business research

1. I Academy of Management Executive, 1996 Vol. 10 No. 4
Protean Careers of the
21st Century
Douglas T. Hall
Executive Overview "The career is dead—long live the career!"' Such is the mixed message
regarding careers that we are carrying into the next millennium. The business
environment is highly turbulent and complex, resulting in terribly ambiguous
and contradictory career signals. Individuals, perhaps in self-defense, are
becoming correspondingly ambivalent about their desires and plans for career
development. The traditional psychological contract in which an employee
entered a firm, worked hard, performed well, was loyal and committed, and thus
received ever-greater rewards and job security, has been replaced by a new
contract based on continuous learning and identity change, guided by the
search for what Herb Shepard called "the path with a heart." In short, the
organizational career is dead, while the protean career is alive and flourishing.
In this special issue of The Executive we will examine the ways the career
environment and the executive of the 21st century will shape the direction of
careers in the years to come. In this opening paper, we will provide a brief
overview of the emerging career landscape, for both organizations and
individuals. Then we will turn to an overview of the papers in this Special Issue
and then to the papers themselves.
The New Career Contract
While the popular writing on this topic has undoubtedly been overdone, it is
clear that in the next century what we are now calling the new career contract
will be simply part of everyday work life. Let us consider what some essential
features of that career contract will be. (These features are summarized in Table
1, based on the work of Hall and Mirvis.)
Protean caieers. The career of the 21st century will be protean, a career that
is driven by the person, not the organization, and that will be reinvented by
the person from time to time, as the person and the environment change.
(This term is derived from the Greek god Proteus, who could change shape at
will.)
Psychological success. The ultimate goal of the career is psychological success,
the feeling of pride and personal accomplishment that comes from achieving
one's most important goals in life, be they achievement, family happiness,
inner peace, or something else. This is in contrast to vertical success under
the old career contract, where the goal was climbing the corporate pyramid
and making a lot of money. While there is only one way to achieve vertical
success (making it to the top), there are infinite ways to achieve psychological
success, as many ways as there are unique human needs.

2. Hall
Table 1
The Protean Career of the 21st Century
• The Goal: Psychological Success
• The Career is Managed by the Person, not the Organization
• The Career is a Lifelong Series of Identity Changes and Continuous Learning
• "Career Age" Counts, not Chronological Age
• The Organization Provides
• Work Challenges and
• Relationships
• Development is not Necessarily:
• Formal Training
• Retraining
• Upward Mobility
• Profile for Success:
• From Know-How To Learn-How
• From Job Security To employability
• From Organizational Careers To Protean Careers
• From Work Self To Whole Self
Source: Douglas T. Hall and Philip H. Mirvis, "New styles of management: Career builders or career
blockers." Presented at the 1995 Work and Family Conference, "The New Employee-Employer Contract:
A Work-Family Perspective," sponsored by the Conference Board and the Families and Work Institute,
New York, N.Y., April 26, 1995.
Continuous learning. The career of the 21st century is not measured by
chronological age and life stages, but by continuous learning and identity
changes. Rather than think of a career as made up of a lifelong series of
developmental stages, as we might expect from the work of 20th century
developmental psychologists such as Daniel Levinson and Donald Super, we
will regard the 21st century career as a series of short learning stages (Figure 1).
What will count will be "career age," not chronological age.
Figure 1
CAREER STAGES: (LEARNING VS. AGE)
THE NEW MODEL: LEARNING STAGES
High
I
Low
M Ex
Ex Exploration
T Trial
Es Establishment
M Mastery
'Es
Ex
M Ex
Ex
• • • *
Ex
Ex
2 3 4
Career Age

3. Academy of Management Executive
The new career
contract is not a pact
with the organization:
it is an agreement
with one's seM and
one's workc The path
to the top has been
replaced by the path
with a heart
Sources of development: Work challenges and lelationships. In the 21st century
model career, growth will be a process of continuous learning fueled by a
combination of the person, work challenges, and relationships. We already
know from a large body of research that the bulk of our career learning comes
from job assignments that stretch us in new ways. We also learn a great deal
from our connections with other people in the work environment, be they
coworkers, subordinates, customers, superiors, or members of various formal
and informal networks.^ Formal training and retraining programs will be less
relevant to the continuous learning process, as they are not only expensive but
too cumbersome, too time-consuming to produce, and too disconnected from
emerging business needs.
Piofile foi success. In the 21st century, demand in the labor market will shift
from those with know-how to those with learn-how. Job security will continue to
fade in importance and will be replaced by the goal of employability. (In the
current environment, employers like Hewlett-Packard are providing a 1996
preview of this element of the 21st century career environment.) Individuals will
expect (and be expected) to bring their whole selves to work; they will not be
expected to park their personal lives and values and passions at the office door.
The result will be a jump in the creative energy that is brought to work.
Psychological Success and the Path with a Heart
The new career contract is not a pact with the organization; it is an agreement
with one's self and one's work. The path to the top has been replaced by the
path with a heart. Herb Shepard used this term to describe success in terms of
one's vision and central values. The path with a heart involves one's own
most-appreciated talents:
These are the things that you can now or potentially could do with
excellence, which are fulfilling in the doing of them; so fulfilling that if you
also get paid to do them, it feels not like compensation, but like a gift.^
Unfortunately, it is easy for a person to become successful in an organization,
and even in a psychological sense (i.e., in terms of job satisfaction), and still
lose sight of one's most deeply-held values. For example, Karen Camp was an
account manager with responsibilities that spanned eight states. She was on a
business trip just after her son Webb's first birthday. She called home—and
learned from the sitter that Webb had just taken his first steps. Her reaction: "I
realized that his first year had gone by so quickly, I had been like a visitor in
his life."*
One loses sight of the path with a heart by failing to realize that one's most
important values or needs may have changed. Early career and life choices may
not necessarily be best for a person in midcareer. As one shocked 42-year-old
manager exclaimed in the middle of a self-reflective career planning exercise,
"Oh, no! I just realized I let a 20-year-old choose my wife and my career!"^
Pursuing the protean career requires a high level of self-awareness and
personal responsibility. Many people cherish the autonomy of the protean
career, but many others find this freedom terrifying, experiencing it as a lack of
external support. A developmental or learning process is required to adapt.
Psychologist Robert Kegan found that fewer than half the adults in his samples
were comfortable operating independently in a complex environment.^
The positive potential of the new protean career is described by David Noer:
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4. Hall
The relationship is still win-win, but it is more equal. The employee does not
blindly trust the organization with his or her career. The organization does
not assume an unassumable burden. The tremendous energy once required to
maintain relationships can be turned to doing good work. The common
ground, the meeting point, is not the relationship, but the explicit task. This
task-focused relationship is not only healthier for the individual and the
organization, it also facilitates the diversity necessary for future survival,
since the emphasis is on the task, not on the gender, race or traits of the
person performing the ^
Career Metacompetencies: Identity and Adaptability
To realize the potential of the new career, the individual must develop new
competencies related to the management of self and career. Since the new
career will be increasingly a continuous learning process, the person must learn
how to develop self-knowledge and adaptability. These have been called
metaskills, since they are the skills required for learning how to learn.^
We can think of learning in terms of two dimensions, one describing the
time span of the learning (long-term or short-term), and one describing what
the learning is about (task learning or personal learning). Personal learning
is learning about one's self, about who one is, about one's identity. When we
combine these two dimensions of learning, we get a four-cell matrix:^
Time Span
Shori
term
Long
term
Object of Learning
Task Self
Improving
performance
Improving
adaptability
Changing attitudes
Developing and
extending identity
Since the new career
will be increasingly a
continuous learning
process, the person
must learn how to
develop
self-knowledge and
adaptability. These
have been called
metaskills, since they
are the skills required
ior learning how fo
learn
Short-term learning about a task is what we call performance or skill learning.
Short-term learning about the self involves learning about one's personal
attitudes (e.g., examining stereotypes in diversity workshops or developing
commitment to a team in a team-building activity). Changing performances and
attitudes both affect current experience at work.
On the other hand, learning to improve task performance over a long time
requires learning how to adapt to changed task conditions over time. And
taking a long-term perspective on the self over time means learning about one's
identity and how one constructs one's views of reality. The more the person can
learn to adapt to changed task conditions and to form new images of self as the
world changes, the more the person is, in fact, learning how to learn. Thus,
adaptability and identity are competencies of a higher order than basic skills
and knowledge. It is these c.apabilities for learning how to learn that will be the
basic currency of the self-directed protean career of the next century. It will
simply be too time-consuming and too costly for people to wait to be told what
to learn or to wait until a new training program is created to create learning for
them.
Relational Learning
Adaptability and identity learning cannot be done alone. They require
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5. Academy of Management Executive
connection and interactions with other people. By enlisting the help of others, a
person is essentially leveraging his or own personal resources—and in the
process is probably also helping the others, as well. Thus, the world's net
supply of resources for learning is expanding.
Not only will diversity
continue to provide a
powerful competitive
advantage for the
organization, but it
will serve a similar
purpose for the
effective protean
individual.
As Joyce Fletcher has pointed out, the main form of learning in the future will
be collaborative, rather than characterized by what she calls "individual
heroics." Fletcher argues that growth-fostering relational interactions will be
distinguished by three qualities:
• Interdependence. ".. .[The first critical quality entails] a belief that
interdependence, rather than autonomy, is the ideal state in which to
achieve, grow, and develop.... Implicit in this belief in interdependence is
an acceptance of the responsibility to contribute to the development of
others and a recognition of the opportunity to grow through these enabling
interactions."
• Mutuality. "Relational growth depends on both parties approaching the
interaction expecting to grow and benefit from it Achieving mutuality in
relational interactions, then, depends on both parties having two sets of
skills—skills in enabling others (ability to assume the expert role in
guiding, teaching, explaining) and skills in being enabled (ability to step
away from the expert role in order to be influenced by and learn from
others)."
• Reciprocity. "Reciprocity refers to the expectation that both parties will
have the skills to achieve this two-directional model of growth and will be
motivated to use them. That is, it assumes that both parties feel a
responsibility and a desire to be both teacher and
For practitioners, Fletcher points out that the critical task is to create conditions
and practices to promote the development of the skills for growth-in-connection.
One must:
• Clarify and communicate the value of relational skills
• Recognize and reward the value that relational activity currently adds to
organizational effectiveness, and
• Address the issue of work-life integration (since much of this relational
learning occurs in personal relationships and is then transferred to the
work setting).
Diversity Learning
Another key resource that' will be part of the career landscape in the next
century will be a clear valuing of differences as a source of learning. Not only
will diversity continue to provide a powerful competitive advantage for the
organization, but it will serve a similar purpose for the effective protean
individual.
Barbara Walker^^ has shown that a specific set of relational skills enables a
person to learn from differences. These are precisely the same as the career
metaskills that we discussed earlier. She describes the core tasks of learning to
value differences as:
• Learning about people one regards as different
• Learning about oneself
• Learning how to work with different people differently.
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6. Hall
Walker writes:
... when people undertake this [valuing differences] work, they develop a
broad range of personal abilities essential to all kinds of endeavors—
including career self-development: learning how to learn, self-discovery,
effective communication, building interdependent relationships, and coping.^^
This, then, completes our quick tour of the expected career landscape of the next
century. We have not discussed issues such as globalization, technology, and
issues of equality of access to rewarding careers. These will be covered in later
papers. Let us turn, then, to a brief overview of the rest of this special issue.
Issue Overview
Because of the strong response to the Call for Papers for this Special Issue on
Careers in the 21st Century, we will be presenting the papers in two sections.
The papers in the first section appear in this issue; the papers in the second
section will appear throughout 1997. This issue deals with strategic issues of
careers in the 21st century. Subsequent papers will cover difficult challenges
posed by 21st century protean careers, such as the working poor, temporary
employment, career entrenchment, and career development in the context of
work teams.
AUred, Snow, and
Miles go beyond the
networked
organization and see
the emergence of the
cellular organization,
a minimalist structure
that exists to support
the activities of
entrepreneurial
professionals. Such
organizations share
many of the properties
of guilds and
professional
associations and
create conditions for
members to take
charge of their own
careers, with rich
resources for
relational learning.
Those of you who are familiar with the careers literature should be pleased with
the number of career thought leaders whose work is represented in this volume.
A number of relatively new faces are presented, as well.
This issue starts with four papers that take far-ranging views of the external
environment of the next century and consider how that environment will play
itself out in career dynamics. In "Characteristics of managerial careers in the
twenty-first century," Brent Allred, Charles Snow, and Raymond Miles take us on
a historical journey to help us understand the origins of modern organizational
careers in the 19th and 20th centuries. Starting with functional structures that fit
the 19th century business requirements of large specialized firms in industries
such as railroads and steel, they move to a divisionalized structure after World
War II to respond to national markets, and then to the matrix form that in the
last third of the 20th century has responded to the requirements of complexity
and change. Each business environment and organizational form created its
own requisite career pattern and set of managerial competencies. The opening
of global markets and global competition at the brink of the 21st century has
created the need for networked organizations and therefore much more flexible
careers.
Allred, Snow, and Miles go beyond the networked organization and see the
emergence of the cellular organization, a minimalist structure that exists to
support the activities of entrepreneurial professionals. Such organizations share
many of the properties of guilds and professional associations and create
conditions for members to take charge of their own careers, with rich resources
for relational learning. In this cellular form, we will see a shift in required
managerial competencies toward the following: knowledge-based technical
specialty, cross-functional and international experience, collaborative
leadership, self-management skills (including skills in work/life balancing), and
personal traits such as flexibility, integrity, and trustworthiness.
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7. Academy of Management Executive
As the environment of the career changes, so too must our language for
conceptualizing and discussing careers. This is part of the larger culture change
that is taking place around the meaning of the career. In their paper, "A career
lexicon for the 21st century," Michael Arthur and Denise Rousseau serve as
guides through this largely-undiscussed shift in meaning. Using the advice of a
manager to an employee as text, they trace through the key words and clarify
for us the new meanings, along with advice on how to employ them for career
self-management.
A somewhat different view of the 21st century career environment is presented
by Nigel Nicholson in "Career systems in crisis: Change and opportunity in the
information age." Nicholson raises the intriguing possibility that the
currently-touted network form may be more mythical than real, just as the old
bureaucratic form never existed in practice the way it was purported to on
paper. In considering the current realities of organizational life (e.g.,
downsizing, delayering) and their total-systems impact on the person, he paints
a stark picture of the new deal in careers and spins out a variety of types of
career systems. Looking at the requirements for careers in the information age,
he stresses the need for maintaining the tension between innovation and
tradition and between centralized and decentralized elements. The goal is a
good linkage between the people system and the job market system by using
the capabilities of the management and information system.
Nicholson's theme of the dark side of the new career contract is picked up and
expanded on by Kenneth Brousseau, Michael Driver, Kristina Eneroth, and
Rikard Larsson in "Career pandemonium: Realigning organizations and
individuals." As they put it, these internal organizational changes are "wreaking
havoc" on traditional careers. Their concern is that the currently popular call for
career self-direction may leave organizations (or their leaders) feeling free of
responsibility for employees' careers, but they point out that employees still
have the need for both stability and change, as Nicholson also argues. Thus,
Brousseau and colleagues conclude that the remedy is for organizations to
recognize the diversity of definitions of career success that we see in the work
force and to support and reward the growth of different sets of competencies
related to these career patterns (linear, expert, spiral and transitory). The
authors present a model and corporate examples for linking organizational
strategies to career cultures.
Moving from broad environmental and cultural changes, the final three papers
offer specific action possibilities for meeting these strategic challenges. Manuel
London reviews research and offers practical ideas in a paper whose title
speaks for itself: "Redeployment and continuous learning in the 21st century:
Hard learning and positive examples from the downsizing era." Again we see
no glossing over of the difficulties of the new protean career, but a
comprehensive review of the employee displacement that has occurred in recent
years, particularly for the older worker. In the emerging economy, many have
been left behind. London describes some of the more important programs,
public, nonprofit, corporate, community, and professional, and their
effectiveness in facilitating career learning and transitions. He concludes with
the good news that these employee development processes can and do work.
Thus, it is in an organization's interests to retain, motivate, and develop older
workers, rather than to displace them.
The issue of promoting employee change (e.g., development, revised identities)
and maintaining some stability has been mentioned in several papers, but up to
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8. Hall
In the emerging
economy, many have
been left behind.
London describes
some of the more
important programs,
public, nonprofit,
corporate, community,
and professional, and
their effectiveness in
facilitating career
learning and
transitions
now we have not focused directly on what this means in practice. We get some
answers in Ed Schein's paper, "Career anchors revisited: Implications for career
development in the 21st century." In this paper, the father of organizational
careers (and this editor's dissertation chair) takes us on a journey back to the
origins of his famous career anchors concept and then considers its relevance to
today's environment. At a time when people are feeling buffeted in all
directions by the winds of change, there are many ways that, ironically, a clear
sense of one's career anchor can promote growth and change.
We conclude this section by coming back to the changing career environment.
We do so by looking inside an environment that has for years had many of the
boundaryless (or networked or cellular) features that our writers are saying will
characterize the future of organizations in other industries: the American film
industry. Candace Jones and Robert DeFillippi, take us "Back to the future in
film: Combining industry- and self-knowledge to meet career challenges of the
21st century." By showing the ways industry-knowledge and self-knowledge
operate to produce boundaryless careers in film, they create a topological map
of important dimensions of the boundaryless career system. This map helps
promote the growth of six key types of learning (or competencies): knowing
what, knowing why, knowing when, knowing how, knowing where, and knowing
who. For each competency, they trace out the challenges and specific strategies
that are used successfully in the American film industry, as well as the
implications for facilitating successful careers in other industries in the future.
This, then, will conclude our first section. I hope you will share my excitement
with the new ways of thinking about careers that these papers represent. I hope
you will see them as realistic in showing the problems as well as the potential
of the new career environment. And I hope you will see them as practical and
concrete in describing ways executives might think about (or rethink) these
future career issues. In subsequent issues, we will conclude by addressing in
detail specific challenges of careers in the 21st century.
Endnotes ' See Douglas T. Hall and Associates, The
Career is Dead—I.ong Live the Career: A
Relational Approach (San Francisco:
Jossey-Bass, 1996). Regarding the new career
contract, see also D.T. Hall and P.H. Mirvis,
"Careers as Lifelong Learning," in A. Howard
(Ed.), The Changing Nature of Work (pp. 323-361).
(San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1995) and D.T. Hall
and P.H. Mirvis, "The New Career Contract:
Developing the whole person at midlife and
beyond." Journal of Vocational Behavior, 47,
269-289.
^ For more detail on relational influences on
career development in the emerging
environment, see Hall and Associates, The
Career is Dead—Long Live the Career (op. cit.)
and Michael B. Arthur and Denise M. Rousseau
(eds.). The Boundaryless Career: A New
Employment Principle for a New Organizational
Era (New York: Oxford University Press, 1996).
See also D.T. Hall and P.H. Mirvis, "Careers as
lifelong learning," in A. Howard (Ed.), The
Changing Nature of Work (San Francisco:
Jossey-Bass, 1995, pp. 323-361) and D.T. Hall and
P.H. Mirvis, "The new career contract:
Developing the whole person at midlife and
beyond," Journal of Vocational Behavior, 47,
269-289.
^ H.A. Shepard, "On the realization of human
potential: A path with a heart." In M.B. Arthur,
L. Bailyn, D.J. Levinson, and H.A. Shepard (Eds.),
WorJcing With Careers. New York: Center for
Research on Careers, Graduate School of
Business, Columbia University, 1984, 25-46.
* Hall. D.T., "Managing yourself: Building a
career." In A.R. Cohen (Ed.), The PortabJe MBAin
Management, New York: Wiley, 1993, 190-206.
^ Hall Ibid.
^ R. Kegan, In Over Our Heads: The Mental
Demands of Modern Life. Cambridge, MA:
Harvard University Press, 1994.
' D. Noer, Healing the Wounds. San Francisco:
Jossey-Bass, 199x, 176-177.
^ D.T. Hall, "Dilemmas in linking succession
planning to individual executive learning."
Human Resource Management, 25, 235-265.
^ Ibid., p. 246.
'" J.K. Fletcher, "A relational approach to the
protean worker." In D.T. Hall and Associates,
The Career is Dead, op. cit., 124-115.
''Ibid.
'^ B.A. Walker, "The value of diversity in
career self-development," In Douglas T. Hall
and Associates, The Career is Dead—Long Live
the Career. Op. cit.
'= Ibid., p. 267.
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9. Academy of Management Executive
About the Author Douglas T. (Tim) Hall is a professor of organizational behavior and director of the Executive
Development Roundtable in the School of Management at Boston University. He is the author of
Careers in Organizations and editor of Career Development and The Career is Dead—Long Live the
Career: A Relational Approach. He is the co-author of Organizafionai Climates and Careers, The
Two-Career Couple, Experiences in Management and Organizational Behavior, Human Resource
Management, Career Development in Organizations, Turbulence in (he American Woripiace, and
co-editor of The Handbook of Career Theory. His research interests include work/life balance, career
planning and development, executive succession, executive coaching, and managing diversity. He
has served as a consultant to organizations such as Sears, AT&T, General Electric, Ford Motor
Company, Eli Lilly, Analog Devices, and the World Bank.
For permission to reproduce this article, contact: Academy of Management, P.O. Box 3020, Briarcliff Manor, NY 10510-8020
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