project

IMPACT OF PEERS ON ALCOHOL USE AMONG SECOND YEAR PSYCHOLOGY
STUDENTS OF KENYATTA UNIVERSITY
BY
MARIA WANJIKU C01/0337/2009
CHRIS DONALD OKELLO C117/2528/2009
LILIAN M. NJEBWE C117/2556/2009
A PROJECT SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF PSYCHOLOGY IN PARTIAL
FULFILLMENT OF THE DEGREE OF BACHELORS OF ARTS IN PSYCHOLOGY OF
KENYATTA UNIVERSITY
KENYATTA UNIVERSITY
SEPTEMBER, 2013.

DECLARATION
We declare that this project is our original work and has not been presented for an award of a
degree in this or any other University.
MARIA WANJIKU DATE
C01/0337/2009
OKELLO CHRIS DONALD DATE
C117/2528/2009
LILIAN M. NJEBWE DATE
C117/2556/2009
RECOMMENDATION
This project has been submitted with my approval as the university supervisor.
SAMSON OTEYO DATE

COPYRIGHT
© 2013
Maria Wanjiku
Okello Chris Donald
Lilian M. Njebwe
All rights are reserved. No part of this project may be reproduced or transmitted in any form by
mechanical means including photocopy, recording or any other information storage or retrieval
system without permission in writing from the authors or Kenyatta University on their behalf.
However, it can be quoted without any references to the above-mentioned authorities.

DEDICATION
We dedicate this proposal to our parents, siblings and the Kenyatta University Community at
large who have given us much support to this far we have come. This project would not have
come this far without their support, sacrifice and encouragement.

LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 2.1 Conceptual Framework………………………………………………………………15
Figure 4.1 Respondents by the age they first used alcohol………………………………………24
Figure 4.2 Distribution of respondents by whether they had used alcohol in the last 12 months.25
Figure 4.3 Respondents by the number of days they had used alcohol in the last 30 days……...26
Figure 4.4 Respondents by the number of alcohol bottles they had used………………………..26
Figure 4.5 Respondents by the number of friends, schoolmates and students from former schools
who used alcohol…………………………………………………………………………………27
Figure 4.6 Cross tabulation of the number of friends using alcohol and the age when respondents
first took alcohol…………………………………………………………………………………28
Figure 4.7Cross tabulation of whether respondents were persuaded by friends to use alcohol and
use of alcohol in the past 12 months……………………………………………………………..29
Figure 4.8 Cross tabulation of whether respondents were rejected by friends if they refused to use
alcohol and whether they used alcohol in the last 12 months……………………………………30
Figure 4.9 Cross tabulation of whether respondents had been offered alcohol by friends in the
past 1 year and whether they used alcohol in the last 12 months……………………………......31
Figure 4.10 Distribution of respondents by whether it is wrong or not for their best friends to use
alcohol……………………………………………………………………………………………32
Figure 4.11 Distribution of respondents by people’s feelings on choosing friends who use
alcohol……………………………………………………………………………………………33
Figure 4.12 Distribution of respondents by people’s choice of friends who share their beliefs,
attitudes and behaviors…………………………………………………………………………...34

LIST OF TABLES
Table 3.1 Data Analysis and Presentation……………………………………………………….19
Table 4.1 Distribution of respondents by sex, age, residence and religion ……………………..22
Table 4.2 Distribution of respondents by whether their parents were alive, parents’ highest level
of education, occupation and home district……………………………………………………...23
Table 4.3 Cross tabulation between sex and age when respondents firsts used alcohol,
respondents’ use in the last 12 months and then 30 days and the number of alcohol bottles
used………………………………………………………………………………………………35

TABLE OF CONTENTS
DECLARATION………………………………………………………………………………...i
RECOMMENDATION………………………………………………………………………....i
COPYRIGHT…………………………………………………………………………………...ii
DEDICATION…………………………………………………………………………………..iii
LIST OF FIGURES……….…………………………………………………………………….iv
LIST OF TABLES………………………………………………………………………………v
TABLE OF CONTENTS……………………………………………………………………….vi
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS ................................................................. viii
OPERATIONAL DEFINITION OF TERMS............................................................................ix
ABSTRACT................................................................................................................................... x
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................... 1
1.0Introduction………………………………………………………………………….…1
1.1 Background of theStudy………………………………………………………….…...1
1.2 Statement of the Problem…………………………………………………….......……4
1.3 Purpose of the Study……………………………………………………………..……4
1.4 Specific Objectives of the Study……………..………………………………………..4
1.5 Research Questions of the Study………………………………………………….…..5
1.6 Significance of the Study………………………………………………………...……5
1.7 Scope of the Study………………………………………………………………….....5
1.8 Limitations of Study……………………………………………………………..……6
1.9 Assumptions of the Study………………………………………………………..……6
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW............................................................................ 7
2.0 Introduction………………………………………………………………………….7
2.1 Theoretical Framework……………………………………………………………...7

2.1.1 Peer Cluster Theory……..…………..……………………………………..……...7
2.1.2 Socialization Theory………………………………………………………………8
2.1.3 Normative Social Influence…..…………………………………………..……...10
2.2 Alcohol Use among University Students…………………………………..………..10
2.3 Rate of Consumption on Alcohol Use……..………………....……………………...11
2.4 Effects of Socialization of peer on Alcohol use...……………………………………13
2.5 Gender Differences Associated with Adolescent Substance Use…..………...……14
2.6 Conceptual Framework….………………………………………………………….15
CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ......................................................... 16
3.0 Introduction…………………………………………………………………………..16
3.1 Research Design……………………………………………………………………...16
3.2 Location of the Study……………………………………………………………..….16
3.3 Population of the Study………………………………………………………………16
3.4 Sampling Procedures an Sampling Size……………………………………….…….17
3.5 Instrumentation……………………………………………………………..………..17
3.5.1 Validity of the instrument………………………………………………………….17
3.5.2 Reliability of the instrument...…………………………………………..…………17
3.6 Data Collection Procedures…………………………………………………………..18
3.7 Data Analysis and Presentation………………………………………………...……19
3.8 Ethical Consideration………………………………………………………..……….20
CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS, ANALYSIS AND PRESENTATION……………………..21
4.0 Introduction ………………………………………………………………………….21
4.1 Demographic and Background characteristics of the Respondents………………….21
4.2 Responses to Research Questions……………………………………………………24
4.2.1 Rate of Consumption on Alcohol Use……………………………………………..24

4.2.2 Effects of Socialization of Peers on Alcohol use…………………………………..27
4.2.3 How People feel or think of their friends who use alcohol………………………...31
4.2.4 Sex difference among peers contribution to alcohol use…………………………..34
CHAPTERS 5: DISCUSSION, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION…………...36
5.0 Introduction………………………………………………………………………….36
5.1 Discussion of the Study……………………………………………………………...36
5.2 Summary of the Study……………………………………………………………….37
5.3 Conclusion of the Study……………………………………………………………...37
5.4 Recommendations……………………………………………………………………38
5.5 Suggestions for further study………………………………………………………...38
REFERENCES…………………………………...……………………………………………..39
APPENDIX A: QUESTIONNAIRE...…………………………………………………….…..41
APPENDIX B: WORK PLAN…………………………………………………………………48
APPENDIX C: BUDGET………………………………………………………………………49

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS
GISAH: Global Information System on Alcohol and Health
GPA: Grade Point Average
KEMRI: Kenya Medical Research Institute
NACADA: National Campaign Against Drug Abuse
UNESCO: United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization
WHO: World Health Organization

OPERATIONAL DEFINITION OF TERMS
Alcohol : a fermented liquid that is intoxicating
Ever used alcohol: refers to taking alcohol one year from the date of the research
Past alcohol use: refers to taking alcohol 6 months to the date of the research.
Current use: refers to taking alcohol within one month to the date of the research.
Regular current use : refers to taking alcohol once or more times in a week, and in each
session one bottle for women and two for men.
Drug Abuse: overindulgence in and dependence on a drug or other chemicals leading to the
effects that are detrimental to the individual’s physical and mental health, or the
welfare of their family.
Peers: a group of students who share common characteristics for example, age, interests,
hobbies and course of study (Psychology).
Socialization: process by which peers learn new behaviors, beliefs and values so as to fit in a
group and participate in social relations

ABSTRACT
Peer pressure is displayed consistently in alcohol use among university students. Alcohol use has
been caused by a number of factors such as socialization of peers, sex differences of the peers,
the rate at which alcohol is used among others. This behavior is a major problem among the
peers since it has adverse consequences on the physical, psychological, emotional and social
aspects of the individuals. It may lead to issues like delinquencies and antisocial behaviors. The
main aim of this study is to find out the impact of peers on the abuse of alcohol. The objectives
of the study will be to find out the impact of these factors on alcohol abuse. The research design
that will be used is descriptive survey design (a non-experimental approach). The study will be
conducted in Kenyatta University where the target population is a hundred second year
psychology students. The sample size will be eighty students. Questionnaires will be used to
collect data as the main research tool. This is because it will be easier and quick to interpret the
raw data. The raw data will be analyzed using Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS).
The results of the findings are expected to show how the factors create an impact on the abuse of
alcohol. Hence through the findings it will be easier to mitigate the rate at which alcohol is
abused in the institution. The study is important since it will help check the trends of the previous
studies over time and fill the gap created by knowing how the peers can influence each other
positively and hence create awareness.
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
1.0 Introduction
This chapter contains the background of the study, statement of the problem, purpose of the
study, specific objectives of the study, research questions of the study, significance of the study,
scope of the study, assumptions of the study and limitations of the study.
1.1 Background of the Study
By about age three, early friendships begin to form and children’s peers begin to have a more
lasting influence (Barbour, Barbour & Scully, 2002). Children here begin to think and act like
their friends and they are able to draw out the difference between the values, opinions, and rules
set by their parents and those of others. In the peer group therefore, young people feel accepted

and where they feel free to speak of things important to them and as such these groups exert
considerable influence on the behavior and attitudes of the individual.
A classical experiment by Solomon Asch explains how a group of individuals can influence
somebody in making a decision. Shuttle worth (2008) noted that the Asch experiment was
designed to test how peer pressure would influence the judgment and individuality of a test
subject to conform to the majority. It was found out that people frequently followed the majority
judgment, even when the majority was wrong. It was further noted that people often accept to be
influenced just for the desire to achieve a sense of security within a group that is of a similar age,
culture, religion, or educational status. Any unwillingness to be influenced carries with it the
very risk of social rejection and this is what young people fear most (Dewey, 2008).
Young people in their adolescence join different peer groups and identify themselves with these
groups by participating in their activities in order to be accepted. A peer group is a source of
great influence during the time of adolescence (Chauhan, 2007). In a contemporary society, peer
groups have become an increasingly important context in which adolescents spend time.
Modernization has led more and more to age segregation-in schools, work place, and in the
community. How much time one spends with friends will play a great part in the development of
the adolescent into the mature adult (Barbour, Barbour & Scully, 2002).
Peer groups to which the adolescents relate with provide social reference points for these
adolescents. Palmer (2008) noted that peer groups are among the most significant social contexts
in adolescence. They help to establish norms of behavior and normally develop a culture that

manifests itself in aspects like language, dress, hairstyle, sports, and drinking habits. Adolescents
often experience peer influence to be like other peers at a time when they are trying to be more
independent (Tutamwebwa, 2006). Peer influence is the pressure, planned or unplanned, exerted
by peers to influence personal behavior (Palmer, 2008) and peer pressure is the persuasive
influence your friends have over you, which can cause you to associate with certain people, to
wear certain clothes, to use certain words and to use certain language (Palmer, 2008).
Peers can exert extraordinary influence over each other into the formation of certain behaviors,
among which is alcohol consumption (Yeh, 2006). Peer group influence has been recognized as a
powerful socializing agent, from the traditional societies to the present modern societies (Tizifa,
1993). It was further observed that negative peer influences contribute a lot to increased use of
substances (Johnson, OMalley, & Bachman, 2000).
Alcohol use continues to be one of the riskiest behaviors engaged in by the adolescents (Arata,
Stafford &Tims, 2003) and it is one of the common habits among peer groups that cause
psychological and social problems. The world over, alcohol consumption is increasingly
becoming a social problem of phenomenal proportions (Hewitt, 1988), and about 54% of all
adolescents have drunk an alcoholic beverage at least once in their lifetime (Buddy, 2008).
The World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that there are about 2 billion (33%) people
worldwide who consume alcoholic beverages and 76.3 million with diagnosable alcohol use
disorders (WHO, 2004) making alcohol the most widely used and abused substance world over
(Basangwa et al., 2006). The widespread use of alcohol is fuelled by ease of its production
process (i.e., a plain process of fermentation achieved by yeast acting on sugar) and multiple

daily usages for recreation, curative and religious purposes (Basangwa et al., 2006). Alcohol use,
however, has serious health and social effects making its prevention and control a public health
priority. According to WHO (2002, 2004), alcohol causes 1.8 million deaths (3.2% of total) one
third (600,000) of which result from unintentional injuries. It also causes a loss of 58.3 million
(4% of total) of Disability-Adjusted Life Years (DALY) of which 40% are due to neuro-
psychiatric conditions. This study therefore endeavors to delve into this area to provide deeper
insight into peer effects in alcohol abuse and in the end mitigate the crisis.
1.2 Statement of the Problem
Alcohol abuse among young adults is a major public health problem and has been linked to such
adverse consequences as suicide, delinquency, criminal behaviors, and psychological difficulties.
In February 2011, the WHO released a Global status report on alcohol and health where analysis
was given on the available evidence on alcohol consumption. This report echoes that 2.5 million
die of alcohol abuse annually. It is increasingly affecting younger generations and drinkers in
developing countries. Globally, 4% of all deaths are related to alcohol, these are deaths resulting
from injuries, cancer, cardiovascular diseases and liver cirrhosis. In addition, 6.2% of all male
deaths are related to alcohol, compared to 1.1% female deaths. Moreover, 320,000 young people

aged 15-29 years die annually from alcohol related causes, resulting from 9% of deaths in that
group.
Many previous studies have focused on the presence of the influence of peers on alcohol abuse
but this study seeks to explore the extent to which each of the three stated factors contribute to
alcohol abuse. Finding out which factor contributes most to alcohol abuse then would lead to
channeling mitigation efforts consistent with the strength of the factor.
1.3 Purpose of the Study
The purpose of the study was to determine the impact of peers on alcohol use among 2nd year
psychology students of Kenyatta University.
1.4 Specific Objectives of the Study
i) To find out the rate of alcohol use among second year psychology Kenyatta University
students
ii) To find out the impact of socialization among peers on alcohol use among second year
psychology Kenyatta University students.
iii) To find out how sex difference among peers contribute to alcohol use among second year
psychology students in Kenyatta University.
1.5 Research Questions of the Study
i) What is the rate of alcohol use among 2nd year psychology peers in Kenyatta University?
ii) What is the impact of socialization among 2nd year psychology peers in Kenyatta University?
iii) What is the impact of sex differences on alcohol use among 2nd year psychology peers in
Kenyatta University?

1.6 Significance of the Study
This study will be of importance as it will enrich the scholarly understanding of group dynamics
and peer relations. Such an understanding would inform policy making in institutions of higher
learning. The study will also assist university students make sound decision about the companies
they keep so that they are not influenced towards alcohol abuse. Moreover, the institution will
also be able to know the impact of peers on alcohol use and therefore formulate a practical
solution to the problem. The research findings can also be basis upon which further research is
done on the impact of peer relations on alcohol abuse among students. The study will also help
improve the understanding of the peer cluster, socialization, normative social influence theories
relating to this study
1.7 Scope of the Study
The research was carried out between January and October 2013 on Kenyatta University 2nd
year psychology students. It focused on the impact of peers on alcohol abuse within the stated
sample of the population. It focused on the rate of alcohol use, socialization among peers and the
sex differences.
1.8 Assumptions of the Study
The researchers assumed that the respondents will cooperate and give honest responses, that
some of the respondents take alcohol and that all of them can be influenced by peers.
1.9 Limitations of the Study
The research will be limited by the following factors:-

i) Limitation of over generalizing results. This is because the sample size was small.
ii) Effects of extraneous variables. The extraneous variables are not of focus in the study
however they may affect the study.
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW
2.0 Introduction
This chapter presents a review of literature on the impact of peers on alcohol use. To achieve
this, it will provide an explanation of the theoretical rationale of the problem being studied as
well as what research has already been done and how the findings relate to the problem at hand.
This chapter also contains a conceptual framework.
2.1 Theoretical Framework
This shows the theories that may be in relation to the study at hand.

2.1.1 Peer Cluster Theory
Peer cluster theory, suggests that the socialization factors that accompany adolescent
development interact to produce peer clusters that encourage drug involvement or provide
sanctions against drug use. (Hankin & Abela, 2006).The theory generally focuses on the
influences of family and peers on the social learning of adolescents. It draws heavily on the
notion that peer context and influence are, in fact, the most salient risk factors yet identified with
respect to substance-use initiation and escalation
The peer clusters are small, very cohesive groupings that shape a great deal of adolescent
behavior, including drug use. Peer relationships represent one the strongest individual predictors
of substance abuse. Family relationships, specifically with parents, can significantly impact the
nature of these relationships. Thus it is within the locus of control of parents to influence their
children either positively or negatively in relation to substance abuse. Peer cluster theory
suggests that other socialization variables, strength of the family, family sanctions against drug
use, religious identification, and school adjustment influence drug use only indirectly, through
their effect on peer clusters (Hankin & Abela, 2006).
Adolescent substance abuse represents a serious and ubiquitous problem in society today. This
theory advances the notion that peer clusters, consisting of closest friends, exert a significant
influence on the development and acceptance of behavioral norms. The implication of peer
cluster theory concerns the fact that adolescents are more prone to drug use and substance abuse
if the peer cluster approves of this behavior. Thus, it follows that adolescents are more prone to
substance abuse if their primary peer groups approved of this behavior. The theory suggests that
treatment of the drug-abusing youth must alter the influence of the peer cluster or it is likely to

fail. Prevention programs aimed at the family, school, or religion must also influence peer
clusters, or drug use will probably not be reduced. (PsychINFO, 2012).
2.1.2 Socialization Theory
Cooley (1864-1924) argued that the human sense of self develops from interaction with others.
He said: “the social origin of his life comes by the pathway of intercourse with other persons.”
The self, to Cooley, is not first individual and then social; it arises dialectically through
communication. One's consciousness of himself is a reflection of the ideas about himself that he
attributes to other minds; thus, there can be no isolated selves. "There is no sense of 'I' without its
core- relative sense of you, or him, or them,” (Henslin, 2004).
Cooley (1902) coined the term looking-glass self to describe the process by which a sense of self
develops. Looking glass self to describe the process by which a sense of self develops. The
looking glass self contains three elements; imagining how we appear to those around us,
interpreting other’s reactions and developing a self-concept – this is based on our interpretations
of how others react to us. We develop feelings and ideas about ourselves. A favorable reaction
leads to a positive self-concept.
George Mead (1803-1931) added that through the process of role taking, individuals develop a
concept of self. By placing themselves in a position of others, they are able to look back upon
themselves. Mead claimed that the idea of a self can only develop if the individual can get
outside himself in such a way as to become an object to himself. This means they must observe
themselves from the standpoint of others. This is done for instance through play where children
take roles (Henslin, 2004).

The notion of self is dynamic, after developing out of social interaction, it is constantly changing,
constantly adjusting as new situations and conflicts arise. It all commences at the play stage
where children learn to take the role of the other for example significant others. These are
individuals who significantly influence the lives of the children, for example parents, siblings. As
they assume their roles, children cultivate the ability to put themselves in the place of the
significant others. The second stage is the game stage where children come to see themselves
from the perspective of the various participants. To learn organized games, children must
understand the rules of play and notions of fairness and equal participation. Children at this stage
learn to grasp what Mead termed as the generalized other – the general values and moral rules of
the culture in which they are developing (Brinkerhoff et al, 2002). This theory is thus important
in that it helps understand how an individual forms self concept and how he understands himself
in relation to those around them.
2.1.3 Normative Social Influence
It asserts that we conform so that we are liked and accepted by other people. We thus conform to
the group social norms. Groups have certain expectations about how the group members should
behave and members in good standing should conform to these rules. Members who do not are
perceived as different, difficult and eventually deviant. The deviant members can be ridiculed,
punished or even rejected by other group members. (Kruglanski & Webster, 1991; Lerine, 1989;
Miller & Anderson, 1979; Schachter, 1951).
Given this fundamental need for social companionship, it is not surprising that we often conform
in order to be accepted by others. Normative social influence occurs when the influence of other

people leads us to conform in order to be liked and accepted by them (Allison, 1992). The theory
thus, helps to show why people would want to fit in the groups they are in and why they would
want to behave like members of their groups in particular, why having their peers around is
important and why they would conform to taking alcohol.
2.2 Alcohol Use among University Students
Drug abuse also known as substance abuse, has a wide range of definitions related to taking a
psychoactive drug or performance-enhancing drug for a non-therapeutic or non-medical effect.
(Rehm, Taylor and Room, 2006; NACADA, 2009). Head, Stanfeld and Siegrist (2004) simply
states that it refers to the overindulgence in and dependence on a drug or other chemicals leading
to the effects that are detrimental to the individual’s physical and mental health, or the welfare of
their family.
The World Health Organization through its arm, Global Information System on Alcohol and
Health (GISAH) has been able to assess and monitor the health situation and trends related to
alcohol consumption, alcohol related harm and policy responses in countries. The harmful use of
alcohol results in the death of 2.5 million people annually, subject to a study carried out in 2005.
The reports add that there are 60 different types of diseases where alcohol plays a significant
causal role. It also causes harm to the wellbeing of the people around the drinker. In the year
2005, the report showed that the total worldwide consumption was equal to 6.13 litres of pure
alcohol per person 15 years of age and below. Unrecorded consumption accounts for nearly 30%
of the world wide total consumption.

In February 2011, the WHO released a Global status report on alcohol and health where analysis
was given on the available evidence on alcohol consumption. This report echoes that 2.5 million
die of alcohol abuse annually. It is increasingly affecting younger generations and drinkers in
developing countries. Globally, 4% of all deaths are related to alcohol, these are deaths resulting
from injuries, cancer, cardiovascular diseases and liver cirrhosis. In addition, 6.2% of all male
deaths are related to alcohol, compared to 1.1% female deaths. Moreover, 320,000 young people
aged 15-29 years die annually from alcohol related causes, resulting from 9% of deaths in that
group.
2.3 Rate of Consumption on Alcohol Use
The World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that there are about 2 billion (33%) people
worldwide who consume alcoholic beverages, making alcohol the most widely used and abused
substance world over (Basangwa et al., 2006). The widespread use of alcohol is fuelled by ease
of its production process (i.e., a plain process of fermentation achieved by yeast acting on sugar)
and multiple daily usages for recreation, curative and religious purposes (Basangwa et al., 2006).
In Kenya only 15% of alcohol consumption is recorded and based on this measure Kenyans aged
15 years and above on average consume 1.74 liters of pure alcohol annually (WHO, 2004). This
is a moderate level compared to some other African countries like our neighbors Tanzania (5.29
liters) and Botswana (5.38 liters). On the other hand, based on unrecorded alcohol the per capita
consumption (15+) from 1995 was 5.0 liters, which compares with levels found in the high range

African countries such as Swaziland (4.1 litres), Rwanda (4.3 litres), Burundi (4.7 litres),
Seychelles (5.2 litres), Zimbabwe (9.0 litres) and Uganda (10.7 litres) (WHO, 2004).
The unrecorded alcohol in Kenya constitutes traditional and illegal beverages e.g. chang’aa,
yokhozuna, keg, muratina, kumikumi that are poorly monitored for quality and strength and often
contain impurities and adulterants. For instance kumikumi is illicit liquor made from sorghum,
maize or millet but contains methanol and is adulterated with car battery acid and formalin.
These chemicals are dangerous for human consumption.
The NACADA (2012) countrywide survey indicated a current usage of alcohol (i.e.,
consumption in the last 30 days) among persons aged 15-65 years (n = 3,356) to be 14.2% in
2007 to 13.6% in 2012. Nonetheless, a closer look at the dynamics within different alcoholic
drinks reveals important differences. For example while there is a reduction in those reporting
current use of packaged/ legal alcohol & traditional liquor, there is an increase in those reporting
use of chang’aa. Further data reveals differences between rural and urban residents with more
urban residents reporting use of packaged/legal alcohol while more rural respondents use
chang’aa.
There are also gender differences with more male than female respondents reporting use of
alcohol. On the basis of regions Nairobi reported the highest proportion of those who use alcohol
(22%) followed by Rift Valley (15.7%) and Eastern (14.6%). Considering respondents aged 18-
64 years, current use of legal alcohol by males stands at 17.0% while that of female is estimated
at 2.1% (NACADA, 2012).

2.4 Effects of Socialization of Peers on Alcohol Use
Kremer and Levy (2008) did an experiment to examine the extent to which college students who
drink alcohol influence their peers. Students at a large state university were randomly assigned
roommates through a lottery system. They found out that on average, males assigned to
roommates who reported drinking a year prior to entering college had a grade point average a
quarter-point lower than those assigned non-drinking roommates. The effect of initial assignment
to a drinking groom mate persists into the 2nd year of college and probably grows.
Mahugu (2009) studied the factors contributing to alcohol abuse. She carried out her study
within the city of Nairobi reason being that drug and rehabilitation centers are concentrated in
the city. The study targeted alcoholics and drug rehabilitation centers in Nairobi City. This study
found that in the choice of an alcoholic beverage, peers influenced 37.1% of the alcoholics.
Advertisements influenced only 11.45% while 91.4% said their peers abused alcohol. Peer group
values are submitted to an individual through consistent rewarding of conforming behavior.
2.5 Gender Differences Associated With Adolescent’s Substance Use
Research has found out the social characteristics such as class and ethnicity influence the
incidence of adolescent substance abuse. (Johnston, D’Mailey& Bachman, 1984; Kandel 1980)
relatively little attention has been paid to how gender might be involved in etiology, referrals and
treatment of such abuse. Several theoretical explanations for the existence of gender differences
in adolescent’s substance abuse exist.
Studies which have examined gender suggest some difference processes are involved in leading
male and female adolescent to substance abuse and treatment for such abuse. Brown and Kellem

(1982) conducted a longitudinal study examining the relationship between early social bonds,
shy and aggressive behavior and later substance abuse. Their findings suggest that development
pathway leading to drug use may be dissimilar for male and female adolescents. Early aggressive
or shy aggressive behavior was found to predictive of later heavy substance use for males but not
for females. For female family bonds were found to be most predictive for later substance abuse.
Although gender roles are changing towards greater equality there are still important biological,
psychological and social differences between American boys and girls which may result in
different pathways to substance abuse, patterns of abuse, approaches to prevention and
intervention.
2.6 Conceptual Framework
Independent variables Dependent variable
Extraneous variables
Source (Researchers)
Alcohol AbuseRate of alcohol consumption
Socialization of peers
Gender differences
Socio-economic Background
Parental influence
Availability of alcohol
Level of education

Figure 2.1: Conceptual Framework
CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.0 Introduction
This chapter will focus on how the research is going to be conducted using research design,
research location, target population, sample and sampling procedure, research instrument, data
collection procedure, data analysis and ethical considerations.
3.1 Research Design
The design of this research was the cross-sectional design. This is because it is suitable for
gathering data while manipulating variables and studying different phenomena at the same time
e.g. sexual behavior, socialization etc and see how they impact on alcohol use. For the ex-posto
facto approach results are viewed after noting the impact of the variables on alcohol use.
3.2 Location of the Study

The research was conducted in Kenyatta University, located 25 kilometers from Nairobi Town
and 10 Kilometers from Thika Town along the newly constructed Thika Superhighway.
3.3 Population of the Study
The research targeted second year Bachelor of Arts (Psychology) and Bachelor of Arts
(Counseling Psychology) students in Kenyatta University. These students fall under the school of
humanities and social sciences and from the department of Psychology. The total population of
these students is 100. This number comprised male and female students aged between 19 and 23
years.
3.4 Sampling Procedure and Sampling Size
The sample size of 80 was determined by a formulae recommended by Nassiuma (2000). The
students were stratified into male and female to ensure proportionate representation. Then using
the simple random method the respondents were identified. The method was appropriate because
the students had an equal chance of being chosen.
3.5 Instrumentation
Questionnaire as a tool was used because the information needed in the research was descriptive
and it required the participants to give direct responses. They were also easy to administer and
not time consuming. The questionnaire contained both closed and open-ended questions. The
questionnaire contained a place where the respondents consented to answer the questions,
individuals demographic information, ask on the rate at which individuals use alcohol, how

socialization influenced the way they use alcohol and how sex differences could influence the
use of alcohol.
3.5.1 Validity of the Instrument
The questionnaire was tested for content validity by obtaining ratings of items of objective
researches. Each researcher scored each item and upon getting different results, the items were
deemed lacking in content validity. To ensure the same, the items were very specific.
3.5.2 Reliability of the Instrument
Reliability of the test was ascertained through the test re-test. This was done through
administering a test twice at two different points in time on the same subjects. When the same
scores were collected for the different administrations, the instrument was considered reliable.
This also helped to check the consistency and hence the accuracy of the answers given by the
participants.
3.6 Data Collection Procedures
The data for the research was collected through the use of the questionnaires. An authorization
letter was obtained from the Kenyatta University administration. The researchers collected the
data personally so that questions not well understood could be clarified to the respondents.
3.7 Data Analysis and Presentation
The raw data was analyzed using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS). Each
response in the questionnaire was coded using numerical values. Data was presented using tables
and bar graphs.

Fig 3.1 Data analysis and Presentation
Research Question Independent
Variable
Dependent Variable Statistics
What is the rate of
alcohol use among 2nd
year psychology
students in Kenyatta
University?
Rate of alcohol use Alcohol use Frequency 37
Percentage 57.3
Pearson Correlation
significance level 0.05
What is the impact of
socialization on
Socialization Alcohol Use Frequency 57

year psychology
students in Kenyatta
University?
Percentage 88.1
Pearson Correlation
r = 0.251
What is the impact of
sex differences on
year Psychology
Students in Kenyatta
University
Sex differences Alcohol use Female 38 (69.2 %)
Male 17 (30.9%)
Pearson Correlation
3.8 Ethical Considerations
The researchers explained the purpose of the study to participants for them to make informed
decision on whether to participate in the study or not. To ensure anonymity, the participants did
not write their names or sign on the questionnaires. The researchers sought for permission from
administration to conduct the study.

CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS, ANALYSIS AND PRESENTATION
4.0 Introduction
This chapter deals with analysis of demographic characteristics and responses to research
questions. The software Statistical Packages of Social Sciences aided in the analysis of the data.

4.1 Demographic and Background Characteristics of the Respondents
The total number or respondents were 65 having 38 female and 27 male. As indicated in the
below, most of the respondents were female (69.1%). As per their age, 98.2% were between 19-
24 years, 69.1% leaving in campus and 67.3% of the respondents were Protestants. There was no
significant relationship between respondents residence (living in campus or off campus) and the
number of days they used alcohol (r = 0.117) at significance level 0.05.
Figure 4.1: Distribution of Respondents by Sex, Age, Residence and Religion.
Characteristic Frequency Percentage
Sex
Female 38 69.1

Male 17 30.9
Age
19-24 54 98.2
19 and below 1 1.8
Residence
Off campus 17 30.9
In campus 38 69.1
Religion
Muslim 2 3.6
Africa traditionalist 1 1.8
Protestant 37 67.3
Catholic 15 27.3
More than half (78.2%) of the respondents had both their parents alive, most of their parents
(65.5%) attained tertiary education and 54.5% of their parents were in formal employment. As
per the location of their home Districts, 38.2% of the respondents were from urban areas while
34.5% of them were from sub-urban areas.
Table 4.2: Distribution of Respondents by whether their Parents were alive, Parents’
Highest Level of Education, Occupation and Home District.
Characteristics Frequency Percentage

Parents alive or not
Yes 43 78.2
No 12 21.8
Highest Levels of Education attained by Parents
Tertiary 36 65.5
Secondary 15 27.3
Primary 4 7.3
Parents’ Occupation
Informal employment 25 45.5
Formal employment 30 54.5
Location of Home District
Rural 15 27.3
Sub-urban 19 34.5
Urban 21 38.2
4.2: Responses to Research questions
This section deals with the presentation of results for each research questions

4.2.1: Rate of Consumption on Alcohol Use
The aim of this research question was to find out the respondents age when they had their first
drink, if they have ever used alcohol in the past 12 months, if in the last 30 days on how many
days did they have at least one drink containing alcohol and during each drinking session
approximately how many bottles of alcohol does the respondent use.
As indicated in the figure below, 46.3% of the respondents stated that they have never used an
alcoholic drink, while 27.8% stated that they first used alcohol when they were 18 years or
below.
Figure 4.1: Respondents by the Age they first used alcohol.
Most of the respondents asserted that during the last 12 months, they have never used alcohol at
all, while 43.6% stated that they had used alcohol in the past 12 months.

Figure 4.2: Distribution of Respondents by whether they had used Alcohol in the past 12
months.
More than half of the respondents (70.9%) had not used alcohol in the last 30 days, while 7.3%
of the respondents had used alcohol between 8-14 days in the last 30 months as shown in the
diagram below.

Figure 4.3: Respondents by number of days they had used alcohol in the last 30 days
As indicated in the diagram below, 54.5% of the respondents had not used alcohol at all while
16.4% had used 3-5 bottles of alcohol.
Figure 4.4: Respondents by number of alcohol bottles they had used
4.2.2 Effects of Socialization of Peers on Alcohol Use
This question aimed to identify if how peers socialize has an impact on alcohol use. It
achieved this by asking during the past year if any of the respondents best friends, other
friends schoolmates or students from their former school used alcohol, if during the past
year any of their friends has offered them alcohol, encouraged or persuaded you to use
alcohol or if they have been rejected by their friends because they have refused their offer
to use alcohol.

Most of the respondents (49.1%) had 4 or more friends, schoolmates and students from former
school that used alcohol while only 10.9% of them did not have friends who used alcohol.
Figure 4.5: Respondents by Number of Friends, schoolmates and students from former
school who used alcohol.
There was no significant relationship found between the number of friends who used alcohol and
the age respondents started using alcohol (r= 0.251), since 11 of the respondents who had never
had alcohol had 4 or more friends who used alcohol while 1% of respondents who started using
alcohol at 18 years or below had no friends using alcohol, as indicated on figure 4.7.

Figure 4.6: Cross tabulation of Number of Friends using alcohol and Age when
Respondents first took Alcohol
There was no significant relationship found between the use of alcohol in the last 12 months and
being persuaded by friends to use alcohol (r = 0.187), since 16% of the respondents who had
never used alcohol had never been persuaded by their friends to use alcohol while 12% who had
used alcohol in the last 12 months had been persuaded by their friends to use alcohol.

Figure 4.7: Cross tabulation of whether respondents were persuaded by friends to use
alcohol and use of alcohol in the past 12 months.
There was no significant relationship that could be inferred between the use of alcohol in the last
12 months and being rejected by friends if they refused to use alcohol (r = 0.158), since 21% of
the respondents who had never used alcohol had never been rejected by their friends if they
refused to use alcohol while only 3% of the respondents who had used alcohol in the last 12
months had been rejected by their friends if they refused to use alcohol.

Figure 4.8: Cross tabulation of whether respondents were rejected by friends if they
refused to use alcohol and whether they used alcohol in the last 12 months.
As indicated in figure 4.1.0, only 17% of the respondents who had been offered alcohol by
friends in the past one year had used alcohol in the past one year while 10% of the respondents
who had been offered alcohol by friends had not used alcohol in the past one year. There was
thus, no significant relationship between respondents being offered alcohol by friends and them
using alcohol in the past one year (r = 0. 323).

Figure 4.9: Cross tabulation of whether respondents had been offered alcohol by friends in
the past one year and whether they used alcohol in the last 12 months.
4.2.3: How people feel or think of their friends who use alcohol
This research question seeks to find out whether some people feel it is wrong to use
alcohol,whether there is nothing wrong to choose people who use alcohol and if some people
chooese friends who share beliefs,attitudes and behavior.
As indicated in the figure 4.10 below, 34.0% of the respondents stated that it was not wrong at
all for their best their best friends to use alcohol while 20.8% sated that it was very wrong for
their best friends to use alcohol.

Figure 4.10: Distribution of Respondents by whether it is wrong or not for their best
friends to use alcohol.
As indicated in the figure 4.1.2, 30.2% of the respondents stated that there was nothing wrong
choosing friends who used alcohol while 24.5% stated that it was wrong to choose friends who
used alcohol. There was thus, no significant relationship between the number of days
respondents used alcohol and whether it was wrong or not for their friends to use alcohol (r =
0.191).

Figure 4.1.2: Distribution of Respondents by people’s feelings on choosing friends who use
alcohol
Most of the respondents (38.9%) stated that people chose friends who shared their beliefs,
attitudes and behaviors while only 14.8% stated that some people do not choose friends who
share their beliefs, attitudes and behaviors s indicated in the figure 4.1.3.

Figure 4.12: Distribution of Respondents by people’s choice of friends who share their
beliefs attitudes and behaviors.
4.2.4: Sex difference among Peers Contributing to Alcohol use
As indicated in table 4.3, 57.9% of females had never used alcohol, 18.4% of them had used
alcohol 1-7 days in the past 30 days and 36.8% in the past 12 months, and 10.5% had used 3-5
bottles of alcohol, while for the males, only 17.6% of had never used alcohol, 29.4% had used
alcohol 1-7 days in the past one year and 58.7% had used in the past 12 months had used 3-5
bottles of alcohol.

Table 4.3: Cross tabulation between Sex and Age when Respondents First Used Alcohol,
Respondents’ Use of Alcohol in the past 12 months and 30 days and the Number of Alcohol
Bottles Used.
Sex difference among Peers Contributing to Alcohol use
Characteristics Females Males
Frequency % within sex Frequency % within sex
Age when respondents first took alcohol
Never used 22 57.9 3 17.6
Between 19 -24 9 23.7 5 29.4
18 or younger 7 18.4 8 47.1
Respondents’ use of alcohol in the last 12 months
Never used alcohol 22 57.9 3 17.6
Used but not in the last
12 months 2 5.3 4 23.5
Yes 14 36.8 10 58.8
Respondents’ use of alcohol in the last 30 days
0 days 30 78.9 9 52.9
1-7 days 7 18.4 5 29.4
8-14 days 1 2.6 3 17.6
Number of alcohol bottles used
0 23 60.5 7 41.2
1-2 11 28.9 5 29.4
3-5 4 10.5 5 29.4

CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.0: Introduction
This chapter comprises the discussion, summary, conclusion and recommendations of the study.
5.1: Discussion of the Study
From the findings of this study, only 16.4% were regular users of alcohol while the others had
either never used or only tasted alcohol but were not regular users. This percentage is a little bit
over the 13.6 % National alcohol consumption rate between ages 15-65 that NACADA reported
in 2012, (NACADA, 2012). In addition, both reports concur the consumption of legal alcohol is
high among the youths in urban areas. 46.3% of the respondents stated that they have never used
an alcoholic drink, this can be explained by the social learning theory by Bandura thus, their
parents were not alcohol users, neither were their friends so they did not have direct influence to
use alcohol. The various religious movements to which the respondents align themselves to is
also a contributing factor to this number.
Most of the respondents had friends, schoolmates and students from former schools that used
alcohol. Whether the students who just tasted or those who were regular users, their friends had
offered them alcohol within that period. Consistent with Mahugu’s study which found out that
91.4 % of the youth in the city of Nairobi had their peers abusing alcohol (Mahugu, 2009). This
resounds with the normative social influence that states that people conform to be liked and
accepted by their peers (Allison, 1992). In addition, the peer cluster theory advances that peers
are more prone to substance abuse if their primary peer groups approved of this behavior
(PsychINFO, 2012). The respondents who had not used alcohol in the last 12 months on the
other hand had lesser friends who had offered them the drink. This may be compared to the study

done by Palmer where he noted that peer groups are among the most significant social contexts
in adolescents (Palmer, 2008). They help to establish norms of behavior and normally develop a
culture that manifests itself in aspects like drinking behavior.
Most of the male respondents were found to be regular users of alcohol than the females 58.7%
against 20.5% for those having used 3-5 bottles. A Brown and Kellem, 1982 longitudinal study
found out that pathways leading to substance abuse for males are more prone than those of
females, thus early aggressive behavior and family bonds respectively. For this reason therefore
more males were found to be abusers of alcohol. Compared to the WHO 2011 report 6.2% of all
male deaths are related to alcohol compared to 1.1% female deaths. This confirms that like
previous studies, males are more found to be greater consumers of alcohol than their female
counterparts.
5.2: Summary of the Study
The following are the major findings of the study:
i) More than half of the respondents were not regular users of alcohol.
ii) Peer pressure played a major role in alcohol use among second year Psychology
students.
iii) More male students than the female ones are regular alcohol users.
5.3: Conclusion of the Study
The purpose of this study was to establish the impacts of peers on alcohol use among second
year psychology students of Kenyatta University. The study thus found that peer influence had a
huge bearing in alcohol use among university students.

Base on these findings, it is tenable to conclude that peer influence has the potent of increasing
alcohol use among Kenyatta University students to a whole new level thus, threatening the
academic and social wellbeing of the students. However, the situation can still be managed if
appropriate and efficient measures are put in place especially psycho-education on peer
influence.
5.4Recommendations of the Study
The following are the recommendations for this study:
i) Responsible drinking workshops should be organized within the university.
ii) Increased exposure of students to more constructive academic, career and social
activities such as seminars, career talks, recruitment drives, trips and the culture week
so as to socialize while engaging in productive work.
iii) The wellness center in collaboration with the university counseling team should reach
out to the student alcohol users with an aim to rehabilitate them.
5.5 Suggestions for further studies
The suggestions for further studies are given below:
i) Similar studies should be carried out in secondary and primary schools.
ii) Similar studies should be carried out in other public and also private universities.
iii) Similar studies should be carried out in colleges and other tertiary institutions.

REFERENCES
Bandura, A. (1977). Social Learning Theory. Englewood cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall
Barbour, C., Barbour, N. H., & Scully, P. A. (2002).Peer Group Influence. Toronto.
Prentice Hall.
Basangwa et al. (2006).Alcohol and Substance and Mental Disorders. In David M Ndetei (Ed)
The African textbook of Clinical Psychiatry and Mental Health. Nairobi: Africa Medical
Research Foundation.
Blum, T. C., Roman, P. M. and Martin, J. K. (1993). Alcohol Consumption and
Work Performance. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 54 (1), 61 – 70.
Brinkerhoff, D., White, L., Ortega, S. &Weitz, R. (2002).Essentials of Sociology.
Belmont: Wadsworth.
Gordis, E. (1999). Alcohol and the Workplace. A Commentary by the Director of
National Institute of Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (NIAAA). Retrieved on 21st
October 2012 from: http://www.niaaa.nih.gov/newsevents/newsreleases/Pages/2000.aspx
Henslin, J. Essentials of Sociology: A Down to Earth Approach. (2004). Boston: Pearson
Kornblum, W., & Smith, C. (2003). Sociology in a Changing World. London: Thomson
Learning.
Kremer, M. & Levy, D. (2008). Peer Effects and Alcohol Use among College Students.
Journal of Economic Perspectives, 22(3), 189–206.
Myers, G. (2001). Psychology: New York: Worth Publishers.
National Campaign Against Drug Abuse Authority (2009). Fact Finding Mission Report
on the Extent of Alcohol and Drug Abuse in Central Province.
National campaign against drug and substance abuse 2012 report. Rapid situation assessment of
the status of drug and substance abuse in Kenya. Pg 37-38
Newman, D. M. (2006).Sociology: Exploring the Architecture of Everyday Life. London:
Sage Publications.
Oetting, E. R. and Beauvais, Fred. Journal of Counseling Psychology, Vol 34(2), Apr 1987,
205-213.
Palmer, M. (2008). Peer Group influence in Adolescent School burnout: a longitudinal study
retrieved from http://www.accessmylibrary. .com/article-IGI180028341/peer-group-
influence-and.htm

PsychINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved.
Tamin, T.et al. (1991). Gender Differences Associated with Substance Abuse.
Journal of National Council of Family Relations. 40 (3), 338-339.
Tizifa, J. M. (1993). Influence of the Peer Groups on Academic Performance in Selected Day
Secondary Schools in Kampala District.Makerere University, Unpublished thesis.
World Health Organization (2004).Global Status Report on Alcohol. Geneva.
World Health Organization (2011).Global Status Report on Alcohol. Geneva.

Appendix A
QUESTIONNAIRE
This is a study on how the impact of peers has an influence on alcohol use.
Dear Student,
We Chris Donald Okello, Maria Wanjiku and Lilian Mukhwana are Bachelor of Arts
(Psychology) students in Kenyatta University. We are currently undertaking a study on the
impact of peers on alcohol use among 2nd year Psychology students. The information you give
will help understand the impact of peers and see mitigating factors that will help reduce or
eradicate alcohol use. DO NOT WRITE YOUR NAME ON THE QUESTIONNAIRE. Take
time to read the instructions for each section carefully and answer each question as honestly as
possible. Answers to the questionnaire are based on what you know, feel, think or do. Every
response is valid. It will be confidential and only used for this purpose. Completing the
questionnaire is voluntary. Your grade in this unit will not be affected whether or not you answer
the questions. Tick () the best alternative that matches your answer. Use only a pencil for
ticking. Answer ALL questions and when you are done, do what the person who is giving you
the survey says you do.
Please confirm that you have read the above information and accepted to participate by signing
the following consent form. Thank you very much for your help.
Yours faithfully,
Okello Chris Donald.
Consent
Having understood the above information and knowledge that the survey is voluntary,
confidential and anonymity is guaranteed, I do hereby accept to participate in the survey.
Participant’s signature Date

Section A: The following eight questions are on your demographic data
1. What is your sex?
Male [ ]
Female [ ]
2. What range is your age?
19 years and below [ ]
Between 19 and 24 [ ]
25 and above [ ]
3. While in session where do you reside?
In campus [ ]
Off campus [ ]
4. What is your religion?
Catholic [ ]
Protestant [ ]
Muslim [ ]
Hindu [ ]
African Traditionalist [ ]
Atheist [ ]

5. Are both your parents alive?
Yes [ ]
No [ ]
6. What is the highest level of education attained by your parent(s)/ guardians?
Primary [ ]
Secondary [ ]
Tertiary [ ]
7. What is the occupational status of your living parent/ guardian?
Formally employed [ ]
Informal (self employed) [ ]
8. What is the location of your home district?
Urban [ ]
Sub-urban [ ]
Rural [ ]
Section B: The following questions are on the rate of alcohol use
9. How old were you when you had your first drink of alcohol other than a few sips?
I have never had a drink of alcohol [ ]
18 years and younger [ ]
Between 19 and 24 [ ]

10. In the last 12 months have you used a drink containing alcohol?
I have never used alcohol at all [ ]
I have used alcohol but not in the last 12 months [ ]
Yes I have [ ]
11. During the last 30 days on how many days did you have at least one drink containing
alcohol?
0 days [ ]
1-7 days [ ]
8-14 days [ ]
14-21 days [ ]
21-28 days [ ]
12. During each drinking session approximately how many bottles of alcohol do you use?
None [ ]
1-2 bottles [ ]
3-5 bottles [ ]
5 bottles and above [ ]

Section C: The following questions ask you to indicate how many of the following people
you associate with use alcohol
13. During the past year how many of your best friends, other friends, schoolmates, students
from your former school used alcohol?
0 [ ]
1 [ ]
2 [ ]
3 [ ]
4 or more [ ]
14. During the past year have any of your best friends offered you alcohol to use?
I do not have best friend(s) [ ]
No [ ]
Yes [ ]
15. During the past year has any of your best friends encouraged or persuade you to use
alcohol?
No [ ]
Yes [ ]

16. During the past year have any of your friends rejected you because you refused the offer
to use alcohol?
No [ ]
Yes [ ]
Section D: the following three questions ask on how people feel or think of their friends.
Choose the alternative that best fits you.
17. Some people feel it is wrong when their best friends use alcohol.
Definitely not true for me [ ]
Mostly not true for me [ ]
Mostly true for me [ ]
Definitely true for me [ ]
18. Some people think there is nothing wrong to choose people who use alcohol.

19. Some people choose friends who share their beliefs, attitudes and behaviors.
Section E: The following 2 questions ask for gender differences in alcohol use
20. Does your gender affect your use of alcohol in any way?
I do not use alcohol [ ]
Yes [ ]
No [ ]
21. If Yes in the above question 20, briefly explain how.
Thank you very much.

Appendix B: WORK PLAN
Sept
2012
Oct. Nov. Dec. Jan
2013
Feb. Mar. April May June July Aug. Sept.
Lit. Review
Prop. writing
Proposal
presentation
Piloting
Data
collection
Data analysis
Project writing

Appendix C: RESEARCH BUDGET
Item Cost per Unit Quantity Total (KES)
Preparation Of The ResearchProposal
Printing of Final Proposal (Defense)
Proposal Binding
Internet Services
Stationery
40
40
100
40
40
1000
100
Piloting
Printing of Questionnaire
Photocopying of Questionnaires
Stationery
5 X 6
2 X 6
40
1
60
40
30
720
1600
Data Collection
Printing of Questionnaire
Photocopying of Questionnaires
Stationery ( Filling Questionnaires)
5 X 6
2 X 6
40
1
90
40
30
1080
1600
Preparation of Project
Analysis
Printing of Draft Project
Printing of Final Project for Defense
Photocopying of Project for Defense
Final Proposal Loose Binding
Printing of Corrected Final project
Final Project Hard Binding
2400
100 x 5
60 x 5
60 x 2
60
70 x 5
60
1
1
3
1
1
1
2400
500
300
360
60
350
60
Total Cost 10270
Miscellaneous 10% of Total 1027
Grand Total 11297
Source: Self

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