1. NOTE/Diclaimer: These are notes I made for myself during my second year. I cannot
guarantee that there aren’t mistakes. I do know that studying them were great help to me. I
used notes and powerpoints given to my class by lecturers (University of Stellenbosch,
Tygerberg Campus, South Africa) as well as the following textbooks:
Ostetrics in South Africa: Cronje
The Breast
Breast Disease
Benign Breast Disease
1. Mastalgia
2. Nipple discharge
3. Gynaecomastia
Breast cancer risk factors
• Gender
• Age
• Family history
• Early menarche
• Late menopause
Signs of Breast Cancer Diagnosis of Breast Cancer
Painless lump Physical examination
Skin changes Fine needle aspiration
Nipple discharge Mammogram
Treatment of breast cancer
A. Surgery
B. Radiotherapy
C. Chemotherapy
D. Hormonal therapy
E. Biological therapy
♫ Breast conservation therapy is tumour excision and radiotherapy.
♫ hormonal therapies: anti-oestrogens, ovarian ablation
♫ PROGNOSTIC FACTORS: lymph nodes, tumour size, differentiation
♫ Biological therapy: Herceptin
Hyperprolactinaemia
Increased prolactin levels which may lead to galactorrhoea
Galactorrhoea lactation in absence of pregnancy or puerperium
Aetiology: increased prolactin
1. Physiological – lactation, orgasm, sleep, big meals, stimulation of breasts
2. Psychological – stress, exercise, phantom pregnancy
3. Pharmacological – dopamine antagonists, oestrogen
4. Pathological – prolactinoma, acromegaly, hypothyroidism, neoplasia
Breast Ca Staging
I. Early
II. Operable
III. Locally advanced
IV. Metastatic
