The upper limb consists of the arm, forearm, wrist, hand, and fingers. The arm contains the humerus bone. The forearm contains the ulna and radius bones. The wrist contains 16 carpal bones. The hand contains 10 metacarpal bones and the fingers contain 28 phalanges.

1. The Upper Limb: regions
• Arm
– Humerus (2)
• Forearm
– Ulna(medial bone)(2)
– Radius(lateral bone)(2)
• Hand
– Wrist (16 carpal bones)
– Palm (10 metacarpal bones)
– Fingers (28 phalanges)
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2. The Upper
Limb

3. THE UPPER LIMB
• The upper limb is characterized by its mobility
and ability to grasp, strike, and conduct fine
motor skills (manipulation).
• The upper limb consists of four segments :
Shoulder:
which includes the pectoral, scapular, .
Arm : the part between the shoulder and the
elbow .
Forearm: the part between the elbow and the
wrist and contains the ulna and radius
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4. HANDE
Hand : the part distal to the forearm and
contains the carpus, metacarpus, and
phalanges.
 It is composed of the wrist, palm, dorsum of
hand, and fingers .
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5. BONES OF UPPER LIMB
• The pectoral girdle and bones of the free part of
the upper limb form the superior Appendicular
skeleton, articulates with the axial skeleton only
at the sternoclavicular joint.
• The pectoral girdle is supported and stabilized
by axioappendicular muscles, which attach to
the ribs, sternum, and vertebrae of the axial
skeleton.
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6. Pectoral girdle
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7. The Pectoral Girdle
• Consists of:
– 2 clavicles
– 2 scapulae
• Connects with the axial skeleton only at the
manubrium (sternoclavicular joint)
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8. The Clavicles
• Also called collarbones
• Long, S-shaped bones
• Originate at the manubrium (sternal end)
• Articulate with the scapulae (acromial end)
• It articulates medially with the manubrium of
the sternum at (SC) joint & laterally with the
acromion of the scapula at (AC) joint
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9. cont,,,
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10. SCAPULA
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11. SCAPULA
• The scapula (shoulder blade) .
• a triangular , flat, & broad bone .
• have small supraspinous fossa and a much
larger infraspinous fossa.
• Have Superior &inferior angle
• Have medial & lateral border.
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12. HUMERUS
• Also called arm bone.
• the largest & longs bone in the upper limb.
• articulates with the scapula at the
glenohumeral joint and the radius and ulna
at the elbow joint .
-GHJ allows flexion/ Extention, abduction/adduction, medial &
lateral rotation and circumduction of the arm
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13. humerus bone
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14. ulna and radius
o The ulna: , is the medial and longer of the two forearm bones
-Its proximal end has two prominent projections, the olecranon posteriorly
& coronoid process anteriorly w/c forms trochlear notch.
• The radius: is the lateral and shorter of the two forearm bones. Its
proximal end consists of a cylindrical head, a short neck, and a projection
from the medial surface (the radial tuberosity) .
-It flipped over the adjacent head of medial bone , ulna. b/c the hand is
articulated with radius, it can efficiently move from a palm-anterior
position to palm-posterior position by crossing distal end of radius over
ulna.
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15. Cont…
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16. The Wrist or carpal bones
–8 carpal bones:
•4 proximal carpal bones
•4 distal carpal bones
•allow wrist to bend and
twist
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17. cont…
• From lateral to medial, the four bones in the proximal row
of carpals are ,
Scaphoid : a boat-shaped bone that has a prominent
scaphoid tubercle.
Lunate : a moon-shaped bone that is broader anteriorly than
posteriorly
Triquetrum : a pyramidal bone on the medial aspect of the
carpus.
Pisiform : a small, pea-shaped bone that lies on the palmar
surface the triquetrum
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18. the proximal surfaces of distal row of carpals articulates with
proximal row of carpals & their distal surfaces articulate with
metacarpals
From lateral to medial, the four bones in the
distal row of carpals are:
• Trapezium : a four-sided bone, on the lateral side of the
carpus.
• Trapezoid: a wedge-shaped bone, that resembles a
trapezium.
• Capitate : the head-shaped bone that is the largest bone in
the carpus.
• Hamate: a wedge-shaped bone, which has a hooked process
that extends anteriorly.
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19. Cont…
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20. 20
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21. Metacarpal Bones
• The 5 long bones of the hand
• Numbered I–V from lateral
(thumb) to medial
• Articulate with proximal
phalanges
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22. Phalanges of the Hands
• Thumb:
–2 phalanges (proximal, distal)
• Fingers:
–3 phalanges (proximal, middle,
distal)
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23. Conti…..
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24. The Lower Limb: regions
 Thigh
– Femur(2)
Patella (knee cap)(2)
Leg
– Tibia( medial bone)(2)
– Fibula(lateral bone)(2)
Ankle (14 Tarsal bones)
Foot (10 Metatarsal bones)
Toes (28 Phalanges)
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25. The Lower Limbs
• Functions:
–weight bearing
–motion
Note: leg = lower leg; thigh =
upper leg
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26. Bones of the Lower Limbs
• Femur (thigh)
• Patella (kneecap)
• Tibia and fibula (leg)
• Tarsals (ankle)
• Metatarsals (foot)
• Phalanges (toes)
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27. Femur
• The femur is the longest and heaviest bone in the
body
• linea aspera :a prominent double-edge ridge on
its posterior aspect of shaft of femur.
• The proximal end of the femur consists of
a head,
neck, and
two trochanters
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28. 28
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29. The Femur (longest, heaviest )
Figure 8–11
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30. The proximal end of the femur
• the fovea capitis: medially placed depression or pit
of head of femur.
• lesser trochanter: extends medially from the
posteromedial part of the junction of the femoral
neck and shaft.
• greater trochanter: is a large, laterally placed mass
that projects superomedially where the neck joins
the shaft.
• intertrochanteric line: is a roughened ridge running
from the greater to the lesser trochanter anteriorly.
• intertrochanteric crest :smoother ridge posteriorly.
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31. The distal end of the femur
• femoral condyles (medial and lateral): spirally curved
articular surfaces , articulate with the tibial condyles to
form the knee joint.
• The medial epicondyle: is a rounded eminence on the
medial condyle and the lateral epicondyle, on lateral
surface of the lateral condyle.
• Just posterosuperior to the medial epicondyle, there is
the adductor tubercle.
• Patellar surface: depression anteriorly b/n condyles.
• Intercondylar notch: found posteriorly.
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33. Anterior Femur
head
fovea capits
neck
patellar surface
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34. Posterior Femur
greater trochanter
lesser trochanter
lateral condyle
medial condyle
gluteal tuberosity
linea aspera
lateral epicondyle
medial epicondyle
Intercondylar fossa
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35. Bones of the Leg
• The leg is the part of the lower limb between
the knee joint and the ankle joint.
• Includes : Patella, Tibia & Fibula
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36. 36
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37. Patella
• Is the largest sesamoid bone (i.e., A bone that develops
within the tendon of the quadriceps femoris muscle in
front of the knee joint)
• It is triangular, and its apex lies inferiorly being
connected to the tuberosity of the tibia by the
ligamentum patellae.
• The posterior surface articulates with the condyles of
the femur.
• It is separated from the skin by an important
subcutaneous bursa.
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38. tibia
 The tibia is the medial and larger of the two bones in the
leg .
 is the only bone that articulates with the femur ( knee
joint ) and head of fibula proximally & with the distally
with the fibula .
 It has expanded upper end(weight bearing ),smaller lower
end and the shaft.
 consists of a flattened medial and
lateral condyles separated by an
intercondylar region (intercondylar eminence).
Medial malleolus: medial projection at ankle
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39. Tibia
medial condyle
lateral condyle
anterior crest
tibial tuberosity
medial malleolus
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40. Fibula
• The slender lateral bone of the leg
• Takes no part in the articulation at the knee joint,
but below it forms the lateral malleolus of the
ankle joint
• It takes no part in the transmission of body weight,
but it provides attachment for muscles
• Has an expanded upper end, a shaft, and a lower
end
• The upper end, or head, possesses an articular
surface for articulation with the lateral condyle of
the tibia.
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42. Bones of the Foot
• Are the tarsal bones, the metatarsals, and the
phalanges
Tarsal Bones
• Are the calcaneum, the talus, the navicular,
the cuboid, and the three cuneiform bones
• Only the talus articulates with the tibia and
the fibula at the ankle joint
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43. Bones of the foot
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44. Ankle - tarsus
consists of 7 tarsal bones
Figure 8–14a
 Talus: carries weight from tibia across trochlea
& its head articulate anterior with navicular.
 Calcaneus: (heel bone): transfers weight from
talus to ground & attaches Achilles tendon.
- largest & strongest bone & articulate talus
superiorly and cuboid anteriorly.
 Cuboid bone: articulates with calcaneus
posteriorly & most lateral bone in the distal
row of the tarsus.
 Navicular bone: a flattened ,boat shaped bone w/c located b/n talar
head and cuneiform bones.
:articulates with talus and 3 cuneiform bones.
 Cuneiform bones: they are three in number
1, Medial cuneiform
2, Intermediate cuneiform
3, Lateral cuneiform
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45. Figure 8–14a
 5 metatarsal bones
 long bones of foot
 numbered I–V, medial to
lateral
 Articulate with toes
 phalanges
 bones of the toes
 hallux: big toe, 2 phalanges
(distal, proximal)
 Other 4 toes: 3 phalanges
(distal, medial, proximal)
Feet
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46. Foot Tarsals (7)
Metatarsals (5)
Calcaneus
Talus
Digits (5)
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47. 3
Hallux (Great Toe)
1
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48. 48
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49. The skeletal system
Arthrology

50. Introduction
• Joints or articulations are sites where two
or more bones meet.
• Functions
– provide skeletal mobility
– hold the skeleton together
• Weakest parts of the skeleton but have
ability to resist the forces that tear them
apart.
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51. Classification of Joints
• Structural classification
– focuses on the material binding the bones
together and whether or not there is a joint
cavity
• Functional classification
– based on the amount of movement allowed at
the joint
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52. Functional Classification
• Synarthroses
– Immovable joints
• Amphiarthroses
– Slightly movable joints
• Diarthroses
– Freely movable joints
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53. Structural Classification
• Fibrous
– Joined by fibrous tissue
• Cartilaginous
– Joined by cartilage
• Synovial
– Joined and surrounded by a joint cavity
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54. Synovial Joints
• Articulating bones are located within a fluid
containing joint cavity.
• Permit substantial range of motion
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55. Structures of Synovial Joint
• Articular cartilage
– Hyaline cartilage on opposing bone surfaces
• Joint (synovial) cavity
– Space filled with fluid
• Articular capsule
– Capsule to confine fluid
• Synovial fluid
– Fluid to lubricate joints
• Reinforcing ligaments
– Maintain joint alignment
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56. Articular Cartilage
• Hyaline cartilage
covers the bone
surfaces
• Cartilage keeps
the bone ends
from being
crushed
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57. Synovial cavity
• unique to
synovial joints
• filled with
synovial fluid
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58. Articular capsule
• The joint cavity is
enclosed by a double
layered articular
capsule
– The external layer is
fibrous capsule
– The inner synovial
membrane
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59. Synovial Fluid
• lubricates joint
• nourishing cells
59
Synovial
Fluid
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60. Reinforcing ligaments
• Ligaments
reinforce joint
– Extracapsular
– Intracapsular
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Extracapsular
Ligament
Intracapsular
Ligament
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61. Movements Allowed by Synovial
Joints
• Nonaxial: no rotation around an axis
• Uniaxial: motion is within a single plane
• Biaxial: allow movement in two planes
• Multiaxial: movement is possible in all
planes
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62. Types of Synovial Joints
• Based on the shape of their articular
surfaces there are six major categories of
synovial joints
–Plane
–Hinge
–Pivot
–Condyloid
–Saddle
–ball and socket
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63. Plane Joint
• Articular surfaces
are essentially
flat
• Allow only short
slipping or
gliding
movements
• nonaxial joint
• Examples
– Intercarpals
– Intertarsals
– Vertebrae 63
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64. Hinge Joint
• a cylindrical shaped
projection of bone
fits into a trough
shaped surface of
another bone.
• Motion is within a
single plane
• Example
– elbow joint
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65. Pivot Joint
• The rounded end of
a bone protrudes
into a ring of bone
and ligaments on
another bone
• Only rotational
movement is
allowed around
long axis
• Example
– proximal radioulnar
joint
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66. Condyloid Joints
• The oval articular
surface of one bone
fits into a
complementary
concavity in another
• biaxial joints
• Example
– Metacarpo-
phalangeal joints
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67. Saddle Joints
• Each surface has
both a concave
and a convex
surface that fit
together
• Example
– carpometacarpal
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68. Ball and Socket Joint
• The spherical head of
one bone articulates
with the cuplike
socket of another
• Multiaxial
• The most freely
moving synovial joint
• Examples
– Shoulder joint
– Hip joint
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