thicker homogenic soil cover, almost without soil pockets. The rock-soil interaction apparently dictates the floral ecosystem and species distribution.
Limestone and dolomite Mg content of Bina and Sakhnin Formations seems to control the forest structure of the Upper Galilee. Additional observations of forest and maquis in lower Galilee, Karmel and Samaria indicate similar behavior in these regions too within Judea and Avedat Groups. Comparison of rock-soil systems and meteoric water

13. composition along the route from surface to groundwater, indicate that the Mg influence is not direct but rather involves variable dissolution processes associated with variations of Mg content.
We compared Ca and Mg concentrations of meteoric water on bare rocks, runoff, soil, karst shafts, caves and springs. Dissolution on bare rocks and in the soil is more intensive on limestones compared with dolomites. Most dissolution occurs at the soil-rock interface. On limestones, dissolution capacity seems to be exosted in this interface, and solute concentration does not increase much further down. On dolomites, dissolution is less intensive at the upper unsaturated zone, and solute concentrations increase significantly downwards through the shallow karst towards caves and springs.
Suggested hypothesis: In Judea Group micritic limestone, intensive dissolution close to the surface renders the water almost saturated with carbonates, and little aggressiveness is left for deeper dissolution. The lower dissolution rate of dolomites allow the infiltrating water to remain aggressive, enlarge fractures and create deeper soil pockets. High-Mg limestones are thus associated with deeper soil-pockets compared with low-Mg limestones. Mg content is even lower in the Eocene Timrat Formation micritic limestone, whose Mg/Ca ratio is 1:250, supporting deep soil development with almost no pockets. The depth of soil pockets and their water capacity potential control local forest and maquis richness.

14. The conference of the Israel Seological Society. Hagoshrim, 2004
The water dynamics in the soil-rock system
of the Avdat group chalk in the Lower Galilee
Herr N. 1, Makovsky Y. 2, Shani U 1.
1. Department of Soil and Water, Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Rehovot 76100 2. Department of Geophysics and Planetary Sciences, Tel Aviv University, Ramat Aviv 69978
Spatial and temporal moisture distribution in a given rock-soil system is a major factor influencing vegetation type and habitat properties. The current work presents an integration of Geobotanics, Soil-Rock-Water continuation, Geology and Hydrology, and includes a multidimensional study of the water system in the habitats of oak forests and maquis. The research was based on direct and comprehensive measurements of the water status in the soil and rock formations.
Measurements of soil and rock moisture content were conducted during the past three years at three sites in the Alonim-Shefar’am hills. At each site, we drilled a network of 8 m deep boreholes for water content measurements using a neutron probe, borehole antennas and soil moisture sensors. The research sites included two locations of Quercus ithaburensis park-forest in Alon Hagalil: (i) on the Timrat formation (chalk covered by Nari calcrete hardpan, with intermediate layers of limestone with soil pockets); and (ii) on Adulam formation (alternate hard and soft chalk and marl, and soil of variable depths); and another location of Quercus calliprrinus maquis in the Timrat settlement on soft chalk of Maresha formation. Meteorological data, including soil and rock temperatures at various depths, were monitored. 3-D structures and features of the subsoil were analyzed by GPR net, and from rock cores.
At this stage, we analyzed the data and some conclusions may already be established:
 In habitat of chalk covered by Nari hardpan with limestone and marl layers, the upper soil and the rock to a depth of 2.5 m becomes dry towards the end of the summer. Water percolation, during and following the rainy season during an average year, does not reach the bottom of the dry area. The wetting slowly progressed towards this depth in a few months, and at the same time, the shallower area became dry. Later, all the wetted area became dry.
 Deeper rock moisture has almost no seasonal changes. There are quite sharp interfaces between the upper dry area and the lower wet area.

15.  When the annual rainfall is high, the moistening is deeper and remains so for a longer period. In rainy years, the wetting front may break through the dry area bottom and unite with the lower wet area.
 Moisture fluctuation along the section can reflect an intermediate layer of limestone, marl and soil, and the Nari layers. The influence of these layers is, in particular, during the time of percolation and wetting.
The 3-D soil-rock system in each site has a high influence on the water distribution along the section. Our aim is to examine and compare the influence of various soil-rock systems on the water system dynamics in the ecosystems in the same sites. This study of the water system in the rock serves as a tool in understanding the hydraulic properties of the rock in the section and the hydrologic processes in this region.