Part 1 Individual Factors Affecting Voter Turnout Based on .docx

Part 1: Individual Factors Affecting Voter Turnout
Based on our class discussion of voter turnout, you are going to
examine individual factors
affecting turnout and how they have changed over the past 50
years. To do so, you will be using
historical data provided by the United States Census Bureau.
This data is located here:
http://www.census.gov/hhes/www/socdemo/voting/publications/
historical/index.html
You will need to download the Excel spreadsheet files (XLS or
CSV) for Table A-1 and Table
A-2.
Contained in Table A-1 are rates of self-reported voter turnout
in elections from 1964 to 2014 by
age. You will analyze the percent of the total population that
voted for age groups 18-24, 25-44,
45-64, and 65 years and over.
Contained in Table A-2 are rates of self-reported voter turnout
in elections from 1964 to 2014 by
educational attainment. You will analyze the percent of the total
population that voted for
educational attainment levels less than 9th grade, 9th to 12th
grade, no diploma, high school
graduate or GED, some college or associate’s degree, and
bachelor’s degree or more.
You should cut and paste each of these columns into a new
spreadsheet for the elections from

1964 to 2014. Once this is done, sort the data by ascending
year. Finally, you should only keep
presidential elections (1964, 1968, 1972, 1976, 1980, 1984,
1988, 1992, 1996, 2000, 2004, 2008,
2012).
Using a spreadsheet program, create two different line graphs
showing how voter turnout rates
have changed over time by age and level of educational
attainment respectively. The x-axis
should be the years from 1964 through 2012 (presidential
elections only) and the y-axis should
be percent that voted. In the respective line graph, a separate
line should be drawn for the each
category age (18-24, 25-44, 45-64, and 65 years and over) and
educational attainment (less than
9th grade, 9th to 12th grade, no diploma, high school graduate
or GED, some college or associate’s
degree, and bachelor’s degree or more).
Cut and paste each of the line graphs into your homework
document labeled 1a and 1b. For each
line graph, describe in a few sentences the 48-year trend in
voter turnout.
1c. In a few sentences, explain why we would expect to see
differences in turnout among
different categories of age and level of education.
Part 2: Institutional Factors Affecting Voter Turnout
In this section you will be studying the relationship between
institutional factors and voter
turnout. Specifically, you will test the effect of rules governing
requests for absentee ballots on

turnout.
You will use data collected by Cemenska et al. (2009). The
study describing the data and a
subset of the data based on the 2008 election are posted on
Classes in the folder
“Resources/Research Assignment.” The data file you will work
with is called
Pew_Early_Vote.xls.
Over the past several decades, states have changed several
electoral laws regarding how citizens
may vote. Here we will focus on absentee voting. Absentee
voting has long been available for
individuals who meet certain requirements like being out of
state or physically unable to make it
to the polls on election. However, since 1972 many states have
relaxed these requirements. This
has made absentee voting an alternative to going to the polls for
all citizens. Absentee ballots
typically must be requested by mail or in person a certain
number of days prior to election day.
You will be analyzing two variables:
• abs_request_deadline_inperson is the number of days before
the election that voters may
go in and request an absentee ballot by personally appearing at
the office of an election
official. For example, if the value is equal to 10, a request for
an absentee ballot made in
person must be at least 10 days before the election. States
that do not allow absentee
ballots to be requested in person are coded as missing.

• abs_request_deadline_receipt is the number of days before the
election that postal
requests for absentee ballots must be received in order to be
honored. For example, if the
value is equal to 10, a request for an absentee ballot made by
mail must be received at
least 10 days before the election. States that do not allow
absentee ballots to be requested
in by mail are coded as missing.
In order to study the relationship between voter turnout and
these two variables, you must add
voter turnout in 2008 by state. This data is located here:
http://www.census.gov/hhes/www/socdemo/voting/publications/
p20/2008/tables.html
Download Table 4-A and add Percent voted (Total 18+) to
Pew_Early_Vote.xls for each of the
corresponding states.
Now we can analyze the relationship between these absentee
voting requirements and voter
turnout. You will first construct two separate scatterplots in
which the absentee voting
requirement (in-person and mail) is on the x-axis and voter
turnout is on the y-axis.
2a. Based on our discussion in class about the relationship
between institutional factors and
turnout, what do you expect to see for absentee ballot request
deadlines? What general pattern
should the points fall on the scatterplot you are about to draw?
Why?

2b. Now draw a scatterplot for the in-person deadline for
absentee ballot requests to be
received.
I recommend using Microsoft Excel to construct the scatterplot
and determine the regression line.
If you are familiar with a different spreadsheet or data analysis
program, you are welcome to use
it instead—as long as you are able to complete the tasks listed
here.
• If you do not know how to use Excel to construct a scatterplot,
the instructions posted
here may be helpful:
http://office.microsoft.com/en-us/excel-help/present-your-data-
in-a-scatter-chart-or-a-
line-chart-HA010227478.aspx?CTT=1
(you may have to cut and paste the link into your browser)
• Please be patient—if you are not used to doing this it may take
a couple of tries to get
things right. Make sure to give yourself plenty of time to
complete the assignment.
• Remember that the scatterplot should have absentee ballot
request (either in person or
postal) deadline on the x-axis and the voter turnout on the y-
axis.
• The axes should the labeled and the chart should have an
appropriate title.
Once you have drawn the scatterplot, have Excel calculate the

regression line and regression
equation and add it to the figure:
• Instructions about how to do this may be found at:
http://office.microsoft.com/en-us/excel-help/add-change-or-
remove-a-trendline-in-a-
chart-HP010342158.aspx?CTT=1
(you may have to cut and paste the link into your browser)
Copy and paste the scatterplot with a regression line and
regression equation into your
homework document.
2c. Following the same steps as 2b, draw a scatterplot with a
regression line and regression
equation for he postal deadline for absentee ballots to be
received. Copy and paste the scatterplot
with a regression line and regression equation into your
homework document.
2d. What does this analysis tell us about the relationship
between absentee voting
requirements and voter turnout?
2e. What does the equation for the regression line predict
would the level of voter turnout in
states where postal absentee ballot requests are required to be
received 10 days before the
election? Show your work.
2f. Does the analysis meet your expectations as specified in
your response to 2a? Say why
or why not.

Part 3: Do Voters and Abstainers Have the Same Preferences?
The goal of this section is to assess the whether voters and
nonvoters have different policy
preferences. Convention wisdom, based on analysis done based
on data from 1972 by Wolfinger
and Rosenstone (1980), was that voters and nonvoters have
similar policy preferences. However,
more recent work by Leighley and Nagler (2014) suggests this
may not be the case.
To study this question, you will use the General Social Survey
(GSS) cumulative data file. In
surveys administered between 1972 and 2014, the GSS asked
Americans about their preferences
on a variety of issues.
To analyze these data, you will use an online tool called the
Survey Documentation & Analysis
program, or SDA. The SDA website for the GSS may be found
at:
http://sda.berkeley.edu/cgi-bin/hsda?harcsda+gss14
Open this link in your web browser. You will be analyzing a
GSS question that asks about
government spending in five different areas:
I would like to talk with you about some things people think
about today. We are faced with
many problems in this country, none of which can be solved
easily or inexpensively. I'm going to
name some of these problems, and for each one I'd like you to
tell me whether you think we're
spending too much money on it, too little money, or about the
right amount.

... are we spending too much, too little, or about the right
amount on…
The five policies asked about are:
Welfare? (NATFARE)
Improving and protecting the nation’s health? (NATHEAL)
Improving the nation's education system? (NATEDUC)
Mass transportation? (NATMASS)
Assistance for childcare? (NATCHLD)
You will compare responses among voters and non-voters in the
2012 election to the five policy
questions. The GSS question asked (VOTE12):
In 2012, you remember that Obama ran for President on the
Democratic ticket against Romney
for the Republicans. Do you remember for sure whether or not
you voted in that election?
I will walk through how to analyze the first question
(NATFARE). The other four should be
analyzed the same way. At the top of the SDA
Frequencies/Crosstabulation Program:
- Type VOTE12 into the box next to the word “Column.”
- Type the word NATFARE into the box next to the word

“Row.”
Under “Table Options”:
- Check “Column” under “Percentaging” in the lower left-hand
box.
Leave everything else as is (see the screenshot on the next
page).
- Now click the Run the Table button.
A screenshot of what the page should look like is on the next
page.
3. Record the percent of “VOTED” who respond “TOO
LITTLE”, the percent of “DID
NOT VOTE” who responded “TOO LITTLE”, and the difference
between the two in a table (in
you homework document):
Issue % of Voters % of Nonvoters Difference
Welfare
Improving and protecting the nation’s health
Improving the nation’s education system
Mass transportation
Assistance for childcare

SDA Frequencies/Crosstabulation Program
Help: General / Recoding Variables
REQUIRED Variable names to specify
Row: NATFARE
OPTIONAL Variable names to specify
Column: VOTE12
Control:
Selection Filter(s): Example: age(18-50)
Weight: COMPWT - Composite weight: WTSSALL *
OVERSAMP * FORMWT
TABLE OPTIONS
Percentaging:
Column Row Total
Confidence intervals Level: 95 percent
Standard error of each percent
Design effect (deft) for each percent
Sample design: Complex SRS
N of cases to display:
Unweighted Weighted
Summary statistics
Question text Suppress table
Color coding Show Z-statistic
Include missing-data values
CHART OPTIONS
Type of chart: Stacked Bar Chart
Bar chart options:
Orientation: Vertical Horizontal

Visual Effects: 2-D 3-D
Show percents: Yes
Palette: Color Grayscale
Size - width: 600 height: 400
Title:
Run the Table Clear Fields
Change number of decimal places to display
For percents and confidence intervals: 1
For std. errors (relative to percents): +1
For DEFT: +3
For weighted N's: 1
For summary statistics and Z-statistic: 2
Now we will look at the same question as above, however
welfare is described differently.
Participants are once again asked:
I would like to talk with you about some things people think
about today. We are faced with
many problems in this country, none of which can be solved
easily or inexpensively. I'm going to
name some of these problems, and for each one I'd like you to
tell me whether you think we're
spending too much money on it, too little money, or about the
right amount.
... are we spending too much, too little, or about the right
amount on…
Now, the policy is described as “assistance to the poor”:

Assistance to the poor? (NATFAREY)
4a. Following the same steps to analyze NATFAREY illustrated
in 3, record the percent of
“VOTED” who respond “TOO LITTLE”, the percent of “DID
NOT VOTE” who responded
“TOO LITTLE”, and the difference between the two in a table
(in you homework document):
Issue % of Voters % of Nonvoters Difference
Assistance to the poor
4b. When comparing what you found in 4a and 3, do you
observe any differences in support
for welfare? If so, why would this be the case?
Part 4: Conclusions
4. In a paragraph or two, assess the assertion that voters are
representative of the electorate.
Use evidence from the analysis conducted as part of this
exercise to support your conclusion.1
What are the normative implications of your findings given that
previous research has shown that
elected officials are more responsive to voters than nonvoters?
Do you think who votes matters?
Now you are done! Give your responses a close reading for
grammar, spelling and typos
(deductions will be made to your grade for careless mistakes).

Again, make sure your name,
your T.A.’s name and your recitation meeting time are listed on
the first page. Submit the
assignment at the beginning of class on April 25th.
1 Another useful fact is that previous research has shown
that absentee voters tend to be more
educated and older than those who vote in person on election
day.
Report on the 1972-2008 Early and Absentee Voting Dataset
Nathan Cemenska
The Ohio State University
Jan E. Leighley
University of Arizona
Jonathan Nagler
New York University
Daniel P. Tokaji

The Ohio State University
Submitted to The Pew Charitable Trusts as part of
Non-Precinct Voting in the States: An Extensive Dataset of
State Laws
and Related Resources
December 14, 2009
Portions of this text were included in an earlier report,
Preliminary Report on the 2008 Early and Absentee Voting
Dataset,
submitted to The Pew Charitable Trusts April 30, 2009
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1. Introduction
Recent decades have seen a large number of states adopt non-
precinct voting procedures, and

such reforms have now gained wide public support. In striking
contrast, scholars have paid
relatively little attention to the impact of alternative procedures,
locations and timing in the
conduct of elections. One of the reasons for this lack of
attention is the absence of a detailed
dataset on state laws governing the availability and procedures
associated with non-precinct
voting laws for federal, state and local elections. With the
support of the Pew Foundation, we
have collected data on state laws governing non-precinct voting
in each state for each
presidential year election from 1972 thru 2008. This report
describes the procedures used to
collect these data and describes our basic findings regarding the
availability of, methods for and
identification requirements associated with absentee and early
voting in the states. The dataset
of laws is available from the Pew Trust as both a spreadsheet
and a Stata dataset. In addition to
being used to study the evolution of the laws on non-precinct
voting, when combined with other
data this dataset can be used to measure the impact of non-
precinct voting on elections and
campaigns. Leighley and Nagler have used it to study the
impact of non-precinct voting on
turnout.1 It could also be used to study the impact of non-
precinct voting on campaign spending
or campaign mobilization activity.
2. Non-Precinct Voting in the States: Absentee and In-
Person Early Voting
Federal, state and local elections in the U.S. are governed
primarily by state statutes and
administrative codes, and our data collection for 1972-2008 is
guided by this principle. Of

course, several notable federal statutes also govern the
implementation of elections in the states,
including the Voting Rights Act, the National Voter
Registration Act, and the Help America
Vote Act. While this study interpreted state laws in the context
of these federal statutes, it
primarily reports the content of state law as it is written, even
where state law appears to deviate
from federal law and would therefore be void.
Our documentation of state laws focuses on two types of non-
precinct voting available in
the states: absentee voting and in-person early voting. These
terms are sometimes used
interchangeably by policymakers as well as academics, and state
legislative statutes governing
their availability sometimes overlap as well. Consequently, it
was necessary to first clearly
define each term so that states could be accurately categorized
on various dimensions of these
policies. We define absentee voting as requesting, completing
and returning a ballot prior to
Election Day, and being able to do so without being present in
person at an election office or
precinct.
1 Leighley, Jan E. and Jonathan Nagler, ``The Effects of Non-
Precinct Voting Reforms on
Turnout, 1972-2008’’, December, 2009, report produced for the
Pew Charitable Trusts’ Make
Voting Work.

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We define in-person early voting as a one-stop transaction in
which the voter requests a
ballot, completes the ballot, and returns the completed ballot.
If any portion of this three-part
transaction does not occur simultaneously, or if it occurs at
another location, it is not in-person
early voting by our definition. Therefore, states were only
classified as allowing early voting if
the relevant statutory language explicitly permits the voter to
complete the ballot in the presence
of election officials. This definition may exclude some states in
which early voting takes place,
where those operations are not explicitly described in state
statutes. For instance, many states
allow voters to request absentee ballots in person and return
them in person. There may be
nothing to stop a local election official working under this
regime from permitting voters who
have requested ballots in person to complete them immediately
on site and return them to the
official. However, because a one-stop transaction is not
explicitly mentioned in state statutes, we
did not classify such a state as having “in-person early voting.”
We use the terms “in-person
early voting” and “early voting” interchangeably below.
States may vary in numerous respects in how they allow (or
require) citizens to complete
each of the three required steps (requesting, completing and
returning a ballot) and we have
documented these variations, as described below. We also code

state laws with respect to details
regarding eligibility, timing and identification requirements
associated with both absentee voting
and in-person early voting.
One case that often causes confusion in the use of the terms
absentee voting and early
voting is Oregon, which conducts all statewide elections by
mail (delivery and returns). Because
voting-by-mail can be done before election day and does not
take place in traditional precincts,
the state might be considered as having a form of early or
absentee voting. In our dataset,
however, we code Oregon (like the other states) based on the
above definitions of absentee and
in-person early voting. Under these definitions, voting-by-mail
is neither early nor absentee
voting. Instead, in accordance with our definitions, we code
Oregon’s absentee and early voting
rules based on state laws specific to those individuals who do
not vote by the regular vote-by-
mail system rules, e.g., those individuals who will be away from
their residence during the
voting period.
We emphasize that the data we have collected are based entirely
on state statutes and
administrative law. We have no data on how state or local
officials implement these state laws.
Where possible, we have coded some details as to whether state
statutes or administrative law
allow for county or municipal level variations. However, for
those states that allow such
variations, we have no relevant information as to the extent to
which local officials take
advantage of these options.

3. Coding Procedures and Dataset
The primary research method used to produce this dataset was
review of relevant state
statutes and administrative codes (hereinafter referred to simply
as “laws”) identified using
standard search procedures in Lexis-Nexis and Westlaw. The
goal was to identify the contours
of the laws according to their plain meaning, even if other
sources suggested that actual practice
may sometimes deviate from that meaning. The review did not
take into account any case law
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that might have interpreted these laws in a way that deviated
from their plain meaning. For
additional details regarding the challenges of coding legal
statutes over time, see Appendix A.
After identifying the relevant laws, researchers coded each state
on various statutory
details associated with state absentee and early voting laws.
Coding procedures were developed
based on discussions and planning sessions conducted by our
research team, which consists of
both experienced elections attorneys and senior political

scientists. We first developed a list of
attributes of each type of voting that we expected to be
observable in the state laws, and then
developed for each of these variables a discrete set of categories
to which states could be
assigned. Each substantive category was represented by a
numerical value, and these coded data
were entered into a spreadsheet format, where each row
represents a different state, and each
column in that spreadsheet represents a different variable.
Work was divided between two experienced elections attorneys
and two law students.
The attorneys trained, supervised, and reviewed for accuracy
the work of the law students, who
conducted most of the primary research. The law students
relied on the coding procedures the
research team had developed initially (and modified as
necessary throughout the course of data
collection) and reduced to writing in the codebook. When the
law students were uncertain as to
how to code specific laws, they consulted with the lead election
attorneys, who reviewed the
primary research, documented the issues involved and made the
final coding decisions.
The data we have collected on absentee voting include variables
that document:
1. whether individuals must provide an excuse to vote absentee.
2. whether individuals can permanently register as voting
absentee.
3. how individuals may request absentee ballots.

4. how individuals may return absentee ballots.
5. identification requirements for requesting and returning
absentee ballots.
6. deadlines for requesting and returning absentee ballots.
7. restrictions and rules imposed on first-time voters voting
absentee.
The data we have collected on in-person early voting include
variables that document:
1. whether individuals must provide an excuse to vote early.
2. identification requirements for early voting.
3. the time period available for early voting.
4. the number of sites and hours of operation for early voting
sites.
5. restrictions and rules imposed on first-time voters voting
early.
The dataset consists of 53 state-level variables for each
presidential election year between
1972 and 2008; 1972 was chosen as the first year for data
collection because it is the
conventional starting date for empirical studies of contemporary
voter turnout in the U.S. given
the dramatic changes in federal voting and civil rights laws in
the 1960s. The statutes of each
state were coded according to what laws were in effect for each
presidential election from 1972
to 2008. The unit of analysis is the state-presidential year (e.g.,
Alabama in 1972, Alaska in
1972 . . . Wyoming in 2008). Each cell entry in the dataset
represents the nature of the legal
statute governing non-precinct voting in that state for that year,
and is tagged with the particular

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state statute that our coding is based on. We include in
Appendix B the codebook for the dataset,
including the frequencies for each variable in 2008.
4. Overview of Findings: Non-Precinct Voting Laws in the
States
Below are the main findings from the data, contrasting the
major features of non-precinct voting
laws in 2008 compared to 1972:
• While in 2008 all states made available some form of absentee
voting, only 27 states
allowed individuals to cast an absentee ballot without
specifying an excuse. In 1972,
only two states allowed no-excuse absentee voting.
• In 2008, thirty-four states required election officials to offer
some form of early voting,
while an additional four states permitted it. In 2008 31 states
offered no excuse early
voting, compared to only five states offering no-excuse early
voting in 1972.
• In 2008, state statutes most commonly identified mail (37),
fax (26) and in-person (39)
means for requesting absentee ballots; only 15 states explicitly
authorized third-party
ballot requests, and three states explicitly prohibited this
practice. In 1972, mail and in-

person means were most common, while no state specifically
authorized requests by fax.
• Most states allowed for mail (47) or in-person (40) return of
absentee ballots in 2008.
Twenty-five states permitted third parties to return these ballots
on behalf of the voter in
2008, up from five in 1972. No state allowed the return of
ballots by email or internet
over the entire period (except for some states that allow those
individuals who are
covered under UOCAVA to do so).
• Identification requirements for requesting absentee ballots are
minimal: 29 states do not
require any form of identification. The other states have
various requirements: ten states
require the presentation of an identification number, and nine
states require a signature
match; only two states require absentee ballot requests to be
notarized.
• The number of states requiring local officials offer early
voting has increased from 21 to
34 between 1972 and 2008. However, whereas in 1972 only
five of the 21 states with
early voting allowed no-excuse early voting, in 2008 fully 31 of
the 34 states with early
voting allowed no-excuse early voting.
• Early voting periods—how early relative to Election Day, and
for how long—varied
substantially by state in 2008. Six states had an early voting
period of less than or equal
to ten days, while 13 states had periods between 11 and 20 days,
five states had periods

between 21 and 30 days, and four states had early voting
periods longer than 30 days.
Sixteen states require weekend early voting hours
• The minimum number of early voting sites also varied greatly
in 2008, with three states
limiting early voting sites to one, 20 states allowing local
officials to offer more sites at
their discretion, and three states requiring additional sites based
on other criteria
(population size, for example). Statutes in twelve states did not
specify any details
regarding the number of early voting sites.
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5. Absentee Voting Laws, 1972-2008
Since 1972, all 50 states have offered absentee voting for those
citizens who show that they
cannot be present at the polls on election day (e.g., physical
incapacity or travel on election day).
By 2008, over half the states offered no-excuse absentee voting.
This represents a huge and
widely discussed change since 1972, when only two states
(Idaho and Tennessee) offered no-
excuse absentee voting. Figure 1 shows this increase over the
36 year period. In 2008, 11 of the
27 no-excuse states provided for permanent absentee
registration. In the other 16 states with no-

excuse absentee voting, citizens must request an absentee ballot
in each election in which they
seek to vote, rather than automatically having such a request
registered with election officials. In
four states with absentee voting only for those proving cause,
voters are allowed to register for
permanent absentee status (provided they meet the state
standard for eligibility for absentee
voting).
In 2008 the most common acceptable forms of requesting
absentee ballots were in-
person, by mail or by fax. Most states in 2008 allowed for mail
or in-person return of absentee
ballots. While 25 states permitted third parties to return these
ballots on behalf of the voter, no
state allowed the return of ballots by email or internet (except
for some states that allow those
individuals who are covered under the Uniformed and Overseas
Citizens Absentee Voting Act
(UOCAVA) to do so). Identification requirements for
requesting absentee ballots were minimal
in 2008, with 29 states not requiring any identification.
Twelve states require no ID to return an
absentee ballot. In 28 states, a signature match is sufficient.
Requirements vary in other states.
One state pairs a signature match with an ID number
requirement. The other nine states require
some form of identification to return an absentee ballot.
[Figure 1. Absentee Voting Laws, 1972-2008]

The most commonly authorized forms of requesting absentee
ballots, in 2008 as in 1972,
were by mail and in person (see Figure 2). Though authorized
by fewer states than mail or in-
person requests, requests for absentee ballots by a third party
were authorized by a substantially
larger number of states in 2008 than in 1972 (15 vs. five). The
availability of absentee ballots by
fax has risen even more sharply. As shown in Figure 3, the
number of states authorizing
absentee ballot requests by fax increased from 0 in 1972 to 26
in 2008. Another notable but
more recent increase is in the number of states authorizing
absentee ballot requests by the web.
No states authorized such requests in 2000, compared to nine
states in 2008. The number of
states authorizing absentee ballot requests by phone increased
as well, from one state in 1972 to
five states in 2008.
[Figure 2. Traditional Methods of Requesting Absentee Ballots,
1972-2008 ]
[Figure 3. Electronic Methods of Requesting Absentee Ballots,
1972-2008 ]

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Trends in the number of states authorizing absentee ballot
submission by traditional
means are similar to those for absentee ballot requests. As
shown in Figure 4, most states’ laws
expressly authorize absentee ballot submissions by mail and in
person (47 and 40, respectively).
The largest change in absentee ballot submission methods since
1972 is for returns by a third-
party, authorized by five states in 1972 and by 25 in 2008. In
contrast, electronic methods for
submitting absentee ballots are authorized by only three states
(by fax) in 2008 (see Figure 5).
Thus, the states are more restrictive in how citizens may submit,
compared to how citizens may
request, absentee ballots.
[Figure 4. Traditional Methods of Submitting Absentee Ballots,
1972-2008 ]
[Figure 5. Electronic Methods of Submitting Absentee Ballots,
1972-2008 ]
The average number of days prior to the election for absentee
ballot requests and
submissions has been quite stable. The average number of days

before election day a ballot must
be requested has decreased from four to three since 1972; and
the average number of days before
an election that a postal request must be received has remained
at five. For absentee ballot
submissions, returns made in person could be made on election
day in all states, in 2008 as well
as 1972. States vary with respect to whether eligibility of
postal returns is based on postmark
date or receipt date, but in either case states have maintained
stable (and limited) requirements.
On average throughout the years from 1972 to 2008, postal
ballot returns must be postmarked
one day prior to the election and postal ballot returns must be
received by one day after the
election.
6. Early Voting Laws, 1972-2008
As shown in Figure 6, the number of states that require that
election officials offer early voting
has increased from 21 to 34 states between 1972 and 2008,
while the number of states that allow,
but do not require, officials to offer early voting has increased
from zero to four. The most
dramatic change over the time period we consider is that
between 1972 and 2008 the number of
states that offer no-excuse early voting has increased from five
to 31. Thus, many more citizens
have the option of early voting today than in 1972. This
significant increase in the availability
of early voting is quite similar to that shown for no excuse
absentee voting in Figure 1 above.
And it is indicative of the tremendous variation in how elections

are conducted across the states.
Whereas for some citizens election day’’ is really a two week or
more period, for other citizens
election day’’ is still ”just’ the Tuesday after the first Monday
in November.
[Figure 6. Early Voting Laws, 1972-2008]
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8
Among the 24 states with no-excuse early voting that clearly
specified the early voting
period, the mean length of the early voting period in 2008 was
18 days, with the shortest period
being three days and the longest period being 44 days. On
average early voting ended two to
three days before election day in 2008.
7. Comparing Absentee and Early Voting Statutes in the
States
In this section we address two questions regarding the
availability of absentee and early voting in
the states, with some attention to changes over time. First, to

what extent do states that adopt
one type of non-precinct voting also adopt the other? And,
second, to what extent has the
adoption of non-precinct voting varied by region?
Table 10 shows the distribution in 1972 of states offering
combinations of absentee
voting and early voting. Only two states offered no-excuse
absentee voting (Tennessee and
Idaho), and they both offered early voting, with Idaho allowing
both no-excuse early voting and
no-excuse absentee voting.
[Table 1. Absentee and Early Voting in the States (1972)]
In 2008, all of the 22 states that offered no-excuse absentee
voting also offered no-excuse
early voting. Another six states offered no-excuse early voting,
and an additional three states
offered no-excuse absentee voting. This means that in 31 states
voters have the option of voting
prior to election day. And we can see that eight of the nine
states that neither offer no-excuse
absentee voting, nor authorize early voting, are concentrated in
the Northeast. Eight of the 13
states in the Western census region are located in the bottom
right-corner of the table, among the
states offering both no-excuse early voting and no-excuse
absentee voting. Thus some regions in
the U.S. are more aggressive in implementing non-precinct
voting than are others.

[Table 2. Absentee and Early Voting in the States (2008)]
We show the variations over time among the regions in Table
3. As shown there, the
availability of no-excuse absentee voting is highest in the West,
fairly widespread in the Midwest
and South, and least available in the Northeast. All the Western
states offered no-excuse
absentee voting in 2008, compared to only one in 1972. Early
voting is widespread in both the
South and West, fairly widespread in the Midwest, and least
available in the Northeast.
Interestingly, the mean early voting periods in the Western
states have gotten shorter since 1972
(going from 35 to 16 days), while getting longer in the Midwest
states (from 22 to 29 days).
[Table 3. Absentee and Early Voting by Region (1972 and
2008)]
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8. Summary of State Electoral Laws Governing Non-
Precinct Voting, 1972-2008

The legal availability of no-excuse absentee voting and no-
excuse early voting has increased
dramatically since 1972. As we document above, the means of
requesting and returning absentee
ballots, and the length of the early voting period, varies
substantially across states. Changes in
the methods of requesting and submitting absentee ballots, as
well as early voting, have been
modest, though electronic forms of balloting seem to be
increasing rapidly in recent election
years.
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9. Appendix A: Coding Challenges
The main challenge in coding these statutes over time was in
finding the statutes from earlier
periods. Electronic sources (Lexis and Westlaw) currently only
go back to 1982 for
approximately 75% of states. As a result, traditional legal
sources were used for those state
statutes not available through Lexis-Nexis and Westlaw. For
the more recent years, law students
were able to use hard copies of state statutes and administrative
codes to document statutory
changes over time. Unfortunately, the same type of searches
could not be conducted for earlier

years because most law libraries either dispose of outdated
statute and administrative code books
or put them into a warehousing facility where they cannot be
retrieved without special
permission. The libraries did, however, have books of what are
referred to as "session laws."
Books of session laws are issued every year by each state and
are essentially compendiums of the
text of each bill that was passed into law. The session law
books come with an index that one
can use to find whether any particular law has changed in any
particular year. Project staff relied
on these indices, eliminated changes to election law statutes
that were determined to be irrelevant
(e.g., grammatical changes), and coded those laws that were
relevant.
A related problem regarding original sources was that in a few
cases the law that was on
the books in 1972 had not been altered for fifty or even one
hundred years, but the indexing
systems were not adequate to determine the last year they were
amended. This might happen, for
instance, if the legislature had decided at some point in history
to "recodify" state statutes by
organizing them in a different order and indexing them
according to a different numbering
system. The indices of the session laws often did not
acknowledge the recodification, but were
written as if the year of the recodification was the first year that
the statute in question had been
on the books. Additional research on the timing of these
recodification changes allowed project
staff to determine the appropriate code section of the statute
that existed before the
recodification.

In one case, where existing resources in various law libraries in
Ohio did not provide the
detail we needed, Nathan Cemenska, our leading staff legal
researcher, travelled to Annapolis,
Maryland, the only place in America where old copies of the
Maryland administrative code
could be found.
A second challenge the research team faced was to maintain the
validity and reliability of
the data being coded as the work progressed and the researchers
became more experienced with
the statutory codes being translated into data. Many small
changes in the wording of the
codebook were made in order to increase understanding and iron
out ambiguities in how the
codebook should be interpreted; these reflect more on the
language of the codebook than on what
coding procedures were followed. Another more substantive
example of modifications to the
coding process is how we adjusted our coding on permanent
absentee voting statutes (V3). We
initially trained our staff to ignore special rules or regulations
that would apply only in a small
percentage of cases and instead focus on the "main rule" that
would apply to most people for
permanent absentee voting statutes. However, we found that
only a few states allowed any
individual to sign up to receive absentee ballots on a permanent
basis, but that many of them

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allowed this procedure for individuals who were permanently
disabled. For that reason, we
thought that coding nearly every state as not having permanent
absentee voting was invalid. We
thus modified our coding procedures and codebook to document
that states that permitted the
disabled to sign up permanently for absentee ballots; we
instructed our researchers to make sure
they conformed with the updated language in the codebook.
Coding of states that had been
completed prior to this change was reviewed and corrected, as
needed. This example is offered
to illustrate the way we managed the coding team to maintain
the integrity of the data as we
made adjustments that we thought necessary.
More broadly, to produce the highest quality dataset to
distribute to other scholars, we
used a team approach that involved a high level of daily
interaction of our supervising legal
researcher, Nathan Cemenska, with research staff. Two features
of these communications
include 1) all-day teleconferences with our researchers that
encouraged constant communication
and promoted identifying and addressing problems as they
occurred, and 2) using online
collaboration tools (the Google Docs office suite) that made it
possible to physically see what
each individual researcher was doing to the codebook and
spreadsheet at any particular time.
This created a high level of integration and coordination and
Cemenska was able to analyze and

check the researcher's work as it was being produced, rather
than at a later time when the
researcher might no longer be able to explain what he or she
was thinking at the time he or she
entered the data and possibly continued working in a manner
that did not meet the project’s
standards.
We also performed more detailed checks of particular
variables that were identified as
difficult to code. These included variable V12, which indicated
whether a state offered voters the
ability to request, receive, cast and return a ballot before
election day in a one-stop transaction.
It was important to double-check this variable because although
it is meant to go to the very
heart of the concept of "early voting," state statutes use
different terminology for this type of
transaction, or may even have outlined the procedure for
conducting it but failed to give any
name to the procedure at all. We also double-checked variables
V10 and V14, which concerned
whether special identification requirements applied to first-time
voters in a particular state. We
checked these variables because there were a number of states
that appeared to have no such
rules on the books despite the fact that the special ID
requirements are part of federal law. For
each of these variables, Cemenska returned to the original
statutes that the staff based their codes
on; we compared these statutory codes to how states describe
their own laws on their election-
related websites; and we compared them to data that Leighley
and Nagler had collected earlier
based on secondary sources such as the Book of the States.
Most of the differences that existed

as we compared these sources reflected differences in how the
states and this project defined
early and absentee voting. Because our goal was to create a
data set of statutory law, we gave
preference to the statutes as a confirming source rather than to
secondary sources; a few minor
inconsistencies or vagaries in these coding decisions are noted
in the data set codebook.
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10. Appendix B: Codebook for 1972 - 2008 Early and
Absentee Voting Dataset (with Frequencies for 2008)
This appendix provides documentation for using the data set we
have constructed. Each entry
begins with a variable number, a brief label describing the
variable, and the variable name,
followed by a longer description of the variable. The numerical
value associated with each
possible coding category is followed by a colon and value label
describing the category. In
parentheses, to the left of each value, in bold-face font, is the
number of cases in the category for
2008. Some entries also have additional notes regarding other
coding details.

V1: Absentee Voting (abs_vote)
Whether the state allows voters to request absentee ballots and
return them either in person, by
mail, or otherwise.
(0) 0: no, absentee voting is not allowed in the state
(50) 1: yes, absentee voting is allowed in the state
V2: No-Excuse Absentee Voting (abs_nofault)
Whether the state allows voters to request absentee ballots
without an excuse.
(23) 0: no, an excuse is required for voting absentee or there
is no absentee
voting in the state
(27) 1: yes, anyone can request an absentee ballot in the state
without
providing an excuse
V3: Permanent Absentee (abs_perm)
Whether the state allows some or all voters to put their name on

a list that gives them permanent
absentee status.
(35) 0: no, state law does not authorize permanent absentee
status for any
voter
(15) 1: yes, state law authorizes at least some voters to have
permanent
absentee status
Note: Voters with permanent absentee status receive absentee
ballots automatically before each
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election without having to submit a request for an absentee
ballot. In general, we have coded the
variables to reflect rules for the typical voter and not the special
circumstances voter. However,
this variable is coded "1" in states where permanent status is
only available to special
circumstances voters.
V4.0: Absentee request by mail (abs_request_mail)

Whether the state allows voters to send in by mail a request for
an absentee ballot.
(0) 0: expressly prohibited
(37) 1: expressly authorized
(13) 2: not specified
Note: If the law says that absentee ballots may only be
requested by mail, we code the other
variables that have to do with absentee ballot requests (V4.1-
V4.5) as 0 (expressly prohibited) .
The word "only"-- or some other indicator of an exclusive list--
typically has to appear in the
statute for 4.1-4.5 to be coded as "0."
V4.1: Absentee request by phone (abs_request_phone)
Whether the state allows voters to phone in requests for an
absentee ballot.
requested by mail, we code this variable
as 0 (expressly prohibited). The word "only"-- or some other
indicator of an exclusive list--
typically has to appear in the statute for 4.1-4.5 to be coded as
"0."

V4.2: Absentee request by fax (abs_request_fax)
Whether the state allows voters to fax requests for an absentee
ballot.
"0."
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V4.3: Absentee request by web/email (abs_request_web)
Whether the state allows voters to use the internet to submit
requests for an absentee ballot.

"0."
V4.4: Absentee request in person (abs_request_inperson)
Whether the state allows voters to go to election officials in
person to request an absentee
ballot.
"0."

V4.5: Third-party pickup (abs_request_thirdparty)
Whether the state allows voters to send another person on their
behalf to go to election officials
in person and request an absentee ballot.
as 0 (expressly prohibited). This variable refers to whether
voters under ordinary circumstances
may send a third party. It is not meant to capture special
procedures that apply only in unusual
circumstances (e.g., sickness or immobility). The word "only"--
or some other indicator of an
exclusive list-- typically has to appear in the statute for 4.1-4.5
to be coded as "0."
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V4.6 Overseas and/or military voter request
(abs_request_UOCAVA)

Whether the state specifies particular methods for overseas
and/or military voters to request
absentee ballots
(2) 0: No, law makes no mention of request process for
overseas and/or
military voters.
(48) 1: Yes, law mentions distinct request process for overseas
and/or
military voters.
V5.0: Absentee Return (abs_return_mail)
Whether the state allows voters to return their absentee ballots
by mail.
Note: If the law says that absentee ballots may only be returned
by mail, we code the other

V5.1: Absentee return by fax (abs_return_fax)
by fax
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V5.2: Absentee return by web/email (abs_return_web)
Whether the state allows voters to return their absentees by
email or over the internet.

V5.3: Absentee return in person (abs_return_inperson)
in person.
V5.4: Third-party return (abs_return_thirdparty)

Whether the state allows voters to have another person return
their absentee ballots in person on
their behalf.
This variable refers to whether voters under ordinary
circumstances may send a third party. It is
not meant to capture special procedures that apply only in
unusual circumstances (e.g., illness,
immobility) . The word "only"-- or some other indicator of an
exclusive list-- typically has to
appear in the statute for 5.0-5.5 to be coded as "0."
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V5.5: Overseas and/or military voter return
(abs_return_UOCAVA)
Whether the state specifies particular methods for overseas
and/or military voters to return

absentee ballots
(11) 0: No, law does not mention a distinct return process for
overseas
and/or military voters
(29) 1: Yes, law mentions distinct return process for overseas
and/or
military voters.
V6.0: Government-issued photo ID required to request absentee
ballot
(abs_request_gov_photoID)
Whether a government-issued photo ID is required to request an
absentee ballot.
(2) 0: This is one type of ID that voters may submit, but
there are others
they can submit instead
(0) 1: yes, voters must submit this type of ID
(19) 2: no, this type of ID is not accepted
(29) 3: signature only (no match required) , or no ID
required)
Note: Typically there are several forms of acceptable ID, any
one of which is sufficient to
request a ballot. In these cases, all forms of acceptable ID that
are identified are coded as 0. If
multiple forms of ID must be submitted together to request a
ballot, each form that is identified

as acceptable (but in combination) is coded as 1.
V6.1: Photo ID required to request absentee ballot
(abs_request_nongov_photoID)
Whether photo ID not issued by the government is required to
request an absentee ballot.
there are others
(29) 3:signature only (no match required) , or no ID
required)
V6.2: Documentary (nonphoto) ID required to request
absentee ballot

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18
(abs_request_nonphoto_ID)
Whether nonphoto ID such as a utility bill, paycheck,
government check, bank statement, etc., is
required to request an absentee ballot.
(1) 0: This is one type of ID that voters may submit, but there
are others they
can submit instead
(29) 3:signature only (no match required) , or no ID required)
V6.3 ID number required to request absentee ballot
(abs_request_ID_number)
Whether an ID number (typically driver's license number, state

ID number, or last four digits of
social security number) is required to request an absentee
ballot.
are others they
can submit instead
(29) 3: signature only (no match required) , or no ID required)
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V6.4 Signature match required to request absentee ballot
(abs_request_sigmatchID)

Whether election officials must compare the signature submitted
on an absentee ballot request
form with a signature on file before issuing an absentee ballot.
there are others
(29) 3: signature only (no match required) , or no ID
required
V6.5 Notarization or witness required to request absentee
ballot (abs_request_notary_ID)
Whether voters must have their signatures on the absentee ballot
request paperwork notarized in
order to request a ballot.

are others they
can submit instead
(29) 3: signature only (no match required), or no ID required
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20
V7.0: Government-issued photo ID required to submit absentee
ballot
(abs_submit_govt_photoID)
Whether government-issued photo ID is required to submit an
absentee ballot.

are others they
can submit instead
(12) 3: signature only (no match required),, or no ID required
V7.1: Photo ID required to submit absentee ballot
(abs_submit_nongov_photoID)
submit an absentee ballot.
are others they
can submit instead
(12) 3: signature only (no match required),, or no ID required

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V7.2: Documentary (nonphoto) ID required to submit
absentee ballot
(abs_submit_nonphoto_ID)
required to submit an absentee ballot.
are others they
can submit instead
(12) 3: signature only (no match required), or no ID required

V7.3 ID number required to submit absentee ballot
(abs_submit_ID_number)
social security number) is required to submit an absentee ballot.
there are others
(12) 3: signature only (no match required) , or no ID required

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V7.4 Signature match required to submit absentee ballot
(abs_submit_sigmatchID)
Whether election officials must compare the signature submitted
on an absentee ballot return
paperwork with a signature on file before accepting a completed
absentee ballot.
are others they
can submit instead

V7.5 Notarization or witness required to submit absentee ballot
(abs_submit_notary_ID)
Whether voters must have their signatures on the absentee ballot
request paperwork notarized in
order to submit a ballot.
are others
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V8.0 Number of days before election by which ballot must be
requested in person
(abs_request_deadline_inperson)
The last day that voters may go in and request an absentee
ballot by personally appearing at the
office of an election official.
(4) 0 days
(20) 1 day
(4) 3 days
(3) 4 days
(1) 5 days
(4) 6 days
(7) 7 days
(1) 18 days
(1) 98: Depends
(5) 99: N/A
Note: Oftentimes the statute will say, e.g., the deadline is 5
p.m. on the Friday before the
election. In this case, the proper code is 4, because Friday is 4
days before every federal election
(we are concerned only with federal election on this question).
V8.1: Number of days before election by which postal request
must be postmarked
(abs_request_deadline_postmark)
The last day that postal requests for absentee ballots must be
postmarked in order to be

honored.
(50) 99: N/A
Note: The law of some states specifies a postmark date, while
the law in other states gives a
receipt date. Oftentimes the statute will say, e.g., the deadline is
5 p.m. on the Friday before the
election. In this case, the proper code is 4, because Friday is 4
days before every federal election
(we are concerned only with federal election on this question).
Unless the word "postmark" or
some similar word is used, a deadline for submission is
interpreted to be a receipt deadline.
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24
V8.2: Number of days before election by which postal request
must be received
(abs_request_deadline_receipt)
The last day that postal requests for absentee ballots must be
received in order to be honored.
(3) 0 days
(9) 1 days
(2) 3 days

(6) 4 days
(2) 5 days
(6) 6 days
(13) 7 days
(1) 8 days
(1) 10 days
(1) 11 days
(1) 98 N/A
(5) 99: N/A
Note: The law of some states specifies a postmark date, while
the law in other states gives a
receipt date. Note: Oftentimes the statute will say, e.g., the
deadline is 5 p.m. on the Friday
before the election. In this case, the proper code is 4, because
Friday is 4 days before every
federal election (we are concerned only with federal election on
this question).
V8.3: Law mentions both postmark date and receive date
(abs_request_deadline_hybrid)
Whether the state specifies both a postmark and a receipt date
for returning absentee ballots.
(46) 0: no, the law either mentioned a postmark or a receipt-
date deadline,
but not both
(0) 1: yes, the law mentions both postmark and receipt-date
deadlines
(4) 99: other

Note: Unless the word "postmark" or some similar word is
used, a deadline for submission is
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V9.0: Number of days before election by which absentee ballot
must be submitted in person
(abs_submit_deadline_inperson)
The number of days before election by which an absentee ballot
must be submitted in person in
order for the ballot to count.
(38) 0 days
(7) 1 days
(1) 3 days
(1) 4 days
(3) 99: N/A

V9.1: Number of days before election by which absentee postal
submission must be
postmarked in presidential election
(abs_submit_deadline_postmark)
The number of days before the election that submitted absentee
ballots must be postmarked in
order to be counted in a presidential election.
(4) 0 days
(7) 1 day
(39) 99: N/A
Note: Because Federal law governs submission of absentee
ballots in presidential elections,
deadlines attached to other types of elections are ignored. The
law of some states specifies a
postmark date, while the law in other states gives a receipt date.
Unless the word "postmark" or
some similar word is used, a deadline for submission is
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V9.2: Number of days before election by which postal
submission must be received in

presidential election (abs_submit_deadline_receipt)
The number of days before (or after) the election that submitted
absentee ballots must be
received in order to be counted in a presidential election. Post-
election deadlines are indicated
by a negative value (e.g., one day post-election is entered as a
negative one).
(1) 11 days after
(2) 10 days after
(1) 2 days after
(1) 1 day after
(40) 0 days
(3) 1 day before
(1) 4 days before
(1) 99: N/A
Note: Because Federal law governs submission of absentee
ballots in presidential elections,
deadlines attached to other types of elections are ignored. The
law of some states specifies a
postmark date, while the law in other states specifies a receipt
date. If the deadline is actually
after the election, then the value is negative.
V9.3: Law mentions both postmark date and receive date for
submitting absentee ballots
(abs_submit_deadline_hybrid)
Whether the law mentions both a postmark and a receipt date
for submitting absentee ballots.

(40) 0: no, the law either mentioned a postmark or a receipt-
date deadline,
but not both
(10) 1: yes, the law mentions both postmark and receipt-date
deadlines
(0) 99: Other
Note: Unless the word "postmark" or some similar word is
used, a deadline for submission is
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V10: First-time voter voting absentee restrictions and rules
(abs_firsttime_restrictions)
Whether the law contains special ID or other provisions for
first-time absentee voters beyond the
provisions that apply to all voters casting absentee ballots.
(15) 0: no, the law contains no special rules for first-time
voters.

(35) 1: yes, the law contains additional requirements for
first-time voters
when they vote absentee
Note: In 2004, federal law imposed general ID requirements
that all first-time mail-in registrants
must satisfy if the information contained on their voter
registration applications was not
"matched" against information in outside databases. While
most states have updated their laws
accordingly, this variable shows that the statutes of 15 states do
not acknowledge the change
with respect to absentee voting. However, this does not
necessarily mean that these states are not
complying with federal law in actual practice.
V11: All-mail elections (all_mail_authorized)
Whether the law authorizes jurisdictions to to conduct statewide
elections entirely
by mail.
(38) 0: there is no provision requiring or allowing statewide
elections to be
conducted by mail
(11) 1: statewide elections may be conducted by mail at the
discretion of
local election officials
(1) 2: statewide election must be conducted by mail
Note: Oregon conducts all elections by mail. For states coded

0, our presumption is that local
officials may not conduct elections by mail. This variable is
coded as 0 if the law authorizes all
mail elections for smaller local or countywide elections, but not
for statewide elections.
V12.0: Early voting availability (early_voting_authorized)
Whether the state authorizes in-person early voting.
(0) 0: in-person early voting is prohibited by state law
(12) 1: in-person early voting is not mentioned in state law
(4) 2: state law explicitly authorizes, but does not require,
local officials to
implement an early voting program at their discretion
(34) 3: local officials are required to provide in-person early
voting
Note: Different states use different terms to refer to in-person
early voting. For instance, some
states call it absentee voting, while others call it advance
voting. The important thing is not the
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28
terminology, but the underlying concept of a one-stop
transaction.

V12.1: No Excuse Early Voting (early_voting_no_excuse)
Whether the state authorizes any person to engage in in-person
early voting, or only voters who
have an "excuse" (typically something that prevents them from
voting at the polls on election
day).
(7) 0: no, early voting requires an excuse
(31) 1: yes, the state allows early voting without an excuse
(12) 99: N/A, this state does not have early voting
V12.2: Whether beginning and end dates for early voting are
inferences
(early_voting_period_statute)
Whether the early voting period is explicitly mentioned in state
law, or whether it had to be
inferred.
(7) 0: The beginning and/or ending time for early voting
listed in 12.3 and
12.4 are not derived from explicit language in state law, but
from
inference
(29) 1. The beginning AND ending times listed in 12.3 and
12.4 are derived
from explicit language in state law, not from inference

(14) 99: The beginning and end times for the early voting
program could not
be determined, even by inference (or this state has no early
voting)
Note: The laws of many states blend the concepts of early and
absentee voting and do not
discuss them separately. Particularly, many states introduce
early voting by stating in the
absentee voting statute that voters can vote an absentee ballot in
person. In these states, because
they do not treat absentee and early voting as separate
processes, there is no language in the
statutes to indicate when early voting would begin and end.
However, the most reasonable inference is that early voting
would begin at the earliest time
absentee ballots may be issued. Inferring the end period for
early voting can be more difficult:
Does early voting end on the last day absentee ballots can be
issued, or on the last day that
already issued absentee ballots may be received?
We assume here that the last day of early voting is the last day
that absentee ballots may be
issued. However, note that this assumption only applies to a
state only where that state:
1) has no early voting program with laws authorizing early
voting that are distinct from the
laws that authorize absentee voting;
2) has no laws that pertain specifically to the beginning and

end periods of in-person absentee
29
29
voting (as opposed to absentee voting including in-person
absentee voting -- generally);
3) but nevertheless explicitly authorize in-person absentee
voting under state law.
In this narrow circumstance that applied to 12 states, we infer
beginning and end periods for
early voting using the scheme described above.
V12.3: Early voting begins for federal elections
(early_voting_begins)
Coded in number of days before federal general election day
that early voting begins.
(1) 4 days
(1) 6 days
(1) 7 days
(1) 10 days
(1) 12 days
(2) 14 days
(5) 15 days
(3) 17 days

(1) 19 days
(2) 20 days
(1) 22 days
(1) 28 days
(2) 29 days
(2) 30 days
(1) 35 days
(1) 40 days
(1) 43 days
(1) 45 days
(22) 99: N/A, this state does not have early voting, or time is
not specified
by law
Note: This variable is coded according to the minimum or
stipulated number of days before an
election that early voting must start.
30
30
V12.4: Early Voting Ends (early_voting_ends)
Coded in number of days before (federal general) election day
that early voting ends.
(5) 0 days

(17) 1 days
(1) 2 days
(5) 3 days
(5) 4 days
(2) 5 days
(2) 7 days
(13) 99: N/A, this state does not have early voting, or time
is not specified
by law
Note: While some states end early voting a few days before the
election, most states allow early
voting up until the day before or of the election. If the state
specifically says that early voting
ends the day before an election, this variable is coded 1. If the
state does not specify an end to
early voting, this variable is coded 0.
V12.5: Early voting hours (early_voting_hours)
Coded in minimum number of hours per day that in-person early
voting locations must be open
(Monday through Friday only).
(1) 0 hours
(1) 3 hours
(1) 4 hours
(3) 8 hours
(1) 9.5 hours
(3) 10 hours
(40) 99: N/A, this state does not have early voting, or time
is not specified

by law
V12.6: In-person early voting on weekends
(early_voting_weekends)
Whether the state requires, prohibits or makes optional that
early voting sites are available on
weekends.
(0) 0: expressly prohibited,
(14) 1: no provision made,
(2) 2: expressly allowed at the discretion of local officials,
(16) 3: local officials are required to provide weekend hours
(18) 99: no early voting
31
31
V12.7: Number of in-person early voting sites
(early_voting_sites)
The minimum number of early voting sites that must be
established in each jurisdiction by law.
(3) 1: one
(20) 2: jurisdictions may have more than one site

(3) 3: some or all jurisdictions must have multiple sites
(12) 99: N/A; no early voting
V13.0: Government-issued Photo ID required for early voting
(early_voting_govt_photoID)
Whether government-issued photo ID is required to request an
early ballot.
there are others
(9) 3: signature only sufficient (no signature match
requirement)
(2) 98: Unclear
(12) 99: NA
V13.1: Photo ID required for early voting

(early_voting_nongov_photoID)
cast an early ballot.
there are others
requirement)
(2) 98: Unclear
(12) 99: NA
32
32

V13.2: Documentary (nonphoto) ID required for early voting
(early_voting_nonphotoID)
required to cast an early ballot.
there are others
requirement)
(2) 98: Unclear
(12) 99: NA
V13.3: ID number required for early voting
(early_voting_IDnumber)
social security number) is required to cast an early ballot.

there are others
requirement)
(2) 98: Unclear
(12) 99: NA
33
33
V13.4: Signature with match required to cast an early ballot
(early_voting_sigmatchID)
Whether polls workers must compare the voter's signature to
one on file before allowing the
voter to cast an early ballot.

there are others
requirement)
(2) 98: Unclear
(12) 99: NA
V13.5: Witness required to cast an early ballot
(early_voting_witnessID)
Whether voters may use the sworn statement of a witness to
prove their identity to meet ID
requirements for casting an early ballot.
there are others
requirement)

(2) 98: Unclear
(12) 99: NA
34
34
V14: First-time voter restrictions and rules for early voting
(early_voting_firsttime_restrictions)
Whether the law contains special ID or other provisions for
first-time early voters beyond the
provisions that apply to all voters casting early ballots.
(21) 0: no, the law contains no special rules for first-time
voters
(16) 1: yes, the law contains additional requirements for first-
time voters
when they vote early
(13) 99: This state has no early voting

Note: In 2004, federal law imposed general ID requirements
that all first-time mail-in registrants
must satisfy if the information contained on their voter
registration applications was not
"matched" against information in outside databases. While
most states have updated their laws
accordingly, this variable shows that the statutes of 13 states do
not acknowledge the change
with respect to early voting. However, this does not necessarily
mean that these states are not
complying with federal law in actual practice.
report2 figures rv3.tex, Dec14, 2009 35
Figure 1: Absentee Voting Laws, 1972-2008
0
0
05
5
510
1
0

1015
1
5
1520
2
0
2025
2
5
2530
3
0
3035
3
5
3540
4
0
4045
4
5
4550

5
0
50Number of States
N
u
m
b
e
r
o
f
S
ta
te
s
Number of States1972
1972
19721976
1976
19761980
1980
19801984

1984
19841988
1988
19881992
1992
19921996
1996
19962000
2000
20002004
2004
20042008
2008
2008Year
Year
YearNumber of States with Permanent Absentee Registration
Status
Number of States with Permanent Absentee Registration Status

Number of States with Permanent Absentee Registration
StatusNumber of States with No Excuse Absentee Voting
Number of States with No Excuse Absentee Voting
Number of States with No Excuse Absentee VotingFigure 1.
Absentee Voting Laws, 1972 - 2008
Figure 1. Absentee Voting Laws, 1972 - 2008
Figure 1. Absentee Voting Laws, 1972 - 2008
Figure 2: Traditional Methods of Requesting Absentee Ballots,
1972-2008
0
0
05
5
510
1
0
1015
1
5

1520
2
0
2025
2
5
2530
3
0
3035
3
5
3540
4
0
4045
4
5
4550
5
0

50Number of States
N
u
m
b
e
r
o
f
S
ta
te
s
1972
19721976
1976
19761980
1980
19801984
1984
19841988

1988
19881992
1992
19921996
1996
19962000
2000
20002004
2004
20042008
2008
2008Year
Year
YearNumber of States Authorizing Absentee Ballot Requests by
Mail
Number of States Authorizing Absentee Ballot Requests by Mail
Number of States Authorizing Absentee Ballot Requests by
MailNumber of States Authorizing Absentee Ballot Requests in
Person

Number of States Authorizing Absentee Ballot Requests in
Person
Number of States Authorizing Absentee Ballot Requests in
PersonNumber of States Authorizing Absentee Ballot Requests
by a Third Party
Number of States Authorizing Absentee Ballot Requests by a
Third Party
Number of States Authorizing Absentee Ballot Requests by a
Third PartyFigure 2.
Figure 2.
Figure 2.Traditional Methods of Requesting Absentee Ballots,
1972 - 2008
Traditional Methods of Requesting Absentee Ballots, 1972 -
2008
Traditional Methods of Requesting Absentee Ballots, 1972 -
2008
Figure 3: Electronic Methods of Requesting Absentee Ballots,
1972-2008
0
0
05

5
510
1
0
1015
1
5
1520
2
0
2025
2
5
2530
3
0
3035
3
5
3540
4

0
4045
4
5
4550
5
0
50Number of States
N
u
m
b
e
r
o
f
S
ta
te
s
1972
19721976

1976
19761980
1980
19801984
1984
19841988
1988
19881992
1992
19921996
1996
19962000
2000
20002004
2004
20042008
2008
2008Year

Year
YearNumber of States Authorizing Absentee Ballot Requests by
Phone
Phone
PhoneNumber of States Authorizing Absentee Ballot Requests
by Fax
Number of States Authorizing Absentee Ballot Requests by Fax
FaxNumber of States Authorizing Absentee Ballot Requests by
the Web
Number of States Authorizing Absentee Ballot Requests by the
Web
Number of States Authorizing Absentee Ballot Requests by the
WebFigure 3.
Figure 3.
Figure 3.Electronic Methods of Requesting Absentee Ballots,
1972 - 2008
Electronic Methods of Requesting Absentee Ballots, 1972 -
2008
Electronic Methods of Requesting Absentee Ballots, 1972 -
2008

Figure 4: Traditional Methods of Submitting Absentee Ballots,
1972-2008
0
0
05
5
510
1
0
1015
1
5
1520
2
0
2025
2
5
2530

3
0
3035
3
5
3540
4
0
4045
4
5
4550
5
0
50Number of States
N
u
m
b
e
r
o
f

S
ta
te
s
1972
19721976
1976
19761980
1980
19801984
1984
19841988
1988
19881992
1992
19921996
1996
19962000

2000
20002004
2004
20042008
2008
2008Year
Year
YearNumber of States Authorizing Absentee Ballot Returns by
Mail
Number of States Authorizing Absentee Ballot Returns by Mail
Number of States Authorizing Absentee Ballot Returns by
MailNumber of States Authorizing Absentee Ballot Returns in
Person
Number of States Authorizing Absentee Ballot Returns in
Person
Number of States Authorizing Absentee Ballot Returns in
PersonNumber of States Authorizing Absentee Ballot Returns
by a Third Party
Number of States Authorizing Absentee Ballot Returns by a
Third Party
Number of States Authorizing Absentee Ballot Returns by a
Third PartyFigure 4.

Figure 4.
Figure 4.Traditional Methods of Submitting Absentee Ballots,
1972 - 2008
Traditional Methods of Submitting Absentee Ballots, 1972 -
2008
Traditional Methods of Submitting Absentee Ballots, 1972 -
2008
Figure 5: Electronic Methods of Submitting Absentee Ballots,
1972-2008
0
0
05
5
510
1
0
1015
1
5

1988
19881992
1992
19921996
1996
19962000
2000
20002004
2004
20042008
2008
2008Year
Year
YearNumber of States Authorizing Absentee Ballot Returns by
the Web
Number of States Authorizing Absentee Ballot Returns by the
Web
Number of States Authorizing Absentee Ballot Returns by the
WebNumber of States Authorizing Absentee Ballot Returns by
Fax

Number of States Authorizing Absentee Ballot Returns by Fax
Number of States Authorizing Absentee Ballot Returns by
FaxFigure 5.
Figure 5.
Figure 5.Electronic Methods of Submitting Absentee Ballots,
1972 - 2008
Electronic Methods of Submitting Absentee Ballots, 1972 -
2008
Electronic Methods of Submitting Absentee Ballots, 1972 -
2008
Figure 6: Early Voting Laws, 1972-2008
0
0
05
5
510
10
1015

15
1520
20
2025
25
2530
30
3035
35
3540
40
4045
45
4550
50
50Number of States
N
um

be
r
of
S
ta
te
s
1972
19721976
1976
19761980
1980
19801984
1984
19841988
1988
19881992
1992
19921996

1996
19962000
2000
20002004
2004
20042008
2008
2008Year
Year
YearNumber of States that Require Officials to Offer Early
Voting
Number of States that Require Officials to Offer Early Voting
Number of States that Require Officials to Offer Early
VotingNumber of States that Auth., but do not Require,
Officials to Offer Early Voting
Number of States that Auth., but do not Require, Officials to
Offer Early Voting
Number of States that Auth., but do not Require, Officials to
Offer Early VotingNumber of States that offer No Excuse Early
Voting
Number of States that offer No Excuse Early Voting

Number of States that offer No Excuse Early VotingFigure 6.
Early Voting Laws, 1972 - 2008
Figure 6. Early Voting Laws, 1972 - 2008
Figure 6. Early Voting Laws, 1972 - 2008
report2 tables rv3.tex, Dec 14, 2009 41
Table 1: Absentee and Early Voting in the States (1972)
No Early No Mention Authorize Require Early Offer No-
Voting of Early Early Voting Voting be Offered Excuse
Voting with Excuse with Excuse Early
in Law Required Required Voting
(V12.0 = 0) (V12.0 = 1) (V12.0 = 2) (V12.0 = 3) (V12.1 = 1)
Offer Wisconsin Alabama California Alaska
Absentee Arizona Iowa Arkansas
Voting with Connecticut Louisiana Colorado
Excuse Delaware Michigan Indiana
Required Florida Mississippi
(V1 = 1) Georgia Montana
and Hawaii Nebraska
(V2 = 0) Illinois Nevada
Kansas New Mexico
Kentucky Ohio
Maine South Dakota
Maryland Texas

Massachusetts Vermont
Minnesota Virginia
Missouri West Virginia
New Hampshire
New Jersey
New York
North Carolina
North Dakota
Oklahoma
Oregon
Pennsylvania
Rhode Island
South Carolina
Utah
Washington
Wyoming
Offer
No-Excuse Tennessee Idaho
Absentee
Voting
(V2 = 1)
Table 2: Absentee and Early Voting in the States (2008)

No Early No Mention Authorize Require Offer No-
Voting of Early Early Voting Early Voting Excuse
Voting with Excuse be Offered Early
in Law Required with Excuse Voting
Required
(V12.0 = 0) (V12.0 = 1) (V12.0 = 2) (V12.0 = 3) (V12.1 = 1)
Offer Alabama Iowa Arkansas
Absentee Connecticut Kentucky Illinois
Voting with Delaware Michigan Indiana
Excuse Massachusetts Minnesota Louisiana
Required Missouri Mississippi Tennessee
(V1 = 1) New Hampshire Rhode Island West Virginia
and New York Texas
(V2 = 0) Pennsylvania Virginia
South Carolina
Offer Maryland Alaska
No-Excuse New Jersey Arizona
Absentee Washington California
Voting Colorado
(V2 = 1) Florida
Georgia
Hawaii
Idaho
Kansas
Maine
Montana
Nebraska
Nevada

New Mexico
North Carolina
North Dakota
Ohio
Oklahoma
Oregon
South Dakota
Utah
Vermont
Wisconsin
Wyoming
Table 3: Absentee and Early Voting by Region (1972 and
2008)
1972 2008
Northeast Midwest South West Northeast Midwest South West
Number of
States with
Early Voting 1 6 7 7 3 8 12 11
Requirement
(V12.0 = 3)
Number of
States with
No-Excuse 0 1 1 3 2 8 9 12
Early
Voting
(V12.1 = 1)

Number of
States with
No-Excuse 0 0 1 1 3 6 5 13
Absentee
Voting
(V2 = 1)
Northeast: Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, Massachusetts,
Rhode Island, Connecticut,
New York, Pennsylvania, New Jersey.
Midwest: Wisconsin, Michigan, Illinois, Indiana, Ohio, North
Dakota, South Dakota, Ne-
braska, Iowa, Kansas, Minnesota, Missouri.
South: Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, West Virginia, North
Carolina, South Carolina,
Georgia, Florida, Kentucky, Tennessee, Mississippi, Alabama,
Oklahoma, Texas, Arkansas,
Louisiana.
West: Idaho, Montana, Wyoming, Nevada, Utah, Colorado,
Arizona, New Mexico, Alaska,
Washington, Oregon, California, Hawaii.
PEW
Early.csvyearstate_str2state_fipsabs_request_mailabs_request_i
npersonabs_request_deadline_inpersonabs_request_deadline_rec
eiptearly_voting_beginsearly_voting_ends2008AL11155002008
AK211101502008AZ4214112842008AR511171512008CA62277
2902008CO8121542008CT91100002008DE101111002008FL121
1661522008GA13114312008HI1511771072008ID161116012008
IL1711152252008IN1811182912008IA1911144012008KS20111
4712008KY2122771212008LA2211441472008ME23114512008
MD242107002008MA252211002008MI261133012008MN27111

13012008MS281131032008MO291116002008MT301111301200
8NE312266012008NV3211771742008NH3312002008NJ341117
002008NM352131732008NY361117002008NC3722771932008N
D3822111512008OH3922133512008OK401166412008OR41220
0002008PA421277002008RI4411602008SC451114002008SD46
2100002008TN4711772052008TX48111871742008UT49214414
42008VT501111012008VA511137032008WA531111002008WV
5411662032008WI551114002008WY56111101
A1Table with row headers in column A and column headers in
rows 5 through 7.Table A-1. Reported Voting and Registration
by Race, Hispanic Origin, Sex and Age Groups: November 1964
to 2014(Numbers in thousands)YearTotal voting-age
populationTotal percentWhiteWhite non-
HispanicBlackAsian1Hispanic (of any race)Total
PopulationTotal populationCitizen populationTotal
populationCitizen populationTotal populationCitizen
populationTotal populationCitizen populationTotal
populationMaleFemaleVoted2014239,87438.541.940.343.445.04
5.837.339.719.127.118.427.037.239.62012235,24856.561.857.6
62.263.064.162.066.231.347.331.848.054.458.52010229,69041.
845.543.446.747.848.640.743.521.330.820.531.240.942.720082
25,49958.263.659.664.464.866.160.864.732.147.631.649.955.76
0.42006220,60343.647.845.849.750.551.638.641.021.832.419.3
32.342.444.72004215,69458.363.860.365.465.867.256.360.029.
844.128.047.256.360.12002210,42142.346.144.147.548.049.139
.742.319.431.218.930.441.443.02000202,60954.759.556.460.56
0.461.853.556.825.443.427.545.153.156.21998198,22841.945.3
43.346.346.547.439.641.819.332.420.032.841.442.41996193,65
154.258.456.059.659.660.750.653.025.745.026.844.052.855.519
94190,26745.048.447.350.050.151.037.138.921.839.420.234.04
4.745.31992185,68461.367.763.669.266.970.254.159.227.353.9
28.951.660.262.31990182,11845.049.346.750.549.051.439.242.
420.340.021.036.044.645.41988178,09857.462.259.163.461.864
.251.555.0NANA28.848.056.458.31986173,89046.049.447.050.

148.950.743.245.5NANA24.238.045.846.11984169,96359.964.9
61.465.763.366.455.860.6NANA32.750.059.060.81982165,4834
8.551.949.952.851.553.443.045.5NANA25.338.548.748.419801
57,08559.364.060.965.462.866.250.553.9NANA29.946.159.159.
41978151,64645.948.947.350.148.650.637.239.5NANA23.535.7
46.645.31976146,54859.2NA60.9NANANA48.7NANANA31.8N
A59.658.81974141,29944.7NA46.3NANANA33.8NANANA22.9
NA46.243.41972136,20363.0NA64.5NANANA52.1NANANA37
.5NA64.162.01970120,70154.6NA56.0NANANA43.5NANANA
NANA56.852.71968116,53567.8NA69.1NANANA57.6NANAN
ANANA69.866.01966112,80055.4NA57.0NANANA41.7NANA
NANANA58.253.01964110,60469.3NA70.7NANANA58.5NAN
ANANANA71.967.0YearTotal voting-age populationTotal
percentWhiteWhite non-HispanicBlackAsian1Hispanic (of any
race)Total PopulationTotal populationCitizen populationTotal
populationMaleFemaleRegistered2014239,87459.364.661.365.9
66.968.159.763.434.448.834.951.357.261.22012235,24865.171.
266.771.972.473.768.573.137.256.338.958.763.167.02010229,6
9059.865.161.666.467.068.258.862.834.149.333.851.657.961.52
008225,49964.971.066.672.072.073.565.569.737.355.337.659.4
62.667.02006220,60361.667.664.069.569.771.257.460.932.949.
132.153.759.563.52004215,69465.972.167.973.673.575.164.468
.734.951.834.357.964.067.62002210,42160.966.563.167.967.96
9.458.562.430.749.232.652.558.962.82000202,60963.969.565.7
70.470.071.663.667.530.752.434.957.462.265.61998198,22862.
167.163.968.267.969.360.263.629.148.933.755.260.663.519961
93,65165.971.067.772.071.673.063.566.432.657.235.758.664.46
7.31994190,26762.567.164.668.468.169.458.561.328.751.931.3
52.961.263.71992185,68468.275.270.176.373.577.163.970.031.
261.635.062.566.969.31990182,11862.268.263.869.166.769.958
.863.528.456.032.355.261.263.11988178,09866.672.167.972.87
0.873.664.568.8NANA35.559.165.267.81986173,89064.369.065
.369.567.770.264.067.3NANA35.956.463.465.01984169,96368.

373.969.674.571.675.166.372.0NANA40.161.467.369.31982165
,48364.168.565.669.467.570.159.162.6NANA35.353.763.764.41
980157,08566.972.368.473.470.374.160.064.1NANA36.456.066
.667.11978151,64662.666.763.867.565.468.257.160.6NANA32.
950.162.662.51976146,54866.7NA68.3NANANA58.5NANANA
37.8NA67.166.41974141,29962.2NA64.6NANANA54.2NANAN
A34.9NA62.861.71972136,20372.3NA73.4NANANA65.5NANA
NA44.4NA73.171.61970120,70168.1NA70.8NANANA64.5NAN
ANANANA69.666.81968116,53574.3NA75.4NANANA66.2NA
NANANANA76.072.81966112,80070.3NA71.7NANANA60.2N
ANANANANA72.268.61964110,604NANANANANANANANA
NANANANANANAYearTotal voting-age populationTotal
populationMaleFemale18 to 24
yearsVoted201429,65815.917.116.017.018.018.218.419.48.412.
110.212.614.717.2201229,87838.041.237.840.441.442.045.948.
720.130.926.734.234.741.3201028,92419.621.319.721.121.922.
222.524.09.513.512.216.118.720.6200828,26344.348.543.847.7
48.349.452.355.427.840.627.438.841.047.7200627,77419.922.1
20.722.923.624.119.220.210.114.610.216.618.621.2200427,808
41.946.742.647.548.549.844.047.023.434.220.433.038.844.9200
227,37717.219.317.419.419.920.419.320.610.015.98.113.315.71
8.6200026,71232.3NA33.0NA37.2NA33.9NA15.9NA15.4NA30.
034.6199825,53716.6NA17.2NA19.2NA15.6NA9.7NA9.0NA15.
717.6199624,65032.4NA33.3NA36.9NA32.4NA19.2NA15.1NA
29.835.0199425,18220.1NA21.1NA23.1NA17.4NA10.6NA10.1
NA18.621.5199224,37142.8NA45.4NANANA36.6NANANA17.
6NA40.545.1199024,83120.4NA20.8NANANA20.2NANANA8.
7NA19.821.0198825,56936.2NA37.0NANANA35.0NANANA16
.8NA34.138.2198626,42521.9NA21.6NANANA25.1NANANA1
1.6NA21.222.5198427,97640.8NA41.6NANANA40.6NANANA
21.9NA38.742.8198228,82324.8NA25.0NANANA25.5NANAN

A14.2NA25.125.7198028,13839.9NA41.8NANANA30.1NANA
NA15.9NA38.541.2197827,67823.5NA24.2NANANA20.1NAN
ANA11.5NA23.223.9197626,95342.2NA44.7NANANA27.9NA
NANA21.8NA40.943.4197425,71923.8NA25.2NANANA16.1N
ANANA13.3NA24.623.1197224,61249.6NA51.9NANANA34.7
NANANA30.9NA48.850.4197013,02730.4NA31.5NANANA22.
4NANANANANA30.630.0196811,60250.4NA52.8NANANA38.
9NANANANANA50.350.6196610,75131.1NA32.6NANANA21.
9NANANANANA32.330.319649,91950.9NA52.1NANANA44.2
NANANANANA51.550.5YearTotal voting-age populationTotal
populationMaleFemaleRegistered201429,65839.142.239.642.14
3.944.442.644.923.033.328.234.738.040.3201229,87849.453.64
9.853.354.855.655.258.526.741.235.445.346.352.5201028,9244
1.845.342.845.947.648.343.446.424.234.526.334.540.043.62008
28,26353.458.553.658.358.660.057.861.334.951.135.250.050.25
6.6200627,77441.646.343.248.048.549.638.240.323.333.823.63
8.739.543.8200427,80851.554.152.558.559.160.753.156.729.24
2.627.644.648.254.9200227,37738.243.039.243.844.245.439.64
1.221.734.520.834.334.941.6200026,71245.4NA46.3NA51.7NA
48.0NA22.2NA23.2NA42.348.5199825,53739.2NA36.4NA45.0
NA63.5NA17.7NA22.2NA36.442.0199624,65048.8NA49.8NA5
4.3NA49.4NA29.5NA27.6NA46.551.0199425,18242.3NA43.9N
A48.1NA42.0NA18.3NA20.0NA40.943.7199224,37152.5NA54.
6NANANA49.2NANANA24.9NA50.554.4199024,83139.9NA40
.5NANANA40.2NANANA19.3NA39.540.2198825,56948.2NA4
8.7NANANA49.8NANANA25.3NA45.550.8198626,42542.0NA
42.0NANANA46.1NANANA22.0NA41.043.0198427,97651.3N
A52.0NANANA53.7NANANA29.8NA49.653.0198228,82342.4
NA43.2NANANA41.8NANANA24.3NA42.442.5198028,13849.
2NA51.0NANANA41.3NANANA22.5NA48.050.4197827,67840
.5NA37.2NANANA37.2NANANA20.5NA39.541.5197626,9535

Part 1 Individual Factors Affecting Voter Turnout Based on .docx

Part 1 Individual Factors Affecting Voter Turnout Based on .docx

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