1st ClassApplying Diversity Training in the Workplace Reply to.docx

1st Class
Applying Diversity Training in the Workplace
Reply to two student assignment listed below:
Andrea -U09 D1
I am currently employed at a group home that houses sex
offenders and mentally ill consumers. As far as the staff,
majority of them are African American women that work there
and deal with these consumers. All of the consumers are white
men that come from two parent homes from suburbia .These
consumer, really don’t have to deal with diversity because they
are only dealing with themselves and there is really no diversity
in this population. As far as the staff we have all different
population that we deal with. We just got on training on
diversity, and that was during orientation. Because of this there
are times when I’m not open minded to the needs of the
consumer? This can be difficult at time because we are not
focusing on the needs of the consumers, because we are looking
at them like their all the same and their not. Harvey& Allard
(2015) To understand where diversity management is today, it is
necessary to examine where it has been. Management need to do
better and needs to look out for the needs of the people.
Diversity should come natural
Bottom of Form
Reference
Harvey, C., & Allard, M. (2015). What do organizations do to
manage diversity? In Understanding and managing diversity:
Readings, cases, and exercises 6th Ed.
Terri Hooper-u09d1
For generations, all around the world, men have benefited from
women’s disadvantages. In most every society, men have held a
hierarchy over women. Harvey and Allard (2015) stated how
men in most societies have become known as doing what is

considered as important or distinctive, which has led men into
the center of who sets the courses. Men from these societies
have molded themselves around the disadvantages of women
and have set courses for women employment. For example,
women employment in most societies include nursing, teaching,
becoming a maid, and childcare. Lambert (2014) described in
the sixteenth and seventeen centuries women held jobs as
tailors, dyers, shoemakers, embroiderers, washwomen, bakers,
food preparers, and domestic servants. Further, described how
women in these centuries were mostly housewives and never
became employees; but, supported the men in their employment
choices, which was mainly farming.
Benefiting from Diversity Training
Hays-Thomas, Bowen, and Boudreaux (2012) explained how
organizations benefit from diversity training because most
customers come from a variety of socioeconomic and racio-
ethnic groups and how co-workers vary in education, religion,
age, disability status, languages, among other differences.
Further, explained that when diversity training becomes
implemented, organizations benefit because they can establish a
level of awareness toward societal discrimination. Once the
awareness becomes established the organization can better work
with and understand customers and employees from varies
backgrounds and become more sensitive towards their
customers’ and employees’ races and cultures. Thereby,
diversity training has benefits for organizations for conducting
business with a variety of customers and with having a diverse
workforce. In addition, when an organization establishes an
awareness toward diversity, the organization can break down
societal discrimination and hire, train, and promote employees
based on their competencies and not their based on their sex,
religion, age, origin, or any other cultural variable.
One company that could benefit from diversity training for the
employees is Presbyterian Children Services. At Presbyterian
Children Services, the employees do not receive training toward
diversity, which the employees could benefit from. If

Presbyterian Children Services provided diversity training the
employees could become more equipped to work as a team to
better understand each other’s needs and supporting those
needs. Presbyterian Children Services hires women to look after
and care for girls from ages twelve to eighteen, who have been
removed from their homes because of abusive situations. The
female workers become treated more like babysitters than
human services professionals. The female workers work
individually with little input on the girls’ background and how
to care for them and help them reach their intended goals.
Presbyterian Children Services do not appear to have any
confidence in the skills of their youth workers to work as a team
and work to better the clients’ needs in which the workers are
supposed to be helping.
Management of the Company
The female caregivers working at Presbyterian Children
Services become treated as mere babysitters, and not as working
professionals to help the clients to reach their expected goals.
The female caregivers are not included in the set treatments of
the clients, nor are the female caregivers informed on the past
abuses suffered by the clients. With so little knowledge and
support provided to the caregivers, the caregivers cannot
effectively perform to the best of their abilities, nor can they
provide the necessary care the clients to best handle their past
situations.
The ideological framework set at Presbyterian Children
Services, suggests this company views women more as
caregivers than professionals capable in assisting in the
treatments of their clients. The way Presbyterian Children
Services treats their female employees is not only sexist; but,
also demeaning in how they do not provide any diversity
training and education to form a team of well-versed employees;
thereby, suggesting that they have no interest in supporting and
contributing toward their female employees’ working abilities.
Presbyterian Children’s Services could benefit from diversity
training through providing training specific to skill sets needed

to assist their client’s mental and physical needs, which could
target change toward formulating group or team efforts in
achieving their clients’ needs and supporting their clients’
goals.
References
Harvey, C. P., & Allard, M. J. (2015). Understanding and
managing diversity (6th ed.). Hoboken, NJ: Pearson Education,
Inc. ISBN: 139780133548198
Hays-Thomas, R., Bowen, A., & Boudreaux, M. (2012). Skills
for diversity and inclusion in organizations: A review and
preliminary investigation. Psychologist-Manager Journal
(Taylor & Francis Ltd), 15(2), 128-141.
doi:10.1080/10887156.2012.676861
Lambert, T. (2014). A history of women’s jobs. Retrieved from
http://www.localhistories.org/womensjobs.html
U.S. Air Force Case study
Jasmine Smith
In this case regarding military training between the U.S. Air
Force and U.S. Allies in Central American Countries. The Air
Force was sent to train the Honduran Air Force there were a few
issues that resulted in the efforts not being successful. There
was a language barrier that was present between the two
military groups that made it challenging for the training to be
successful. The American soldiers were primarily English
speaking individuals and the Honduran soldiers spoke minimal
English, and had difficulty understand the English language.
Diversity training would have been beneficial in this situation
there could have been other ways to communicate for example
signs, hands on communication instead of verbal
communication, or a translator who could translate between the
two military groups and insure there is a clear understanding for
the training, and learning to be a success. The diversity

training would allow the groups to communicate effectively.
Also, if the diversity training was in place the military groups
would have known their was a communication barrier and they
could have taken the necessary steps to have things in order
before even going to train the Honduran Air Force.
Tracy Clubb
In the Case of Air Force and the mobile training team sent to
Honduras to train the Honduran allies against communist
influences there was a lot of cultural misunderstanding that took
place. The Captain assigned to the mission did not understand
the Hispanic culture nor, the need for them to have a Spanish
speaking training officer who could communicate with them in
their native language. Captain Anderson was not at all
culturally sensitive of the Honduran people nor of the beliefs,
customs and perceptions. This lack of cultural sensitivity caused
great distress to the trainees as their cultural beliefs kept them
from complaining because they did not want to appear
ungrateful to the US military nor could they afford to lose our
support. Ultimately because Captain Anderson was unaware of
cultural sensitivities of the Spanish culture it nearly cost him
his life when he insulted the Honduran officer’s mother. This all
could have gone much smoother and been more cost effective if
the Air Force had thought to do research on the Honduran
culture and trained those going on the training mission to be
culturally sensitive and to build rapore with the officers so they
could be more effective as well as, to bring Spanish speaking
trainers, of course.
According to Wunderle, lessons learned from recent missions
have shown the greater need of greater cultural knowledge and
foreign language capability as it is needed to best be able to
assist those whose foreign land you are in (2006).
As for the military culture and sexual assault and religious
intolerance, the US military could benefit from cultural
sensitivity training whether or not they are sent to a foreign
land because, the US is full of diversity within itself because of
all of the different races and nationalities with their different

cultures and beliefs making the US their home.This is
especially true of those military officers that are be assigned to
assist in a foreign land. When someone speaks to me in a
language I do not understand my first reaction is confusion; as I
can not properly communicate with them but, I strive to try to
communicate the best way I can and seek assistance from
someone who can help so that they feel more comfortable. I in
turn feel better about helping them to communicate. This type
of attitude is beneficial in helping those visiting a foreign land
or relocating to a place that is foreign to them. If the military
officers have a better understanding of the foreign culture and
religious beliefs the mission/training will go better as they will
be less likely to offend those in the country they are visiting. It
would also help reduce sexual assault as their would be less
miscommunication if the officers were educated even in a
conversational version of language that the majority of the
country speaks. This being said it will not lilkely eliminate all
sexualt assault that occurs but, that still happens on US soil to
US citizens by our own people and we haven’t been able to
eliminate it here either.
References
Wunderle, W. D. (2006, June 22). Through the lens of Cultural
awareness. Retrieved from
http://usacac.army.mil/cac2/cgsc/carl/download/csipubs/wunderl
e.pdf
2nd Class
Communication Skills
Respond to at least two of your peers, analyzing the best
practice strategies they shared. For each peer, comment on how
the points they presented compare to the information that you
obtained. Provide two additional strategies each peer might
consider.
Sammy-U09D1
Abstract

Engaging and communication is a skill that plays a central role
for stakeholders in decision making policy. When decision
making concerning values and valuable cooperation influenced
by people who really analyze problems and situations is
effective, it will yield positive outcomes and success.
Keypoints in articles
The first article concerns employer’s attitudes about hiring
convicted felonies. Hear say is not accurate as according to
Swanson, Langfitt-Resse, & Bond (2012). As we know
employment is critical for participation in mainstream society
and community integration. Ex-offenders with job commit fewer
crimes than ex-offenders without jobs. Those with higher
earnings tend to commit fewer crimes, than those with lower
earnings. However, I can see the point in which the authors are
conveying.The second article relates to how events or behavior
changes can cause success or failure within an organization.
Hunton, Hall, & Price (1998) used the instrumental model of
procedural justice posits that voice increases fairness because it
provides the possibility of producing favorable outcome. Also
they used the relational model that said voice increases
perceptions of fairness because participants feel as if they are
being treated with dignity, politeness and respect for full group
members. Furthermore, both frameworks deal with fairness, and
this being a critical element associated with decision making
and acceptance within a number of situations. This leads the
learner to feel if these frameworks are put into place in
organizations; the two models will be a useful tool for positive
outcomes through using knowledge, values and skills in the best
interest of what is good for the client. The research reported
that voice based participation in earlier rather than later stages
of decision making has a stronger, more positive impact on
satisfaction and performance.
Differences
The first article is referring that most employees will allow an
ex-offender employment due to their willingness to want to
work. Many hiring decision were based upon that qualification

to do the job, good interviewing skills, belief that the person
had changed, length of time since last conviction, and belief
that the applicant would be dependable. It is really favorable
when an employer is not prejudiced and biases and willing to go
the extra mile to hire someone with a past history. However, if
an employer had the time to dig deeper, they could possibly find
some negatives on the so call honest employees as well.The
second article refers to influence of voice on the decision
making. Higher levels of voice are expected to lead to more
favorable outcomes and satisfaction. When there is a history of
following rather than ignoring voice of affected parties,
expectation of outcome satisfaction are generally higher.
Participants tend to have greater positive outcome resulting
from higher levels of voice because no one is listening.
Application
Hiring and voice based decision making would be very
appropriate toward working with my client who is transitioning
from prisons and job searching for employment. The study
showed that voice magnitude increased interactive meaningful
task through fairness and satisfaction. Voice influence suggest
theoretical and practical usefulness in treating voice as a valued
commodity to answer a variety of questions as to who should
participate in decision making and who would be most effective
in employment. Stakeholders are very important and influential
in finding solutions in communicating and implementing
successful initiatives. Participation by stakeholders in decision
making process has been very vital to research. In conclusion,
an implication for practice is employers hiring felons have
provided a framework to help job seekers improve their
prospects for favorable hiring decisions of applicants with
felonies. Moreover, the learner is glad to know that second
chances are granted with some employers toward allowing
convicted felons to show that they have changed and been
reformed in order to become a productive citizen in society
again.
References

Hunton, J. E., Hall, T. W., & Price, K. H. (1998). The value of
Voice in participative decision making. Journal of Applied
Psychology, Vol. 83 (5), 788-797.
Swanson, S. J., Langfitt-Reese, S., & Bond, G. R. (2012).
Employer attitudes about criminal histories. Psychiatric
Rehabilitation, 35 (5), 385-390.
E. Jasmine Burgess
Abstract
Being able to communicate with others is definitely an
important aspect to the Multidisciplinary approach. If one
cannot communicate correctly it can lead to confusion within a
group of individuals who are working together. It is important
that professionals are aware of different styles of
communication and use the best one that works for the group.
Researched Articles
· Regidor,E., La Fuente, L., Guiterrez, De Mateo, S., Pascual,
C., Sanchez-Paea, J., Ronda, E. (2007). The role of public
health in communicating public health information. American
Journal of Public Health, (97)1, 93-97.
In this article the authors discussed the importance which public
health professionals have when it comes to conveying public
health information to society. An important aspect when to
giving out public health information is to rely the message in a
way that different users will be able to understand. Furthermore,
the authors discussed the role which public officials have when
appearing in society discussing public health. The importance of
discussing factual information to society was also mentioned in
this article.
· Huebner, H., Varey, R., & Wood, L (2008). The significance
of communicating in enacting decisions. Journal of
Communication Management, (12)3, 204-223.
The goal of this article was to ration different methods of
communication to see how it affects decision making. Over a
fifteen month period the authors collected data to see which
method worked best within a company. The authors found three
effective methods which worked best for the company when it

comes to communication which were: giving decision voice,
facilitating processes and involving everyone in communication.
Differences Between Articles
While both of the articles discussed different ways to
communicate they were fairly different. Regidor et al, 2007,
focused more on how public health professionals should
communicate information about public health. This article
would be a great resource for anyone who’s a public speaker
working in the public health field. Huebner et al (2008) did a
thorough research study to find the best forms of
communication that can help a company. By investigating for
fifteen months the authors found three forms of communication
that worked best for the company.
Apply Key Points
After conducting research on practices for communication, the
learner can now apply these new facts. One practice that can
help with communication is clearly knowing who your audience
is and presenting your message in a form which they can
understand (Regidor et al., 2007). If one is not aware who their
audience is how can they present the information in an effective
way? For example, if the specific audience is a group of young
teenage mothers who didn’t complete high school, speaking to
them using big words which they do not understand will not
help them understand the message given. It is important to know
who your audience in order to be ready to speak in a proper
manner.
Secondly, an aspect which the learner would like to apply is
allowing everyone to participate in communication. Huebner et
al. 2008 found that allowing everyone to participate in
communication made a difference within the company. By
allowing others to summarize what was just discussed as well as
sharing their point of view, everyone can learn something and
get the chance to communicate. When it comes to the case of
Joseph, during the collaboration meeting the learner could
express her thoughts and views then let the other group
members summarize what was said then state their thoughts.

This allows everyone to actively listen as well as speak.
Review the self-assessments of two of your peers, and respond
to at least one in depth. In your response, address the following:
· How did your self-assessment of your skills compare with
those of your peer? What were the similarities and differences?
· Provide two additional recommendations you would suggest to
address the identified weaknesses.
Sammy,
Abstract
Communication is a key factor toward understanding and
comprehending how to move a project forward. In order to work
effectively in groups or organizations, the goal for the end
results should yield positive results. There must be means and
ways toward communication being a successful outcome and
being aware of self.
Strengths
The learner discovered several strengths during the
intervention. I was able to speak fluently, communicate
effectively and give feedback. Also, the audience was
captivated with the idea concerning transitioning and reentry of
prisoners back into society, since several families in the
audience had someone within their families who had been or
currently is incarcerated.
Weaknesses
Due to so many agencies and business considering getting
involved, it was difficult to distinguish between stakeholders
and partners. Of course, I do realize that asking possible
stakeholders important questions to see where their hearts and
minds are within the implication process of development.
Recommendations
Afterward, the learner did realize that asking vital questions
would be of great importance such as: what is the relationship,
what are your expectations, what are your interests, and who is
the point of contact.

Conclusion
In advocating for Mark Fitzpatrick and others who have been
incarcerated, this is a reality. This intervention has inspired the
learner to think how ex-prisoners within my community regain
insight and experience upon release. Moreover, the learner feels
that a transitioning plan should be put in place in every
community to assist in enhancing reentry back into society.
Bowman & Travis, Jr. (2012) stated that reentry and recidivism
is unmistakably a challenge for all involved and examination of
prisoner reentry is needed to better understand potential
ingredients for reentry success.
Reference
Bowman, S. W., & Travis, Jr., R. (2012). Prison reentry and
recidivism according to the formerly incarcerated and reentry
service providers: A verbal behavior approach. The Behavior
analyst Today, Vol. 13. (3&4), 9-19.
Presentation
Good afternoon to the mayor, city council leaders, city
development leaders, school board and great citizens of this
lovely community. The purpose of this meeting is to inform
each of you how some partners in business and agencies have
partnership through building better business, creating
relationships, increasing employment, and providing a safe
environment for the community as a whole. To give some
background information, the Hunting Correctional facility has
put in place an internal training and educational class educating
prisoners toward transitioning and reentry back into society.
Since, so many prisoners have been incarcerated, the system is
failing them in probation, and work ethics, second chance
programs, and successful reentrance back into community and
society. I am here today to present to the community leaders
and business some insights and experiences that will hopefully
give some momentum for others to join in the quest to invest in
assisting prisoners toward job placement and functioning well
in society. Due to vast changes in society, a meaningful road
map is needed to help prisoners navigate society. Our goal is

help reweave the fabric of our society. However, this effort is in
hope that stakeholders will take an integral part in cooperation
through a willingness to help produce change in organizational
structures that will benefit the community for years to come.
When stakeholders invest and engage with organizations in a
positive relationship, the success will yield satisfaction toward
a meaningful engagement creating long-term relationships and
improving community that will maintain and extend throughout
effective and successful performance and attitudes.
So, I believe, together we can minimize negative and maximize
positive environmental and social inputs. With you as the
stakeholders, the engagement is one of core skills that will
enable successful and effective ways of assisting to reintegrate
ex-prisoners back into society through being responsible,
knowledgeable, and accountable in helping ex-prisoners to feel
a sense of belonging in their communities.
In conclusion, I hope this slideshow/ PowerPoint presentation
has really been a useful tool toward enlightening many as to
why we need the power of the people and shareholders to
connect in this effort. Moreover, this shows when systems
connect through individuals, groups and communities with
assistance of professionals, problems, situations, and
circumstances can bring about positive relationships and change
for the betterment of community and society.
Shekita,
Abstract
For this discussion, this learner will provide her analysis of her
strengths and weaknesses when it comes to communicating
across various stakeholder groups. In addition, this learner will
make additional recommendations on means to address the
weaknesses in future professional endeavors.
Strengths: I would state my professional strength to be my
experience with public speaking to groups of 5 – 80, also a few
years’ experience of live televised local channel public
speaking. This experience allows me to appear comfortable

when verbally addressing a group of people. One thing I also
contribute to a strength is the fact that when I am speaking
publicly, regardless of how long I have been speaking I still get
nervous, this nervousness reminds me that I am not of my own
strength and I must prepare.
Weaknesses: I must find comfort when reading and preparing
for a group/team communication, so often I spend so much time
going over what I have to say that when the time comes to
communicate, it is over fast and I never get out everything I
wanted to say. I may over prepare.
Additional recommendations: It is mandatory in my professional
view that every professional meeting be guided by an outline or
agenda to ensure that every needed detail is communicated or
addressed. I also encourage practicing active listening and
negotiating, the professional must understand that they will not
always be able to have their opinion heard or acknowledged.
Lancaster (2015) references shared decision making and this is
what this learner need to practice.
Reference
Lancaster, G., Kolakowsky-Hayner, S., Kovacich, J., & Greer-
Williams, N. (2015). Interdisciplinary Communication and
Collaboration Among Physicians, Nurses, and Unlicensed
Assistive Personnel. Journal Of Nursing Scholarship, 47(3),
275-284. doi:10.1111/jnu.12130
PUBLISHED
PUBLISHED
2009-22145-005.pdf

O R I G I N A L A R T I C L E
Convention of hope–
communicating positive,
realistic messages to families
at the time of a child’s
diagnosis with disabilities
Alison Harnett and Edel Tierney, National Federation of
Voluntary Bodies, Oranmore Business
Park, Oranmore, Co. Galway, Ireland. (E-mail:
[email protected]) and Suzanne Guerin, School
of Psychology, University College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
Accessible summary • This study is about the way that parents
are told that their child has disabilities.
The researchers talked to families and professionals to find out
if parents are given
nice and hopeful messages about their child.
• The study found that parents and professionals agreed that
there should be
positive, realistic messages and hope given to parents about
their child.
• Many parents said that they did not get nice or hopeful
messages. The study found
that professionals could give realistic and hopeful messages by
telling parents that
there is help available The study also found that professional
could tell parents

about the value and importance of every child.
• Giving realistic, positive and hopeful messages to parents
about their child is the
start of providing good support to people with disabilities
through their whole
lives. Providing good support throughout people’s whole lives
is one of the aims
of the UN Convention on the Rights of Persons with
Disabilities.
Summary As part of a larger study to develop best practice
recommendations for informing
families of their child’s disabilities, this study researched the
elements of best
practice required when communicating this news to families. It
traced the
convergence between these practice recommendations and the
UN Convention on
the Rights of Persons with Disabilities; in particular with regard
to the provision of
positive, realistic and hopeful communication. The study
employed a mixed
methodology, involving 22 focus groups and a questionnaire
survey of 1588
professionals and 584 families. The study found that a large

majority of parents and
professionals supported the recommendation of providing
families with positive,
realistic and hopeful messages at the time of diagnosis but less
than half of the
parents surveyed reported receiving communication of this type.
The findings
indicated that some professionals may struggle with fears of
providing ‘false hope’,
a fear of litigation and a lack of training, when considering
providing hope.
However the research also identified positive and hopeful
messages that are not in
conflict with providing honest and realistic communication.
These include:
ª 2009 Blackwell Publishing Ltd, British Journal of Learning
Disabilities, 37, 257–264 doi:10.1111/j.1468-
3156.2009.00580.x
British Journal of
Learning Disabilities
The Official Journal of the British Institute of Learning
Disabilities
acknowledging the dignity and worth of the child as an

individual, indicating that
there is help available for parents, and informing families about
the spectrum of
possible outcomes for their child rather than the worst case
scenario. The provision
of appropriate positive, realistic messages and hope is fully
aligned with the
principles of the UN Convention.
Keywords UN Convention on the Rights of Persons with
Disabilities; diagnosis,
disclosure, family, communication skills, disabilities, Ireland
Introduction
The importance of the way in which the diagnosis of a
child’s disabilities, or a concern about potential disabilities,
is first communicated to the family has been shown in the
international literature, and can be summarised thus:
Good disclosure practice prevents much distress for parents,
and can form the beginning of positive parent-professional
relationships, facilitates the attachment process, and when
combined with family support services over the first years,

reduces levels of anxiety and stress (Cunningham 1994, p. 99).
Sensitivity, honesty and empathy have been noted as
crucial elements of good disclosure practice when commu-
nicating difficult news (Girgis & Sanson-Fisher 1999; Hatton
et al. 2003; Price et al. 2006). Ormond et al. (2003) found that
parents expressed the wish for positive messages that
contained optimism, at the time of disclosure.
The UN Convention on the Rights of Persons with
Disabilities (2006) enshrines the principles of respect for
the inherent dignity and individual autonomy of persons
with disabilities (article 3 paragraph a); respect for differ-
ence, and acceptance of persons with disabilities as part of
human diversity and humanity (article 3 paragraph d). The
Convention recognises the valued existing and potential
contributions made by persons with disabilities to the
overall well-being and diversity of their communities
(Preamble, paragraph m).
This article describes a consultation and research project

carried out in the Republic of Ireland by the National
Federation of Voluntary Bodies (NFVB) to develop national
best practice guidelines for how families should be
informed of their child’s disabilities (Harnett et al. 2007). It
focuses on the aspects of the research which explored the
types of messages communicated to families at the time of
their child’s diagnosis, and the importance of communicat-
ing hope and realistic positive messages at this crucial time.
Communicating messages that validate and promote the
inherent dignity, individuality and potential of the child,
and of all people with disabilities is fully in accordance with
the UN Convention. It is also in keeping with the expressed
wishes of parents, and with best practice as identified
through the research undertaken in developing the guide-
lines for informing families of their child’s disabilities
(Harnett et al. 2007).
Methodology
The types of messages communicated at the time of a child’s

diagnosis were explored as one aspect of the larger study
which took place in three phases to develop national best
practice guidelines for how families are informed of their
child’s disabilities. These phases are described below:
Phase 1
• Initial exploratory interviews and meetings took place
with families and professionals to identify key issues
around the topic of disclosure.
• A literature review of national and international research
and policy on disclosure practice when communicating the
diagnosis of a child’s disabilities to the family was under-
taken.
Phase 2
Twenty-two focus groups were undertaken to qualita-
tively explore the experiences of families and professionals.
The aims of the focus groups were to establish the views of
parent and professional participants on what was currently
working well in terms of disclosure practice, to identify
elements which were not working well and to gather

recommendations for good practice in the future.
• Seven consultative focus groups took place with parents
of children with disabilities (physical, sensory, intellectual,
multiple disabilities and autistic spectrum disorders). Six
Early Services teams from service providers around the
country wrote to invite a range of parents of children of
between three and six years to participate. Selection criteria
were designed to include a range of urban and rural
locations, a geographical spread throughout the Republic of
Ireland, various diagnosis types, various diagnosis scenar-
ios (pre-natal, at birth, evolving diagnosis) and representa-
tion from fathers and mothers. One further focus group took
place with parents of children between the ages of 11 and
33 years, to give an indication of the issues that were
important to parents over time.
• Fifteen focus groups were undertaken with professionals
from a range of nursing, medical and allied health
disciplines, each discipline having been identified by the
258 A. Harnett et al.

Disabilities, 37, 257–264
participants of the parent focus groups as having a role in
disclosing the news of a child’s disabilities or supporting
parents following their child’s diagnosis.
In all, 131 participants took part in the focus groups,
which were recorded and transcribed. The transcribed
data were thematically analysed using an inductive,
semantic approach (Braun & Clarke 2006) by identifying
key themes through prevalence across groups and the
emphasis participants placed on the various issues. These
themes were then assessed for inter-rater reliability by
two co-facilitators who had been present at the focus
groups along with the principal investigator. The themes
were then distilled into proposed recommendations for
best practice.
Phase 3
Two quantitative postal questionnaire surveys were sent

to 584 families of children with disabilities between the ages
of 3 and 6 years, and 1588 professionals. The aims of the
questionnaire surveys were to establish a quantitative
picture of current practice from parent and professional
perspectives, and to rate a set of proposed recommenda-
tions for good practice developed through the literature
review and focus group consultation.
• The National Intellectual Disability Database1 (NIDD)
(Barron & Kelly 2006) was used as the sampling frame for
families of children with intellectual disabilities, and the
questionnaires were distributed through intellectual dis-
abilities service providers. The Health Research Board
(which administers the NIDD) provided the researchers
with a breakdown of the numbers of children between the
ages of three and six receiving services by each service
provider. These figures were then used to determine the
number of families to be surveyed in each service. The
questionnaires were sent by the Early Services teams to 40%

of the families in each service, using an agreed random
alphabetical system. The questionnaires for families of
children with physical and sensory disabilities were dis-
tributed via national physical and sensory disabilities
service providers and the Visiting Teachers for the Deaf,
with the Department of Education and Science. Completed
questionnaire surveys were received from 185 families (a
31.68% response rate). One questionnaire was not included
because the family was living outside of the Republic of
Ireland.
• A postal questionnaire was disseminated to 1588 profes-
sionals in 28 disciplines (each listed in the parent question-
naire responses as having been involved in communicating
the diagnosis of a child’s disabilities or supporting families
who have received such a diagnosis). The questionnaires
were distributed via the national professional bodies and
trade-unions of each discipline, and via the Irish Medical
Directory in the case of a number of the medical disciplines.
Due to the large number of disciplines and the large

numbers present in many of these disciplines it was not
possible within the scope of the project to survey a
statistically representative sample. For disciplines which
were reported on more than nine occasions in the parent
questionnaires 120 questionnaires were sent. Disciplines
that received fewer mentions received 50 questionnaires.
255 questionnaires were returned and 17 were eliminated
due to the respondent not being directly involved in the
disclosure process or where the respondent worked exclu-
sively with adults. Therefore 238 responses were analysed,
representing varied response rates per discipline, with a
higher response rate recorded by the disciplines more
frequently involved providing the diagnosis (Harnett et al.
2007).
Each stage of the research informed and led to the
subsequent phase, and the findings of all three were
triangulated and combined to develop the National Best
Practice Guidelines for Informing Families of their Child’s

Disability (NFVB 2007 2). Elements recommended in at least
two of the three phases were included in the Guidelines;
however the majority of the recommendations were noted
in all three phases.
The topic of communicating hope and positive mes-
sages at the time of disclosure was examined in this
study. It was given emphasis by participants in all phases
of the research as an important element of practice and
was rated as a recommendation in the ‘Communication’
section of the questionnaire surveys. Using a five-point
Likert scale parents and professionals were asked to what
extent they agreed or disagreed with the following
recommendation being included in the good practice
guidelines: ‘In the future when parents are told of their
child’s disability, positive, realistic messages are given with the
diagnosis.’ This study also examined the findings from two
questions in the parent questionnaire survey, looking at
various elements of communication the parents had

experienced during the disclosure of their child’s disabil-
ities; ‘During the consultation did you feel that you were given
the news with hope and positive messages’ and ‘(did you feel
that) the person giving the news was direct?’
1Ireland’s Intellectual Disability Database was established in
1995
and gathers information about people who are receiving
intellectual
disabilities services in the Republic of Ireland or who are in
need of
these services. The objective of the database, which is compiled
by
the Health Research Board, is to ensure that accurate
information is
available about the needs of people with intellectual
disabilities. For
further information see http://www.hrb.ie.
2Guidelines and Consultation and Research Report available to
download from http://www.fedvol.ie.
Communicating positive messages to families 259

Ethical considerations
The lower age limit of children whose parents were invited
to participate in both the qualitative and quantitative
elements of the research was set at three years on the
advice of Early Services team members in participating
organisations. This was in line with ‘no-harm’ ethical
principles and was aimed at minimising the potential
impact of contacting families for whom the disclosure
would be a more recent experience. Ethical approval for the
national study was secured through the Research Ethics
Committees of two of the participating intellectual disabil-
ities service providers. Informed written consent was
provided by all participants in the focus groups, and
detailed information was supplied to participants in the
questionnaire surveys indicating the purpose of the survey,
assuring confidentiality and anonymity, and indicating the
voluntary nature of participation.3

Findings
The findings of all three phases of the current research
indicated that the circumstances of the diagnosis of a
child’s disabilities can vary widely; the communication
may occur in hospital, community, disabilities service
settings or the family home. A wide range of professionals
with varying levels of experience provide the diagnosis,
with paediatricians and psychologists being the most
frequently reported. Parents may be informed of their
child’s diagnosis during pregnancy, at birth or in an
evolving diagnosis which may take place over a period of
weeks, months or years. The news of the disabilities may
come as an unexpected discovery (e.g. at birth) or may be
discovered as the result of planned assessment or tests.
(Harnett et al. 2007).
Through the findings of the research the National Best
Disability (NFVB 2007 4) were developed to be applicable

for physical, sensory, intellectual disabilities and autistic
spectrum disorders. They consist of a set of over-arching
principles, applicable regardless of the disclosure circum-
stances:
• Family-centred disclosure.
• Respect for child and family.
• Sensitive and empathetic communication.
• Appropriate, accurate information.
• Positive realistic messages and hope.
• Team approach and planning.
• Focused and supported implementation of best practice.
These principles are closely aligned with those of the UN
Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, as set
out in the Preamble and throughout the Convention [e.g.
articles 4(1i); 8(1a, b and d); 23(3); 25(b)]. In addition to the
guiding principles, the findings of the research led to
specific recommendations, broken down into the following
areas: the setting/location and the people present at
disclosure, communication, information and support, cul-
ture and language, training education and support for

professionals, organisation and planning, referral and dis-
semination.5 This study focuses on the need for communi-
cation of hopeful and positive messages, a theme which
permeates many of the areas mentioned above, and which is
chiefly described in the ‘Communication’ section of the
guidelines.
Communication
Leonard (1999) discussed the need for positive messages to
be communicated at the time of a child’s diagnosis rather
than a catalogue of all potential negative outcomes. The
issue of all potential negative outcomes being presented was
a key concern to emerge from the focus group phase of the
current research. Parents described having been given
details about every possible medical difficulty that their
child with disabilities might encounter, and found this to be
in sharp contrast to communication they received about
their other children:
…look, if you had an ordinary child, they don’t give you a
book saying… he’s going to rob a car and he’s going to get a

girl pregnant or he’s going to fail his exams. So you have to
live life as it goes by. They don’t tell you that with the
ordinary child. (Parent participant in focus groups)
Parents frequently noted feeling that their child was seen
only in the context of their disabilities, and not as a valued
and individual person; a member of the family unit and
their community. For example one mother commented on
the lack of positive comment about the birth of her
daughter:
3Full details of the methodology are available in the Informing
Families of their Child’s Disability – National Best Practice
Guide-
lines: Consultation and Research Report (Harnett et al. 2007).
4Guidelines and Consultation and Research Report available to
download from http://www.fedvol.ie.
5Information on the findings of the research, the guidelines
developed and plans for dissemination and implementation were
circulated to families of children with disabilities through
articles in

newsletters and publications and through a presentation to the
Annual General Meeting of Inclusion Ireland 2008. Inclusion
Ireland is a national voluntary organisation working to promote
the
rights of people with intellectual disabilities in Ireland to
ensure
their full and equal participation in society. Inclusion Ireland
represents the interests of people with intellectual disabilities
and
their families.
I think what disappointed me as well was that not one person
congratulated us. I find that sad because she’s just a little
girl. (Parent participant in focus groups)
For some families, overtly negative messages were con-
veyed at the time of diagnosis;
The next morning my consultant breezed in, looked into the

cot and said ‘‘More than likely age-related type’, and walked
back out. And that was the first time I felt guilt. (Mother of a
child with Down Syndrome, participant in focus group)
As detailed above, parents and professionals were asked
in the questionnaire survey to indicate to what extent they
agreed or disagreed with the following recommendation
being included in the good practice guidelines: ‘In the
future when parents are told of their child’s disability,
positive; realistic messages are given with the diagnosis.’
The responses are presented in Table 1, and indicate a high
level of agreement between parent and professional respon-
dents. 91.8% of parents either agreed or strongly agreed that
in the future the diagnosis should be given with positive,
realistic messages. 94.1% of professional respondents indica-
ted their agreement or strong agreement with the statement.
However, in spite of this very high level of agreement,
a different picture emerged when parent participants
reported on their own experiences of being told of their

child’s disabilities.
Table 2 presents the results from two questions in the
parent questionnaire survey, looking at various elements of
communication the parents had experienced during the
disclosure of their child’s disabilities.
The data reveal that although the parents felt a large
majority of the professionals had provided the news in a
direct way, less than half of the parents felt that they had
been given hopeful or positive messages as part of this
communication.
It is important to understand the underlying reasons for
the less positive messages communicated, if we are to
address the need for hope at the time of diagnosis, and
espouse the values of the UN Convention in assuring the
dignity, worth and rights of people with disabilities. The
qualitative data from the focus groups of the current
research provide some valuable insights for the gap
between the recommendation supported by parents and

professionals that positive, realistic messages should be
given with the diagnosis, and the reality of the experiences
as reported by the parent participants.
Not wanting to give ‘false’ hope
Professionals who participated in the focus groups
described their wish to remain honest at all times, and not
to provide ‘false hope’:
I think the interviews I find can be very stressful because the
parents are looking for hope – they are looking for some slight
window of hope and they are trying to test you to see – to go
over stuff with you, and it can be very difficult and you just
have to try. (Speech and language therapist participant in
focus groups)
However parents’ comments indicated that they were not
seeking false hope and wanted full facts and honesty. In
formulating the recommendation for the guidelines the
word ‘realistic’ was therefore included to ensure that the
concept of ‘false hope’ is not fostered (NFVB 2007). Parents

suggested informing families about a spectrum of potential
outcomes that were possible given their child’s condition,
rather than merely presenting the worst case scenario.
Some professionals spoke of the need to strike a balance
between providing hope and not minimising the implica-
tions of the information they were providing;
I think hope is an ingredient that isn’t quantifiable, but
there’s that balance between giving a positive message but yet
not minimising the seriousness of the condition …and not
minimising the future but leaving that space that they can
hope. (Psychologist participant in focus groups)
Need for training and evidence-based policies
Lack of training and support meant that some professionals
found it difficult to approach the task of talking with
parents sensitively:
I think it varies as well, some people are better, and some
people are sensitive and aware of breaking bad news, as well
as to point out that it’s not all doom and gloom and that the
child has some abilities as well. And some people are a bit

Table 1 Parent and professional rating of positive messages as a
recom-
mendation for best practice
Group
surveyed n
Strongly
agree Agree Neutral Disagree
Strongly
disagree
Parents 177 75% 16.8% 2.7% 1.1% 0.5%
Professionals 227 81.1% 13.0% 1.3% – –
Table 2 Parents’ reporting of aspects of communication during
disclosure
During the consultation did you feel that n Yes No No response
You were given the news with hope and positive messages 163
46.7% 41.8% 21
The person giving the news was direct 168 84.8% 6.5% 16

uncomfortable, they don’t know how to deal with it
themselves I suppose, and I’m sure it can come across as
being uncaring and a bit harsh and they think we’re trying to
get it done as quick as we can. It’s very hurtful for parents.
(Paediatric nurse participant in focus groups)
The need for training was strongly endorsed through the
current research, with 93.3% of professional respondents
indicating that they felt training in communication skills to
be relevant and 80.7% indicating that specific training for
informing families of their child’s disabilities is relevant
(Harnett et al. 2007). One aspect in which training may be
helpful is in promoting the importance of tailoring commu-
nication to the needs of the individual family, acknowledg-
ing that families will have different feelings and reactions in
relation to the diagnosis. In the following example the
professional directly questions the positive outlook a family
have expressed;

I would say to them, if they are fine today, well look you are
in good form today but you are going to have bad days and be
honest with them. And tell them, down the road you are
going to meet various stumbles and you are going to have to
get over that. And its not always going to be rosy in the
garden, you are going to have very bad days. (Midwife
participant in focus groups)
Whilst the professional is clearly aiming to support the
family, perhaps we should question whether the same state-
ments would be made about a child without disabilities.
The provision of training in this area is supported by the
UN Convention. Article 4 paragraph 1(i) places a respon-
sibility on State Parties ‘to promote the training of profes-
sionals and staff working with persons with disabilities in
the rights recognised in the present Convention’, amongst
which are ‘respect for difference and acceptance of persons
with disabilities as part of human diversity and humanity’
[Article 3 (d)]; and the recognition that ‘children with

disabilities should have full enjoyment of human rights and
fundamental freedoms on an equal basis with other
children’ [Preamble (r)].
Litigation
Professionals very honestly pointed to a fear of litigation
having influence, for some, over communication at the time
of diagnosis. This can lead to presentation of the worst case
scenario rather than a balanced point of view. As one person
said:
…and a fear of litigation is coming very much into it, all our
practices for diagnosis, the way we word it, the way you say
it, you know – just in case it doesn’t work out the way you
said it would at five years ago… at least that’s in the voice at
the back of my mind. (Consultant psychiatrist participant in
focus groups)
Indeed the literature indicates that the risk of litigation
surrounding insensitive communication of difficult news is
very real (Fallowfield & Jenkins 2004). However, previous
research emphasises honesty, empathy and the acknowl-

edgement of uncertainty as elements of sensitive commu-
nication (Sloper & Turner 1993). The acknowledgement of
uncertainty includes the presentation of a range of possible
outcomes rather than merely the worst case scenario. There
is support for the need for sensitive communication in the
Irish context. Ciarán Breen, Director of the State Claims
Agency in Ireland (in correspondence with the researcher)
stated:
Our experience, based on our engagement with plaintiffs’
solicitors, is that a large percentage of cases are taken
precisely because the medical staff have not engaged or
improperly communicated with parents of children. To
clarify this, these plaintiffs stated that but for badly handled
or inappropriate or insensitive disclosure, they would not
have elected to sue. (personal communication, 13 June
2008)
Discussion
The concept of celebrating and recognising the individual

child firstly as a person in their own right, a member of a
family unit, a member of a community; and secondly, in the
context of the communication of the child’s diagnosis,
recognising that this person may have additional needs; is
in keeping with the UN Convention’s recognition of the
inherent dignity and worth and the equal inalienable rights
of all members of the human family, including those with
disabilities. [Preamble (a) and (c)].
Development of hopeful and positive messages
The current research provides examples of hopeful mes-
sages that are not in conflict with providing honest and
realistic information. Acknowledging the dignity and
worth of the child as an individual as discussed above,
can include celebrating the birth of a child with disabilities.
It means acknowledging and respecting the child first and
the disabilities as secondary in all communication, and
providing messages that are not disproportionately negative
when compared with the visions for the future expressed

for children without disabilities. At its most basic it means
always using a child’s name and never referring to them by
their diagnosis. Appropriate communication at the time of
diagnosis of a child with disabilities can be seen as
providing recognition of the dignity of all children, and
gives voice to the provisions of Article 8 of the UN
Convention (paragraphs 1a, b and c) in relation to raising
awareness of the dignity of persons with disabilities;
combating stereotypes and prejudices; and promoting
awareness of the capabilities and contributions of persons
with disabilities.
Another example of appropriate and hopeful communi-
cation indicated by many parents through the current
research is the message that there is help available, ‘we

will be there for you’;
The hospital and the nurses and the staff were absolutely
wonderful… (The paediatrician) sat down with us… he said
one thing to me I will always remember. He said ‘You take
care of yourself and I will take care of his health, and between
us we will get through this. (Parent participant in focus
groups)
Informing families about the spectrum of possible
outcomes for a given diagnosis rather than all negative
possibilities or the worst case scenario is in keeping with
the wishes expressed by the families through the current
research. This is echoed succinctly in the UN Convention on
the Rights of Persons with Disabilities; ‘Respect for the
evolving capacities of children with disabilities and respect
for the right of children with disabilities to preserve their
identities’ (Article 3 paragraph h). For some families the
confirmation of a diagnosis that may have been suspected
for some time can be seen as a positive step in a process to
support the aim of maximising the potential of the child:

I think we can put a positive slant on it. Now that the
problem has been identified, specific things can be put in place
to help the child to reach its full potential. (GP participant in
focus groups)
The promotion of the kinds of appropriate positive
communication outlined above is supported by the UN
Convention, Article 25 (d), which requires health profes-
sionals to raise awareness of the human rights, dignity,
autonomy and needs of persons with disabilities through
training. Many professionals who provide the diagnosis of a
child’s disabilities work in mainstream health services and
may not have direct or regular contact with people with
disabilities (Harnett et al. 2007). Given that there is evidence
of a lack of positive representations of people with disabil-
ities available to the general public through the media in
Ireland and elsewhere (Harnett 2000; Raynor & Hayward
2005) it is important that professionals who may commu-
nicate the diagnosis of a child’s disabilities to the family are

provided with disabilities awareness training. Article 8
paragraph 2 and in particular section 2(d) of the UN
Convention promotes awareness-training programmes
regarding persons with disabilities and the rights of persons
with disabilities. To this end a DVD film (Donohoe &
Harnett 2007) was produced to accompany the National Best
Disability with the dual purpose of providing guidance on
good disclosure practice and affording families an oppor-
tunity to tell their stories about the ordinary lives of their
children with disabilities. The use of these materials in
training is currently being evaluated through a pilot
implementation and training programme in the Cork region
in southern Ireland.
Conclusion
The current research identified hope and positive, realistic
messages as an important aspect of appropriate communi-
cation with families at the time of their child’s diagnosis

with disabilities. This finding is consistent with previous
research from various countries (Leonard 1999; Ormond
et al. 2003). The research identified a gap between this
aspiration and the experience of many parents, and found
that professionals can struggle with issues such as fears of
providing false hope, fears of litigation and a need for
training when they consider providing hope. However, the
research also demonstrated that there are examples of
positive and hopeful messages that can address these
difficulties. When these findings are set within the context
of promoting the value, dignity and rights of people with
disabilities as enshrined in the UN Convention on the
Rights of People with Disabilities it is clear that the initial
communication of a child’s disabilities can become the first
opportunity for professionals to make real the ‘recognition
of the inherent dignity and worth and the equal inalienable
rights of all members of the human family, including those
with disabilities’ [UN Convention Preamble (a) and (c)].

Positive, realistic and hopeful messages can help to ensure
that parental expectations are as positive as possible in
order to influence the developmental opportunities afforded
to the child. Low expectations modelled by authoritative
sources at times when parents are likely to be particularly
vulnerable can have a detrimental impact on the outlook of
parents. Low expectations can create negative, self-fulfilling
outcomes and limit the developmental opportunities that
will be provided for the child with disabilities.
There is convergence between the rights enshrined in the
UN Convention, the principles and recommendations of the
National Best Practice Guidelines for Informing Families of
their
Child’s Disability (NFVB 2007), and specifically the provision
of hope and positive messages. This type of communication
supports the paradigm shift recognised by the UN Conven-
tion from seeing people with disabilities as objects of charity
to subjects with rights. Along with positive and realistic

messages, the provision of supports such as parent-to-
parent initiatives for parents who wish to engage with them,
and printed material providing accurate, positive informa-
tion, can be very helpful. In this context an online informa-
tion resource for parents at the time of disclosure is
currently being developed as a follow-up to the current
study.
The UN Convention offers us further reason to commu-
nicate optimism to families. It provides a potential catalyst
for governments and organisations to support continuous
improvement in the quality of life for people with disabil-
ities (Quinn 2008) which gives good reason to be hopeful for
children that they will be further respected and supported
to live as citizens enjoying equal rights into the future.
Acknowledgements

This research was carried out by the National Federation of
Voluntary Bodies Providing Services to People with Intel-
lectual Disabilities with support from the Health Services
National Partnership Forum. The project was guided by a
Steering Committee chaired by Dr John Hillery, President of
the Irish Medical Council 2004–2007. We wish to express our
sincere gratitude to the many families, professionals, and
organisations who contributed to the research and in
particular to the parents for sharing their very personal
experiences for the benefit of this research.
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611.c
1998-12528-010.pdf
Journal of Applied Psychology
1998, Vol. 83. No. 5, 788-797
Copyright 1998 by the American Psychological Association,
Inc.
0021 -9010/98/$3.00
The Value of Voice in Participative Decision Making
James E. Hunton
University of South Florida
Thomas W. Hall and Kenneth H. Price
University of Texas at Arlington
Relying on concepts found in prospect theory (D. Kahneman &
A. Tversky, 1979), the
value function of voice-based participation (i.e., the
relationship between the amount of
voice received and the value attached to that quantity) was
examined. In keeping with
tenets of prospect theory, the value function of voice exhibited

a nonlinear pattern.
Points were identified in which voice displayed significant
improvements and diminishing
marginal returns on response measures of process fairness,
decision control, and outcome
satisfaction. Task meaningfulness, a moderator of voice-based
participation, did not
change the general shape of the value function but did influence
the intensity of participant
reactions at low and high levels of voice. Voice influence, a
second moderator of voice-
based participation, had minimal impact on participant
responses.
Participation by stakeholders in decision processes has
received considerable research attention, particularly in
the fields of psychology and management (e.g., Barley &
Lind, 1987; Locke & Schweiger, 1979; Vroom & Jago,
1988). From a procedural justice perspective, participa-
tion by affected parties through voice (i.e., the opportu-
nity to express one's opinions, concerns, and preferences)
increases the perception of process fairness (e.g., Lind &
Tyler, 1988).
The instrumental model of procedural justice posits that
voice increases perceptions of fairness because it provides

for the possibility of producing a favorable .outcome
(Barley & Lind, 1987; Lind, Kanfer, & Earley, 1990). In
the relational model, the solicitation of voice increases
perceptions of fairness because participants feel they are
being treated with the dignity, politeness, and respect ap-
propriate for full group members (Lind, 1995; Tyler &
Lind, 1992). Although factors mediating voice effects dif-
fer for instrumental and relational models, both frame-
works agree that procedural fairness is a critical element
associated with decision acceptance and commitment
across a number of different situations (Greenberg, 1990;
Shapiro, 1993).
Given the key role of voice in procedural justice judg-
ments, the primary focus of this study is to provide a first
James E. Hunton, School of Accountancy, University of South
Florida; Thomas W. Hall, Department of Accounting, University
of Texas at Arlington; Kenneth H. Price, Department of
Manage-
ment, University of Texas at Arlington.
All authors contributed equally to this article.
Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed

to Kenneth H. Price, Department of Management, University of
Texas, UTA Box 19467, Arlington, Texas 76019. Electronic
mail
may be sent to [email protected]
approximation of the value function of voice based on
concepts found in prospect theory (Kahneman & Tversky,
1979). As voice is examined along a continuum from zero
to 100% participation, findings can help to identify points
where voice displays significant improvements and dimin-
ishing marginal returns on consequence variables (i.e.,
perceived fairness of the procedures, perceived decision
control, and outcome satisfaction). Current theory and
research on the magnitude of voice are reviewed in the
next section.
Magnitude of Voice
Research has examined the magnitude of participant
voice as a facet of the meaningfulness of the voice solici-
tation effort. Meaningfulness of voice can be viewed along
three dimensions: (a) when voice occurs in the decision-
making process, (b) the degree of congruence between

desired (expected) and actual levels of voice, and (c) the
amount of voice that is permitted across different stages
of decision making (Hunton & Price, 1994). Earley and
Kanfer (1985) have reported that voice-based participa-
tion in earlier rather than later stages of decision making
has a stronger, more positive impact on satisfaction and
performance. Doll and Torkzadeh (1988) have reported
that participation efforts are dysfunctional when desired
participation exceeds actual participation. Cooper and
Wood (1974) have found that voice in all stages of deci-
sion making (planning through postimplementation) re-
sults in more positive perceptions of involvement than
voice occurring in only one stage.
Consequently, the literature is generally supportive of
a positive relationship between the meaningfulness of the
voice solicitation and the perception of fairness. In some
situations, however, more voice may not be better. Van
788

RESEARCH REPORTS 789
den Bos, Vermut, and Wilke (1996) have reported that
participants who expect no voice yet receive voice per-
ceive the process as less fair and perform at lower levels
than participants who neither expect nor receive voice.
These results argue that the positive impact of higher
levels of voice is reduced when the solicitation of voice
is inconsistent with expected procedures (Van den Bos et
al., 1996). In spite of moderating variables of this type,
a value function approach may be of considerable use in
understanding the consequences of different levels of
voice-based participation when higher levels of voice is
expected to have more positive outcomes. The value func-
tion approach is discussed next.
Value +
Reference Point
.Gain
The Value Function of Voice
Decision theory models of human judgment typically
incorporate a function depicting the relationship between
the quantity of a commodity received and its value (i.e.,
a value function). A commodity can be anything valued
by an individual, including money, leisure time, or even
voice-based participation. In modeling the value of a com-
modity, prospect theory (Kahneman & Tversky, 1979)
asserts that individuals code outcomes as deviations (e.g.,
gains and losses) from a reference point. This reference

point may be the amount of a commodity that a person
expects to receive in a given situation. Although people
vary in their expectations, the commodity value function
for each person is thought to be nonlinear, with a convex
shape below the reference point and a concave shape
above the reference point. The rationale for a convex
shape in the loss domain (below the reference point) and
a concave shape in the gain domain (above the reference
point) is based on the principle of diminishing marginal
significance. In particular, people are thought to be most
sensitive to variations in the general region of the refer-
ence point (Hogarth, 1989). As the amount of a commod-
ity realized moves further away from the reference point,
the marginal significance of the incremental loss or gain
declines; thus, smaller and smaller changes in perceived
value of each additional increment of commodity received
are produced. This functional relationship is illustrated in
Figure 1.
To examine the value function for voice, a scenario
methodology that describes the need to make 20 different
decisions regarding the attributes of a new computer sys-
tem is used. Depending on the treatment group, partici-
pants receive different quantities of a voice commodity
by voicing their preferences to their supervisor for either
0, 5, 10, 15, or 20 attributes of the new computer system.
Our expectations are that higher levels of voice will result
in more positive perceptions of process fairness, decision
control, and outcome satisfaction, as reported in other
voice studies (e.g., Barley & Lind, 1987; Greenberg,
Figure I. The proposed value function from prospect theory
(Kahneman & Tversky, 1979)

1990). However, within these parameters, the actual value
function for voice is expected to be nonlinear based on
prospect theory (Kahneman & Tversky, 1979). Conse-
quently, this study examines whether the voice value func-
tion exhibits nonlinear tendencies and, if so, whether
the approximate shape of the curve is convex, concave,
or both.
Experiment 1
Method
Participants and procedures. Participants (N = 105) were
recruited from introductory courses in management at a large
southwestern university. The modal age of the participants was
21 years, 58% of the respondents were female and 42% were
male, and 26% worked full-time, 63% worked part-time, and
11% did not report employment.
The experiment was conducted over seven sessions each with
10 to 20 participants. Within each session, participants
randomly
received one of five versions of a case scenario. The case in-
structed participants to assume the role of a department manager
whose company was in the process of updating its personal

computers. Each participant was informed that his or her super-
visor had developed a list of 20 attribute choices (e.g., size of
hard drive and speed of the processor) that the supervisor would
make before the purchase decision and that the participant had
seen this list and judged each choice to be equally important.
Participants were told to assume they spent approximately 85%
of their workday using personal computers. The case manipu-
lated the independent variable, the magnitude of voice, across
five levels by telling participants to assume that their supervisor
either had not asked them to express their opinions and prefer-
ences for the 20 choices (mute condition) or that they had been
asked to express their opinions and preferences for 5, 10, 15,
or 20 of the 20 choices.
Dependent measures and manipulation check questions. All
dependent measures were assessed using 9-point bipolar scales.
790 RESEARCH REPORTS
Items adopted from other justice studies (e.g., Earley & Lind,

1987) included three questions that measured perceptions of
procedural justice (a = .87) and decision control (a = .69).
Participants were asked to rate the procedures used to determine
the attributes of the new computer system on scales ranging
from unfair (1) to fair (9), unjust (1) to just (9), and strongly
disagree (1) to strongly agree (9) for the fairness item measur-
ing satisfaction with the procedures. Perceptions of decision
control were measured with scales ranging from no control
(1) to complete control (9), and no influence (1) to complete
influence (9). The third control item asked the extent to which
participants felt that their opinions, concerns, suggestions, and
preferences were considered in determining attributes of the
new computer system on a scale ranging from no extent (1)
to a great extent (9). We adopted three questions measuring
anticipated outcome satisfaction, a = .93 from Doll and Torkza-
deh (1988). Participants were asked to anticipate their degree
of satisfaction with and their feelings toward their new
computer
system on scales ranging from not satisfied (1) to completely

satisfied (9). The third satisfaction item asked whether they
would be satisfied with their new computer on a scale ranging
from strongly disagree (1) to strongly agree (9).
A manipulation check question for voice solicitation indicated
that 70% of the respondents were able to correctly identify the
number of computer attributes on which voice was solicited.
Although the accuracy rate was less than desired, supplemental
analysis indicated that research findings did not differ signifi-
cantly when participants who incorrectly answered the manipu-
lation check question were excluded from the analyses.
Results
Relationship among dependent measures. Correla-
tions among the dependent measures ranged from .74 for
the measures of fairness and decision control to .76 for
the measures of fairness and satisfaction. Given the inter-
correlation and the similarity of the results across the
dependent measures, only the results for perceptions of
procedural fairness are reported.

Shape of the value function. Tb identify whether the
shape of the voice value function was nonlinear across
the five levels of voice, a trend analysis was performed
for the fairness response measure. Using orthogonal
polynomial coefficients provided by Beyer (1988), spe-
cialized contrasts testing for linear, quadratic, and cubic
effects were performed. Results documented a nonlinear
value function for voice on the response measure of
procedural fairness that included significant linear (p
- .022), quadratic (p = .007), and cubic (p = .007)
components. The shape of this value function is plotted
in Figure 2.
Additional tests. A one-way analysis of variance
(ANO%) followed by Duncan's multiple-range tests
(a = .05) was used to examine whether the approximate
shape of the value function was convex, concave, or
both. For the measure of procedural fairness, there was
a significant main effect for the magnitude of voice,
F(4, 99) = 9.08, p < .001. Cell contrasts documented

a significant stepwise increase in perceptions of fairness
from the mute condition (M = 3.4) to the solicitation
of voice on 5 attributes (M - 5.8). Increases in the
magnitude of voice from 5 to 10, from 10 to 15, and
from 15 to 20 decisions did not result in significant
stepwise increases in perceptions of fairness (Ms = 5.9,
5.7, and 6.0, respectively).
9
8
7
(ft
I 5
•I 4
2
1
0
10 15 20
Magnitude of Voice

Figure 2. Shape of value function for perceptions of procedural
fairness for Experiment 1.
Discussion
Voice as a value function. Findings from this first
experiment are supportive of a nonlinear relationship be-
tween the magnitude of voice and perceptions of proce-
dural fairness. Inspection of Figure 2 indicates a concave
function with little change after participants voiced on 5
of 20 attributes. In keeping with prospect theory, solicita-
tion of voice above a specific point, in this case 5 deci-
sions, did not result in significant increases in perceptions
of fairness. The relatively large stepwise increases that
occurred when voice magnitude moved from no voice
(mute condition) to 5 decisions demonstrates that a mini-
mum amount of voice was necessary to ignite increases
in perceptions of procedural fairness. In this regard, pro-
viding participants with some voice as opposed to no
voice seemed to separate relatively immaterial from more
substantive levels of voice-based participation. This argu-
ment is strengthened if one assumes that the midpoint on
the scale represents a neutral point for most participants.
Experiment 2
The focus of the second experiment was to replicate
the nonlinear value function for voice with a sample of
midlevel executives. In addition, this study examined two

important moderators of voice-based participation and
their potential impact on the perceived value of voice.
Both moderators, task meaningfulness and the influence
of voice (Folger, 1987; Hunton & Price, 1997), are dis-
cussed in the following sections.
Task Meaningfulness
Task meaningfulness arises from the decision context,
refers to the personal salience of the task on which voice
occurs, and is independent of the activity of expressing
one's voice. Reactions to voice-based participation are
expected to be more extreme under conditions of high
task meaningfulness and less extreme under conditions of
low task meaningfulness (e.g., Hunton & Price, 1997).
Consequently, more positive perceptions of procedural
fairness, decision control, and outcome satisfaction are
expected in the high- compared with the low-task-mean-
ingfulness condition when high levels of voice are solic-
ited. At low levels of voice, more negative perceptions of
fairness, decision control, and outcome satisfaction are
expected in the high- compared with the low-task-mean-
ingfulness condition. Although the anticipated Voice Mag-
nitude X Task Meaningfulness interaction is expected to
intensify reactions to different levels of voice, it is un-
known if or how the nonlinear shape of the value function
for voice found in the first experiment will change.
Differential reactions to voice, as a function of task
meaningfulness, are expected because (a) salient deci-
sions have a more powerful impact on the participants
(Brickner, Harkins, & Ostrom, 1986), (b) participants

typically desire more input on personally salient tasks
(Vroom & Jago, 1988), and (c) in keeping with the instru-
mental model of procedural justice, the expression of
voice is valued because it is perceived to increase the
possibility of securing favorable outcomes (Thibaut &
Walker, 1975). Consequently, more personally salient de-
cisions are expected to result in higher outcome satisfac-
tion when voice is high because there is more to gain and
lower levels of satisfaction at low levels of voice because
there is more to lose.
When the response measure of decision control is con-
sidered, the objective amount of control over a decision
does not change as a function of the meaningfulness of
the decision. However, increases in the perception of con-
trol have been reported when the effects of noninstrumen-
tal voice (i.e., voice having no influence on the decision
outcome) were examined (Lind et al., 1990). In keeping
with the relational model of procedural justice, research-
ers theorize that heightened feelings of inclusion resulting
from noninstrumental voice lead to increases in perceived
decision control (Lind et al., 1990). In this regard, varia-
tions in the level of voice may result in higher feelings
of inclusion when the decision is higher in meaning-
fulness. In turn, these perceptions may enhance percep-
tions of fairness, directly or indirectly, through heightened
perceptions of control.
Influence of Voice on the Decision Maker
A second moderator of current voice solicitation efforts
is the influence of outcomes of past voice solicitations.

Whereas higher levels of voice are expected to lead to
more favorable outcomes, previous participant experience
with decision makers may reinforce or negate such expec-
tations. Consequently, at each level of voice (5, 10, 15,
or 20 decisions), perceptions of process fairness, decision
control, and outcome satisfaction are expected to be
higher under high, as compared with low, past participant
influence.
When there is a history of following rather than ignor-
ing the voice of affected parties, expectations of outcome
satisfaction are generally higher (Miller & Crush, 1988).
In keeping with the instrumental model of procedural jus-
tice, researchers have reported corresponding decreases
in decision control and fairness perceptions, as well as
increases in frustration, when expectations of participative
input are not met (e.g., Hunton, 1995; Lind & Tyler,
1988). Expected differences in perceptions of fairness,
decision control, and satisfaction as a function of past
outcome expectations are also consistent with the rela-
tional model of procedural justice (e.g., Lind & Tyler,
1988). Soliciting voice should have fewer symbolic bene-
fits when voice has not been followed in the past.
Expectations for participants in the mute condition are
less clear. Based on referent cognition theory (e.g., Folger,
1986, 1987), no voice may be especially frustrating and
cause resentment when past recommendations have been

followed. Because this assumes that participant input had
been allowed in past decisions, it may be easy for these
participants to imagine more positive outcomes that could
have been obtained if only different procedures were used
(i.e., higher levels of voice were permitted). In contrast,
when participant voice has not been followed in the past,
frustration and resentment may be lower when voice is
not allowed. It may be more difficult for these participants
to imagine more positive outcomes resulting from higher
levels of voice because no one is listening. As levels of
frustration and resentment increase, one would expect de-
creases in perceptions of fairness, decision control, and
outcome satisfaction.
Method
Participants and experimental design. Participants were
members of a professional association of accounting and finan-
cial managers from the publishing, paper, and chemical indus-
tries. Of the 1,000 survey instruments distributed, 667 usable

surveys were returned. The average age of respondents was 37
years, 58% of the population was male and 42% were female,
and supervisors, middle managers, and upper managers repre-
sented 43%, 36%, and 21% of the sample, respectively.
We used a 5 (magnitude of voice) X 2 (task meaningfulness)
X 2 (voice influence) fully crossed factorial design. Participants
were randomized to treatment conditions, and the number of
respondents per cell ranged from 29 to 37. Preliminary tests
indicated no significant difference in mean respondent age, in-
dustry, gender, or managerial position by treatment condition.
Procedures and experimental manipulations. The experi-
mental materials were distributed and returned through profes-
sional association Internet E-mail systems available to all
poten-
tial respondents. The scenario that participants read
manipulated
the magnitude of voice (i.e., mute, 5, 10, 15, and 20 decisions)
in the same manner as reported in Experiment 1. We
manipulated

task meaningfulness by telling participants that their personal
computers were used for either 85% or 15% of the workday.
We manipulated voice influence by telling participants that on
the basis of their past experience, they were either certain or
uncertain that their supervisor would incorporate their requests
into the final decision. Following the scenario, participants in
each condition scrolled through the accompanying question-
naire, which contained sets of randomly ordered dependent mea-
sure questions followed by manipulation check questions. Com-
pleted sections could not be retrieved, so responses could not
be changed.
Dependent measures and manipulation check questions. As
in Experiment 1, dependent measures included perceived proce-
dural fairness (a = .98), perceived decision control (a = .96),
and outcome satisfaction (a = .93). Manipulation check ques-
tions assessed the level of voice, perception of task meaning-
fulness, and influence of previous voice. All manipulation ques-
tions were answered correctly.
Results

Intercorrelations among dependent measures. Depen-
dent measures were significantly and positively associated
with one another, ranging from .61 for the fairness and
decision control measures to .49 for the decision control
and satisfaction measures. Response measures were not
collapsed because the interactive effects of the indepen-
dent variables differed across the response measures.
Shape of the value function. A separate trend analysis
(Beyer, 1988) for each of the three response measures
was conducted within each level of the two independent
variables (task meaningfulness and voice influence). For
each of the 12 analyses, findings indicated a nonlinear
voice value function, with significant linear, quadratic,
and cubic components (p < .0001).
Additional tests. Given confirmation of the nonlinear
components, an ANOV model and associated Duncan's
multiple-range tests were used to check for the expected
interaction effects, as well as to identify the approximate

shape of the value function for voice. For the measures
of procedural fairness, decision control, and outcome sat-
isfaction, significant Voice Magnitude X Task Meaning-
fulness interactions were found, F(4, 647) = 26, p <
.001; F(4, 647) = 9.4, p < .001; F(4, 647) = 30.3,
p < .01, respectively. Consequently, value functions for
fairness, decision control, and satisfaction are plotted sep-
arately within each level of task meaningfulness to facili-
tate visualization of the shape and nature of each value
function (Figure 3), and significant main effects for voice
magnitude and task magnitude are not discussed further.
Table 1 contains cell means, difference scores, signifi-
cance levels, and effect sizes (Cohen, 1988) for the three
response measures within each level of task meaning-
fulness. Discussion of the approximate shape of each of
these value functions is presented below.
Voice value function under high task meaningfulness.
The top half of Table 1 documents no significant step wise

gains in perceptions of fairness or satisfaction when parti-
cipants with no voice (mute condition) were compared
with participants expressing preferences for 5 computer
attributes. Only the perception of control significantly in-
creased from mute to 5 preferences. An increase in voice
from 5 to 10 decisions did not result in significant step-
wise gains on response measures of fairness or control;
only the perception of satisfaction increased. Increasing
the level of voice from 10 to 15 decisions resulted in
significant, as well as the largest, stepwise increases on
all three response measures. The increase in voice from
15 to 20 decisions resulted in significant, but smaller,
stepwise gains in perceptions of fairness and satisfaction,
but there was no significant increase in the perception of
control.
Voice value function under low task meaningfulness.

8 3 -
S
= 9
.2 8
Z 5
° 4
1 3
g - 2
g 1-
* 0
10
Magnitude of Voice
15 20
I —•— High Task Meaningfiilness - •• - Low Task
Meaningfulness |
Figure 3. Shape of value functions for perceptions of procedural
fairness, control, and satisfac-
tion for Experiment 2.
A similar pattern was uncovered when task meaning-
fulness was low (see lower half of Tahle 1). The increase

in voice magnitude from mute to 5 decisions and from 5
to 10 decisions did not result in significant stepwise gains
in perceptions of fairness or satisfaction. However, step-
wise increases in control were significant from mute to 5
decisions and from 5 to 10 decisions. The largest stepwise
gain for each of the response measures occurred when
voice increased from 10 to 15. Changes in the level of
voice from 15 to 20 decisions did not result in significant
increases for any of the three dependent variables. In addi-
tion, the region where the greatest changes took place
(i.e., between 10 and 15 decisions) did not change
whether task meaningfulness of the decision was high or
low; instead, only the elevations (slopes) of the curves
were altered.
Interactive effects of task meaningfulness. Table 2 con-
tains cell means, difference scores, significance levels, and
Table 1

Means, Mean Difference Scores (MD), and Effect Sizes (ES) by
Task Meaningfulness
Difference in means for row-column comparisons
Mute 10
Perception and magnitude
of voice M MD ES MD ES MD ES ES
High task meaningfulness
Fairness
Mute
5 Decisions
10 Decisions
15 Decisions
20 Decisions
Control
Mute
5 Decisions
10 Decisions
15 Decisions
20 Decisions
Satisfaction
Mute
5 Decisions
10 Decisions
15 Decisions
20 Decisions
1.6
2.1

2.6
6.7
7.9
2.7
3.6
4.2
8.2
8.5
2.9
2.7
4.0
7.0
7.9
0.5
1.0*
5.1*
6.3*
0.9
1.5*
5.5*
5.8*
-0.2
1.1*
4.1*
5.0*
0.6

3.2
3.9
0.5
0.9
3.2
3.4
—
0.7
2.5
3.0
0.5
4.6*
5.8*
0.6
4.6*
4.9*
1.3*
4.3*
5.2*
—
2.9
3.6
—
2.7
2.8

0.8
2.6
3.2
4.1*
5.3*
4.0*
4.3*
3.0*
3.9*
2.6
3.4
2.3
2.5
1.8
2.4
1.2* .8
0.3 —
0.9* 0.6
Low task meaningfulness
Fairness
Mute
5 Decisions

10 Decisions
15 Decisions
20 Decisions
Control
Mute
5 Decisions
10 Decisions
15 Decisions
20 Decisions
Satisfaction
Mute
5 Decisions
10 Decisions
15 Decisions
20 Decisions
2.1
2.6
3.1
5.0
5.6
2.5
3.5
4.2
6.4
6.8
4.6
4.8
4.6
6.3
6.3

0.5
1.0*
2.9*
3.5*
1.0*
1.7*
3.9*
4.3*
0.2
0.0
1.7*
1.7*
0.6
1.8
2.1
.6
1.0
2.3*
2.5*
—
—
1.0
1.0
0.5
2.4*

3.0*
0.7*
2.9*
3.3*
-0.2
1.5*
1.5*
—
1.5
1.8
.4
1.7
1.9
—
.9
.9
1.9*
2.5*
2.2*
2.6*
1.7*

1.7*
1.2
1.5 0.6 —
1.3
1.5 0.4 —
1.0
1.0 0.0 —
Note. Effect sizes (Cohen 1988, p. 49) were calculated as
difference in means/root-mean-square error. A
dash is reported in the effect size column when means are not
significantly different.
*p < .05.
effect sizes of each response variable by task meaningfulness
within levels of voice. At lower levels of voice (i.e., mute,
5, and 10 decisions), only the perceptions of satisfaction
were significantly lower in the high- compared with the low-
task-meaningfulness condition. At high levels of voice (15
and 20 decisions), perceptions of fairness, control, and satis-
faction were all significantly more positive in the high- com-
pared with the low-task-meaningfulness condition.
Effects of voice influence. Results indicated only a
significant main effect of voice influence on satisfaction,

F(l,647) = 12.2,p < .01, with higher levels of satisfac-
tion when decision makers were consistent (M = 5.3)
as compared with inconsistent (M = 4.9) in following
participant recommendations. Within each level of voice
magnitude (mute through 20), differences between cell
means in high- and low-voice-influence conditions were
consistent with the main effect for the response measure
of satisfaction, but individual cell contrasts were not sig-
nificantly different. There were no significant effects of
voice influence on perceptions of fairness or control.
Discussion
Voice value function. Results of Experiment 2 were
supportive of a nonlinear value function for voice with
Table 2
Means, Mean Difference Scores, and Effect Sizes by Task
Meaningfulness

Within Levels of Voice
Task
meaningfulness
High
Low
High
Low
High
Low
High
Low
High
Low
High
Low
High
Low
High
Low
High
Low
High
Low
Magnitude
of voice
Mute
Mute
5 Decisions
5 Decisions
10 Decisions
10 Decisions

15 Decisions
15 Decisions
20 Decisions
20 Decisions
Mute
Mute
5 Decisions
5 Decisions
10 Decisions
10 Decisions
15 Decisions
15 Decisions
20 Decisions
20 Decisions
M
Perceptions of fairness
1.6
2.1
2.1
2.6
2.6
3.1
6.7
5.0
7.9
5.6
Perceptions of control
2.7
2.5

3.6
3.5
4.2
4.2
8.2
6.4
8.5
6.8
Difference score
-0.5
-0.5
-0.5
1.7*
2.3*
0.2
0.1
0.0
1.8*
1.7*
Effect size
—
—

—
1.1
1.3
—
—
—
1.1
1.0
Perceptions of satisfaction
High
Low
High
Low
High
Low
High
Low
High
Low
Mute
Mute
5 Decisions
5 Decisions
10 Decisions

10 Decisions
15 Decisions
15 Decisions
20 Decisions
20 Decisions
2.9
4.6
2.7
4.8
4.0
4.6
7.0
6.3
7.9
6.3
-1.7*
-2.1*
-0.6
0.7*
1.6*
1.0
1.3
—
0.4
1.0

Note. Effect sizes (Cohen 1988, p. 49J were calculated as
difference score/root-mean-square error. A dash
is reported in the effect size column when means are not
significantly different.
*p < .05.
both convex and concave components. Perceptions of fair-
ness, control, and satisfaction were more positive as the
magnitude of voice increased. The largest stepwise in-
crease in the response measures occurred when the solici-
tation of voice rose from 10 of 20 to 15 of 20 attributes.
Diminishing marginal returns were found on all three re-
sponse measures when voice further increased from 15
to 20 attributes. Allowing participants to express prefer-
ences for 15 attributes seemed to separate material from
immaterial levels of participation. Perceptions moved
from at or below the midpoint of the scale to above the
midpoint of the scale on nearly all response measures.
The only exception was in the low-task-meaningfulness
condition, where perceptions of fairness increased to near
the midpoint of the scale. Thus, for these participants
voice must occur at sufficiently high levels (i.e., between

50% and 75%) to have a substantial impact.
Influence of task meaningfulness. The more extreme
reactions on the response measures when the task mean-
ingfulness was high, compared with low, documents how
the consequences of voice can be dependent on the deci-
sion context. These results suggest that it may require
more voice to make people feel satisfied with the outcome
when voice is solicited on a personally salient task. How-
ever, when high-task-meaningfulness participants received
more voice, they not only were more satisfied with the
outcome but also perceived the process as fairer and felt
more in control than participants who voiced preferences
on a less meaningful task.
These results extend findings reported by Brockner and
Wiesenfeld (1996). In this regard, procedures have a
greater impact on participants, not only when they receive

unfavorable outcomes but also when the task is more
meaningful. This research is also consistent with the work
of Hunton and Price (1997), who reported stronger perfor-
mance effects when voice was solicited on a more mean-
ingful task.
Voice influence. The weak effects of voice influence
could be related to the manipulation itself. The manipula-
tion may not have created strong enough differential cues
of what to expect in the future to impact perceptions of
fairness and control or to strongly influence perceptions
of satisfaction. Although this may represent a failure of
the strength of the manipulation, it may also be that the
very act of voice solicitation creates a contrary set of
expectations. Unless there is strong evidence to the con-
trary, there may be a tendency to treat voice solicitation
attempts as genuine. That is, participants might feel that
a decision maker would not take the time and expend the
effort required to solicit voice and then discard or ignore

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