The document describes the development and validation of a Visualization Tendency Test. It involved three phases: generating and refining test items, exploratory factor analysis, and confirmatory factor analysis. The exploratory factor analysis revealed the test measured five factors of visualization tendency. The confirmatory factor analysis supported the five-factor structure and the test's validity and reliability. The final Visualization Tendency Test consists of 20 items measuring an individual's proclivity in five areas of visualization: generative, space-motor, instrumental, proactive, and representational. Further validation with larger samples is still needed.

1. Development and Validation of a
Visualization Tendency Test
Ilju Rha, Sowha Park, Hyoseon Choi, Sookkyung Choi
Seoul National University
AACE 2009 e-learn, Vancouver, 28 Octorber, 2009

2. Content
Page 2
 Introduction
 Research Question
 Research Process
 Phase I: Generating and Refining Test Items
 Phase II: Exploratory Factor Analysis
 Phase III: Confirmatory Factor Analysis
 Conclusion

3. The impacts of Visualization
Anecdotes
 Einstein ….. Speed of light
 Kekule ….. Molecular Structure of
Benzene
 Faraday .…. Electromagnetic Fields
 Feynman….. Feynman Diagrams
There is considerable evidence that much of our everyday
thinking is based on the formation and transformation of
visual images. Moreover, there are many accounts of the role
that visualization plays in the learning and teaching process.
”
“
Introduction

4. Introduction
 Visualization refers to a mental process for
explaining, expecting, operating, and creating
objects, processes or events through imagery
formats (Rha, 2007; Stevick, 1986)
 Most studies on Visualization have focused on
- effects of visuals on memorization (Pavio, 1986;
Marcus, Cooper, & Sweller, 1996; Harp & Mayer,
1998; Mayer & Moreno, 1998; Vekiri, 2002)
- understanding and idea construction (Gyselink &
Tradieu, 1999)
Page 4

5. Introduction
 However….
Page 5

6. Research Interests
Page 6
 This study tried
- to define key constructs that are involved in
individuals’ visualization tendency.
- to develop and validate a tool to measure an
individual’s visualization tendency.

7. Research Process
Page 7

8. Phase I: Generating and Refining Test Items
 An item pool was generated from two sources
- mundane visualization experiences of ordinary people,
- famous anecdote on visualization of extraordinary people
Page 8

9. Phase I: Generating and Refining Test Items
1. Mundane visualization
1) initially about 600 items were collected by 10
researchers of educational technology
2) 150 items were selected through three assessment
sessions with a team of experts consisting of 10
researchers (1 professor, 5 doctor students, and 4
mastery students)
3) After elimination items below 3 points out of 5, 26
items of visualization tendency from the dimension of
ordinary people’s mundane experiences were left
Page 9

10. Phase I: Generating and Refining Test Items
2. Visualization for extraordinary people
1) Leonardo da Vinci and Albert Einstein had been
recommended by experienced researchers of visuals
2) 49 items were collected from biographies and
documentary films on them
3) eliminating below 3 points out of 5
4) 16 items were remained from the dimension of
extraordinary people’s habitual tendency
Page 10

11. Phase II: Exploratory Factor Analysis
 In order to discover what the test tried to measure and
to explore what constructs comprised this test,
1. Survey using the visualization tendency test
2. Exploratory factor analysis
 153 undergraduate students taking pre-service teacher
education courses in two universities
 49.7% were males, 46.4% females and 3.9% no answer
 The analysis revealed that the visualization tendency
comprised of five factors with twenty question items.
Page 11

12. Phase II: Exploratory Factor Analysis
Items
Factors
1 2 3 4 5
35 .705 -.175 .134 -.151
36 .667 -.130 -.178
05 .634 .237
38 .592 .170
39 .589 .112 -.102
28 .258 -.582 -.144 -.201 .173
27 .164 -.510
09 -.404 -.192
13 -.296
21 -.808
19 -.659
20 -.148 -.624
16 -.519 .117 -.124
14 -.162 .158 .703 .183
15 .627 .116
33 .121 .237 .589
08 .407
03 -.103 .133 .767
02 .260 .629
01 -.130 .620
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13. Phase III: Confirmatory Factor Analysis
 In order to provide evidence for the validity of the
visualization tendency test,
- Confirmatory factor analysis by using a structural
equation model(SEM)
- AMOS 7.0 statistical program
- 155 undergraduate students taking pre-service teacher
education courses in two universities
- 54.2% were males, 44.5% females and 2.6% no answer
Page 13

14. Phase III: Confirmatory Factor Analysis
 The confirmatory factor analysis procedures are based on
the following steps:
1) model specification
2) identification
3) estimation
4) testing fit
5) re-specification
Page 14

15. Phase III: Confirmatory Factor Analysis
Page 15

16. Phase III: Confirmatory Factor Analysis
 The confirmatory factor analysis showed:
Page 16
χ2 GFI CFI TLI RMSEA
225.6*
.904 .934 .92 .045

17. Phase III: Confirmatory Factor Analysis
Factors
(eigenvalue,
explained
variance)
Item Questions
Generative
Visualization
(4.12, 24.2%)
5 35. I tend to infer related or influencing factors when I
see things.
36. I am good at inventing or devising necessary or
gadgetry things by using imaginative-reasoning.
5. When touching or reaching a certain item with a hand,
I tend to figure the things in images.
38. I tend to associate things with other things that look
similar.
39. When looking at objects, I tend to fill the unseen or
missing parts of them figuring out the whole look.
Space-Motor
Visualization
(3.69, 21.7%)
4 27. When throwing an object, I can easily guess where the
object will reach when.
28. I can envision my movement in the axis of
coordinates.
9. While parking a car, I tend to picture the parking
motion of the car.
13. When playing some sports such as golf, football, and
swimming, I imagine my body movement in my head like
“image training”.
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18. Phase III: Confirmatory Factor Analysis
Factors
(eigenvalue,
explained variance)
Item Questions
Instrumental
Visualization
(3.67, 21.6%)
4 21. When I would explain a complicated story or a
person’s delicate characters, I can describe them by
pictures.
19. I tend to take notes by using visual languages such
as symbols, marks, diagrams or pictures.
20. When taking a note or learning some contents, I
tend to reorganize them in a figure, a picture or
table.
16. In attempting to figure out complicated matter, I
tend to draw diagrams or pictures.
Proactive
Visualization
(3.55, 18.5%)
4 14. When spending some free time, I tend to frame
and visualize something to myself.
15. I usually imagine my future with clear picture or
images
33. I tend to enjoy visualizing and imaging things and
matters.
8. When choosing some clothes, without trying on
myself I try to figure it out if they go well with me.
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19. Phase III: Confirmatory Factor Analysis
Factors
(eigenvalue,
explained variance)
Item Questions
Representational
Visualization
(2.40, 14.1%).
3 1. While listening to music or lyrics of a song, I usually
hit upon related scenes or images of the music or
song.
2. While reading a book, I tend to picture scenes to
myself.
3. While listening to a story, I tend to let my
imagination run.
Total 20
Page 19

20. Phase III: Confirmatory Factor Analysis
Page 20
 Inventory for the Visualization Tendency Test
- consisting 20 items
- internal consistency of the scale (Cronbach’s Alpha =.796)

21. Phase III: Confirmatory Factor Analysis
Page 21
Factor Item N Min Max Mean SD
Generative Visualization 5 308 6.00 25.00 15.50 3.93
Space-Motor Visualization 4 308 4.00 20.00 12.38 3.15
Instrumental Visualization 4 308 4.00 20.00 11.64 3.42
Proactive Visualization 4 308 4.00 20.00 13.00 4.68
Representational Visualization 3 308 3.00 15.00 9.67 3.42
Total 20 308 29.00 97.00 62.01 14.86

22. Phase III: Confirmatory Factor Analysis
Page 22

23. Conclusion
 This visualization tendency test measures individual
learners’ inclination toward transforming information in
various modalities into the visual format
 The test has 20 items in five factors for assessing
visualization tendency of individuals
 Five factors are 1) Generative Visualization, 2) Space-Motor
Visualization, 3) Instrumental Visualization, 4) Proactive
Visualization, and 5) Representational Visualization
 the present study requires further studies with a larger size
of sample, and also its generalization is demanded
conducting a concurrent validity analysis with other tests.
Page 23

24. “Pictures were for the illiterates.”
“Pedagogical and didactic use of visuals”
In the
Past
After
Comenius
Knowledge
Based
Society
“The Potential
instructional power of
human visual
intelligence grew
bigger.”
Conclusion

25. Hyoseon CHOI Page 25
Thank you!
Ilju Rha
Professor, Seoul National University
Korea
iljurha@snu.ac.kr