Jerusalem Temple History

Jewish Studies, DWEC, NCCA, DES 1
SECTION 4 Holy Places
Topic 4.1 The Jerusalem Temple
Description of
Topic
The biblical account of the building and decoration of the
Temple; The role of Priests and Levites in the Temple
service; The purpose and nature of the sacrificial service;
The significance of the Jerusalem Temple as the central
holy place; The relationship between Temple and Torah
The destruction of the first Temple by Nebuchadnezzar in
586 BCE and the subsequent exile of the Jerusalem
inhabitants to Babylon (Iraq)The consequences of this
exile; The rebuilding of the Temple in Jerusalem; The
destruction of the second Temple by the Romans 70 CE;
The consequences of the destruction of the second Temple
Learning
Outcomes
Identify and summarise the biblical account of the building
and decoration of the Temple; explain the role played by
the Priests and Levites in the Temple service; explain the
purpose and nature of sacrificial service; discuss the
importance of the Temple in ancient Judaism as the central
holy place; explain the link between Temple and Torah;
trace the events surrounding the destruction and
rebuilding of the first Temple and the subsequent exile to
Babylon; give three long-lasting effects of the exile;
describe when and how the second Temple came to be
built; explain when and why the second Temple was
destroyed; explain why prayer substituted Temple
sacrifices after the destruction of the second Temple;
explain, with examples, how the dispersal of Jewish people
to Spain, Europe, Asia, N. Africa after the destruction of the
second Temple has impacted on diverse customs, music,
food, etc, amongst the Sephardic and Ashkenazic cultures
to the present time; compare the first Temple and the
second Temple
1. Look at the following pictures. Fill in the blanks below.
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The places outlined above all have a purpose and function which is particular.
Some places are dwelling places; others are museums, others again are places of
study, assembly and prayer. What is the difference between the four places
pictured above and the picture of the Temple which follows here ?

Significance of the Temple as the Central Holy Place
1. The Temple was regarded as a national centre.
2. It was the site of revelation of Divine Presence and the preferred place for
prayer.
3. The Temple became a religious centre particularly after the death of
Solomon. People worshipped idols in local high places. This led to
increased emphasis on the special significance of the Temple in Jerusalem
and, in the reign of Hezekiah (715-687 BCE) and Josiah (641-609 BCE), to
the prohibition of the use of high places and centralization of worship in
the Temple.
4. Enhanced significance of the Temple is apparent in the statements of the
prophets:
a. Mt Zion is the mountain of the Lord, the holy mountain (Isaiah,
Joel, Zephaniah)
b. where the Lord dwells (Ps. 74).
c. The Temple is the house of the G-d of Jacb and the Lord’ s house
(Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, Joel, Micah, Haggai).
d. The Temple is the place where G-d’s name is called (Jeremiah), ‘a
glorious throne set on high from the beginning’ (Jeremiah)
e. The place of the Divine Presence (Ezekiel, Joel, Habakkuk)
f. The place from which the Divine Presence reveals itself to the
prophets.
g. The place of prayer for Israel and for all the nations (Isaiah,
Jeremiah)
5. With the destruction of the Temple, prophecy focused on its
reconstruction: Ezekiel has a vision for a future Temple; Haggai and
Zechariah advocate its reconstruction in their own day; and Malachi
emphasises its reconstruction and the purification of its worship.
Some Links between the Temple and the Torah
Adapted from Dan Cohn-Sherbok, Judaism: History, Belief and Practice, (pp.483-
485) and ‘The Lost Ark of the Covenant’ from
http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Judaism/ark.html
1. The Akedah, the binding of his Abraham’s son Isaac
The naming of ‘the land of Moriah’ (Genesis 22) as the
place where the sacrifice occurred is also the traditional
location of the site of the Temple (II Chronicles 3:1). This
is a significant event in Judaism.

2. Many of the Mitzvot (commandments) in the Torah relate to the Temple
sacrifices, services, and various priestly functions. (See some of the
prescriptions in the Book of Leviticus.)
3. Moses and the Ark of the Covenant
In Exodus Chapters 25-27, it is told that Moses made a portable shrine,
tabernacle, or sanctuary following G-d’s instructions. The key elements of this
Tabernacle are included in the construction of Solomon’s Temple. This
temporary structure travelled with the Israelites in their journeys through the
desert. It was placed in the centre of the camp in an open courtyard which was
1,000 cubits by 50 cubits in size.1 The fence surrounding the courtyard was
made of wooden pillars from which a cloth curtain was suspended. Located in
the eastern half of the courtyard, the sanctuary measured 30 cubits by 10 cubits.
In the courtyard there was also an outer altar on which sacrifices were offered,
as well as a brass washing facility for priests.
The Tabernacle was the resting place for the Ark, and also contained other
vessels that were used in the physical worship of God. The Biblical
commentators argue over why G-d commanded Moses to build a Tabernacle in
the first place. According to Rashi (Ex. 31:18), G-d realised after the sin of the
Golden Calf that the Israelites needed an outlet for physical worship, and
commanded that they build the Tabernacle as a way of expressing their own
need for physical representation of G-d. According to Nachmanides (Ex. 25:1),
however, the Jews were commanded to build the Tabernacle even before the sin
of the Golden Calf; rather than filling a human need, the Tabernacle was G-d's
method of achieving continuous revelation in the Israelites' camp. These two
opinions as to whether the Tabernacles, and the Temples that followed them,
were necessary to demonstrate the controversial role of physical worship in
Judaism as a whole.
At the end of the sanctuary was the Holy of Holies which was separated by a
veil hanging on five wooden pillars on which were woven images of the
cherubim. Inside the Holy of Holies was the Ark of the Covenant, the table on
which the shewbread was placed, the incense altar, and the menorah (the
eight-branch candelabrum).
The Ark was a box with the dimensions of two-and-a-half cubits in length, by
one-and-a-half cubits in heights, by one-and-a-half cubits in width (a cubit is
about 18 inches). It was constructed of acacia wood, and was plated with pure
gold, inside and out. On the bottom of the box, four gold rings were attached,
through which two poles, also made of acacia and coated in gold, were put. The
family of Kehath, of the tribe of Levi, would carry the ark on their shoulders
using these poles. Covering the box was the kapporet, a pure gold covering that
was two-and-a-half by one-and-a-half cubits. Attached to the kapporet were two
sculpted Cherubs, also made of pure gold. The two Cherubs faced one another,
1 A cubit is measured from the tip of the middle finger to the elbow or from the base of the hand
to the elbow. It ranges between 17 and 22 inches in length or 43-56 centimetres.

and their wings, which wrapped around their bodies, touched between them.
The contents of the Ark have been debated through the centuries. The general
consensus is that the first tablets containing the Ten Commandments, which
were broken by Moses, and the second tablets, which remained intact, were
contained in the Ark (Bava Batra 14b). According to one opinion in the Talmud,
both Tablets were together in the Ark; according to another, there were two
Arks, and each contained one set of Tablets (Berakhot 8b). The Ark was built by
Bezalel, son of Uri, son of Hur, who constructed the entire Tabernacle – the
portable Temple used in the desert and during the conquest of the land of Israel.
NUMERACY MOMENT
Exercise:
Construct a model Ark based on the descriptions given above.
Calculate the size of the Ark
converting from cubits to
metres and centimetres.

The First Temple, Solomon’s Temple: 1 Kings 6
BACKGROUND
The most common biblical names for the Temple are:
"the House of the Lord" (I Kings 3:1)
"the House of G-d" (Dan. 1:2)
"the Holy Temple" (Jonah 2:5[4])
"the Temple of the Lord" (II Kings 24:13)
"the Sanctuary" (Ezek. 45:4)
In the Mishnah (e.g., Ma'as. Sh. 5:2) and Tosefta (e.g., Tosef., Ber. 3:16), the name
commonly used is Beit (House) ha-Mikdash (Miqdash), which occurs only once in
the Bible (II Chron. 36:7).
Following the destruction of Shiloh (c. 1050 BCE),the capital of Israel before
Jerusalem, the need for a central Temple was felt. For a generation and more, the
ark wandered from place to place until David finally brought it to Mount Zion,
where he erected a tent for it (II Sam. 6:17). The high places set up at Nob, north
of Jerusalem, (I Sam. 21), at Gibeon, which is 8 miles north-west of Jerusalem, (I
Kings 3:4), and at other sites, e.g., Beth-El, 12 miles north of Jerusalem, and
Mizpah, between 5 and 8 miles north of Jerusalem, were unable to serve as a
unifying center for the divided tribes who were competing for national
supremacy (See Map below and locate these places).

These high places could not, in consequence, become the permanent site for the
ark. However, with the capture of Jerusalem (c.1000 BCE) and the establishment
of the royal palace on Mount Zion by David, a suitable place for this purpose was
found.
Jerusalem was situated on the border between the Rachel tribes and the Leah
tribes; and on the border between Judah, the tribe to which David belonged, and
that of Benjamin, the tribe from which sprang Saul, the first king of Israel.
As a newly conquered city, it had not been incorporated into the territory of any
one tribe. By its very nature it was, therefore, the one and only place likely to
satisfy the claims of all the tribes.
The threshing floor of Araunah the Jebusite was chosen as the site of the Temple.
There it was that David had built an altar to check a plague that had broken out
among the people (II Sam. 24; I Chron. 21). From II Chronicles 3:1, it appears that
the spot selected for the altar was also the place which tradition had identified as
the site of the binding of Abraham‘s son, Isaac. David had wanted to build the
Temple there, but, according to the biblical narrative, he was dissuaded by the
prophet Nathan (II Sam. 7) on the grounds that it would be more appropriate to
leave the project for his son, Solomon.
THE FIRST TEMPLE
Solomon pursued the task and completed it with the assistance of King Hiram of
Tyre under the supervision of a craftsman who was the son of "a man of Tyre"
and "of a widow of the tribe of Naphtali" (I Kings 7:14; "of a woman of the
daughters of Dan," according to II Chron. 2:13 [14]).
The copper required for the columns and the vessels came from Solomon's
copper mines in Edom, on the shores of the Red Sea (I Kings 7:46). It was from
Solomon's commercial enterprises and especially from David's war booty that the
ample silver needed for the project was acquired.
Thirty thousand Israelites took part in the operation (I Kings 5:27–32), together
with 150,000 Canaanites who served as porters and quarrymen (II Chron. 2:16,
17; cf. I Kings 9:20–22), and "chief officers who were over the work," who
numbered 3,300 men (I Kings 5:30; 3,600 in II Chron. 2:17 [16]).
The work was begun in the month of Iyyar in the fourth year of Solomon's reign
and was completed in the 11th year of his reign in the month of Bul (=
Marḥeshvan, I Kings 6:1, 38). The dedication of the Temple, which took place in
the presence of the elders of Israel, the heads of the tribes, the "leaders of the
fathers' houses" (I Kings 8:1–2; II Chron. 5:2–3), and "a great assembly, from
Lebo-Hamath unto the Brook of Egypt," lasted 14 days (I Kings 8:65; II Chron.
7:8).
THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE TEMPLE
The two principal sources for the plan of the First Temple erected on Mt Moriah

in Jerusalem between the fourth and the 11th years of Solomon's reign are I Kings
6–8 and II Chronicles 2–4.
These differ in several important details; in addition to the Book of Kings, the
editor of Chronicles apparently used another source whose description of the
Temple plan varied considerably. A third independent description is found in the
Book of Ezekiel (40ff.). The Temple was not originally intended to serve as a place
of prayer, but to house (or as an abode for) the ark of the Lord, symbol of the
Covenant between the people and its G-d (I Kings 8:21).
As a tabernacle it was not necessary for it to be large. Its structure had to meet the
requirements of a symbolic tabernacle of G-d and a place of storage for the sacred
furniture and the offerings brought to G-d by His worshipers.
As a place for divine worship the Temple was not judged by its size but by the
splendor and enormity of its construction and, indeed, the dimensions of the main
hall of the First Temple, which in II Chronicles 2:4[5] is called "great," did not
exceed 40 × 20 cubits (approximately 66 × 33 ft.).
It should be noted that the roof of the Temple was not supported by pillars set in
the center of the room as was the practice in palaces of this period and its width
was the maximum which was structurally possible. Without pillars the rooms
were impressive in their spaciousness.
The Temple was also relatively high – 30 cubits (about 50 ft.) – much taller than
most Canaanite temples.
The courtyard of the Temple, however, had to be extensive, for it served as the
place of assembly for the public which came to inquire of God, to bring sacrifices,
and to pray.
The "House of the Lord" was built originally by Solomon as a royal chapel, like the
temples which kings in the Near East built adjoining their palaces.
The Temple of Solomon, however, was quickly transformed into a national
religious center and the symbol of the Covenant between the people of Israel and
its G-d.
The Temple was oblong in shape and composed of three sections of equal width:
a porch or hall (the vestibule, ʾulam),
a main room for divine service heikhal (hekhal),
and the "Holy of Holies" (devir).
According to Ezekiel 41:13–14, the Temple was 100 cubits (about 165 ft.) long
and 50 cubits wide (without the platform on which it was built).
Adding together the dimensions of the rooms of the Temple, the inner and outer
wall, the width of the storehouse – a three-story side structure (yaẓiʿa) divided into
cells and chambers which surrounded the Temple on three sides – and its walls,
brings us almost exactly to the dimensions mentioned by Ezekiel.

The 2:1 proportion between the length and width of the outer measurements of
the Temple was also followed in the interior:
the PORCH measured 20 cubits in width and ten cubits in length (1:2);
the MAIN HALL, 40 cubits in length and 20 cubits in width (2:1);
while the HOLY OF HOLIES was a square (1:1).
The 20 cubits width of the Temple was almost the maximum width which could be
roofed without supporting pillars. Thus the dimensions were arrived at through
precise planning.
THE PORCH
The function of the porch
(Heb. ʾulam; apparently
borrowed from Akk. ellamu,
"front") was to separate the
sacred precinct from the
profane.
The Septuagint (Greek)
version of Ezekiel 40:49 cites
the number of steps which led
to the Temple: "and they
ascended it by ten [ʿeser]
steps" instead of the original
text "and it was by steps that [ʾasher] it was ascended."
The width of the porch – alongside of which the entrance was located – was 20
cubits, and its depth was 10 cubits. The height of the porch is not certain. The only
source which mentions its height – 120 cubits – is II Chronicles 3:4 and the text is
apparently corrupt.
Some suggest that the porch rose above the main
hall, like a tower, following the description in II
Chronicles (this interpretation was followed by the
builders of the Second Temple).
Others lower the porch and still others conclude
from the silence on this point in the main source in
the Book of Kings that the height of the porch was
the same as the general height of the building (30
cubits). On both sides of the entrance stood
supporting pillars (Jachin and Boaz) each 3 cubits
wide and 5 cubits thick; the width of the entrance
gate was 14 cubits (23 ft.).

MAIN HALL (HEKHAL) OR HOLY PLACE
The main room was entered from the porch through a gate, 10 cubits wide, in
which two doors of cypress wood were set. The doorposts, made of olive
wood, were apparently composed of four frames set one within the other. The
thickness of the walls between the porch and the hekhal was 6 cubits. The latter
was the largest chamber of the Temple, measuring 40 × 20 cubits (approximately
66 × 33 ft.) × 30 cubits in height.
The hekhal served as the main chamber for divine service. The windows of the
hekhal were set in its upper part. In the Bible they are called "windows with
recessed frames" (I Kings 6:4) wide on the outside and narrowing toward the
inside, an effect achieved by the use of window frames set one within the other.
HOLY OF HOLIES (DEVIR)
The Holy of Holies, the rear part of the Temple, was designed to serve as a
tabernacle for the ark of the Covenant and the cherubim. Its interior
measurements were 20 × 20 × 20 cubits. It may be assumed that the raised floor
of the Holy of Holies served as a sort of platform on which stood the ark and the
cherubim (a hint of this may be found in Isa. 6:1).
The jambs (vertical portion of door-frame) of the devir gate, in which olive wood
doors were set, were constructed like the hekhal gate and the Temple windows,
that is, of five frames set one within the other (I Kings 6:31). There were no
windows in the Holy of Holies.
Josephus, the historian, reported, in The Antiquity of the Jews, that the vessels in
the Temple were composed of Orichalcum (an ancient gold-coloured bronze alloy,
second in value to gold). According to I Kings 7:48 there stood before the Holy of
Holies a golden altar of incense and a table for showbread. This table was of gold, as
were the five candlesticks at either side of it. The implements for the care of
candles – tongs, snuffers, basins and fire-pans – were of gold. The door hinges
were also in gold.
R. de Vaux maintains that the wall between the main hall and the Holy of Holies
was merely a thin partition of cedarwood, since the Bible treats the hekhal and the
Holy of Holies as one unit and gives their combined length in one figure – 60
cubits, with that of the hekhal 40 cubits, and that of the Holy of Holies 20 cubits.
THE ADJACENT BUILDING (YAZI’AH)
This building, whose walls ran parallel to those of the Temple and surrounded it
on all sides except the front, was of three stories of varying widths. The inner
width of the rooms of the lowest storey was 5 cubits and to lay the beams of the
roof which formed the floor of the second storey, the thickness of the walls was
reduced so that the width of the rooms of the second storey was 6 cubits and of
the third story, 7 cubits. Each storey was divided into about 30 chambers.

The entrance to this side structure was, according to I Kings 6:8, on the south side,
while, according to Ezekiel 41:5–6, it was entered on both sides. The upper
storeys were reached by lulim, i.e., apertures in the shape of holes. In this building
the numerous Temple vessels, utensils, and treasures were stored. The building
was a little over 15 cubits high with each storey 5 cubits (about 8.2 ft.) high.
TEMPLE FURNITURE
ALTARS
The small altar (2 × 2 × 3 cubits), made of cedar and overlaid with gold, stood
before the entrance to the Holy of Holies. It resembled the altars of the ancient
Canaanite temples. The large, main altar for burnt sacrifices and the fat of peace
offerings, was made of bronze and stood in the court of the Temple, before the
porch (II Chron. 8:12).
The large altar at Jerusalem was 10 cubits high and was built
in stepped tiers. The lowest tier, which was sunk in the earth
and was called "the base on the ground" (Ezek. 43:14), was
set off from the floor of the court by a channel, and measured
20 × 20 cubits. The length and width of the three tiers above it
were 16 × 16, 14 × 14, and 12 × 12 cubits, respectively; the
height of the lowest tier was 2 cubits; that of the middle 4
cubits; and that of the uppermost, called harʾel, 4 cubits.
Set at the four corners of the harʾel were "horns," exactly as on small Canaanite
incense altars.
THE BRAZEN SEA
The Brazen Sea was 10 cubits in diameter and 5 cubits
high, it could hold approximately 1,765.78 cu. ft. of water.
However, in the light of the statement in I Kings 7:26 that
the "sea" held 2,000 bath (II Chron. 4:5 has 3,000 bath),
i.e., nearly 2,825.25 cu. ft., it may be assumed that it had
sharply convex sides. From the thickness of its walls
(approximately 7.5 cm., about 3 in.) its weight can be
calculated at some 33 tons.
NUMERACY MOMENT
Some scholars believe that both the form and name of the vessel are connected
with the mythological "sea“. The division of the 12 oxen, on which the "sea" stood,
Calculate the weight of the
Brazen Sea in Kilograms.

into four groups of three, each of which faced one of the points of the compass,
has been interpreted as symbolic of the four seasons.
THE COLUMNS
W.F. Albright has suggested that they should be regarded as two huge incense
stands. R.B.Y. Scott – that the words yakhin (Jachin) and boʿaz (or be-ʿoz) were the
first words of inscriptions engraved on the columns: ‘May the Lord establish
(yakhin) the throne of David and his kingdom for his seed forever’ or ‘In the
strength (bo-’az) of the Lord shall the king rejoice.’ (See the pillars at the porch
above)
BASES AND LAVERS
Archaeological discoveries have helped greatly toward understanding the design
of the ten brass bases described in detail in the Book of Kings, especially the
Larnaca (in Cyprus) "base" which, in most of its details, resembles the bases of the
Temple. The latter measured 4 × 4 × 3 cubits. Their upper parts were shaped like
round "collars," into which the "lavers" were fitted.
THE CHERUBIM
In ancient mythology it was commonly believed that the cherubim served God (cf.
II Sam. 22:11), and that their main task was to guard the ark of the Covenant in
the Holy of Holies and the "Tree of Life" in the Garden of Eden (Gen. 3:24)
BUILDING MATERIALS
Biblical sources provide evidence of the
following main building materials:
cedarwood, floated down in rafts to the
neighborhood of Jaffa, and "finished
stones," "stones from the quarry," "costly
stones – hewn stones" (I Kings 5:31), which
were used for the foundation of the
structure.
A detailed account is also given of the stones
which were used in building the king's palace which were "sawed with saws" as
well as of "great stones, stones of ten cubits, and stones of eight cubits" (I Kings
7:9–10) which were used for the Temple foundation. In addition, Solomon is said
to have built the inner court of the Temple "with three rows of hewn stone, and a
row of cedar beams" (I Kings 6:36).
The biblical account leaves no doubt that the lower courses of Solomon's building
were of large hewn stones, that its exterior walls were also of masonry, and that
its interior walls were paneled with cedarwood. Within the courses, beams and
cedar planks were set to brace and strengthen the building. The same account
mentions various decorations: carvings, cherubim, palm trees, open flowers, and
gold chainwork.

NUMERACY MOMENT
LITERACY MOMENT
Exercise: Create a Word Search using the following words all of which are
associated with the First Temple:
PORCH
HEKHAL
DEVIR
BRAZEN SEA
LAVERS
COLUMNS
YAZIAH
CHERUBIM
ALTARS
COPPER
GOLD
CEDAR WOOD
CYPRESS WOOD
OLIVE WOOD
STONES
SOLOMON
Calculate the sizes of the
various parts of the Temple
converting from cubits to
metres and centimetres.
List all the components of the
Temple and briefly describe each
one.
Create a word search based on the
components.

Solomon’s Temple: Summary
Location: Jerusalem, The Temple Mount/Mount Zion/Mount Moriah
Dates: 10th century BCE until destruction in 587 BCE
Three Sections of the Temple: Temple Hall or Vestibule (Ulam); Main Room for divine service
(Hekhal); Holy of Holies (Devir)
NAME LOCATION FUNCTION DESCRIPTION
Ulam or Porch,
meaning
‘front’
Near the Main Hall;
to be approached by
ten steps
Separating sacred from
the profane
Width 20x10 cubs.
Disputed height 120 cubs.?
Hekhal or Holy
Place
Word is
borrowed
from word
meaning ‘great
house’
From the porch
through a gate;
largest chamber of
Temple
Main chamber for divine
service
10 cubs. wide
Doors of cypress wood;
Door-posts of olive wood
Room width: 40x20 cubs.
Height:30 cubs.
Windows up high with recessed frames
Devir or Holy
of Holies
Rear part of the
Temple
Most holy place
Designed to serve as a
tabernacle for the ark of
the Covenant and the
cherubim.
Interior: 20x20x20 cubs.
Doors of olive wood
Appearance like Hekhal gate
No windows
Cedarwood partition between it and the Main Hall.
Gold censers for incense
Golden Menorah
Silver
Ark of the
Covenant
In the Holy of Holies Tablets: Covenant
inscribed on the tablets;
Rod: Symbolic of Aaronic
priesthood
Contained the two stone tablets of the Covenant;
Contested opinions that Aaron’s rod (and a box of
manna) were kept there
Small Altar Before the entrance
to the Holy of Holies
2x2x3 cubs. made of cedar and overlaid with gold
Adjacent
building
Ran parallel to the
Temple walls and
surrounded it on all
sides except the
front.
Storage of vessels and
utensils and treasures.
Building of three stories, each different widths and 5
cubs. high:
Lowest: 5 cubs.
Second story: 6 cubs.
Third: 7 cubs.
30 chambers in each story
Upper stories reached by lulim (holes)
Large Main
Altar
Har’el
(Mountain of
G-d)
In the court of the
Temple before the
porch
For burnt sacrifices and
peace offerings
Made of bronze
10 cubs. high with stepped tiers
Lowest tier sunk in the earth was the ‘base on the
ground’ and was set off the floor by a channel
Lowest tier was 2 cubs.; highest 16 cubs.
At the four corners of the Har’el (literally mountain
of G-d) were horns.
Brazen Sea In the Temple court,
southeast of Temple
proper.
For the ritual washing of
the priests
Made of bronze
10 cubs. in diameter symbolizing the Ten
Commandments and the ten Sefirot (Manifestations
of G-d)
Weighed 33 tons
Could take 17,000 gallons of water (150 mikveh
baths)
Twelve oxen in groups of three representing the
points of the compass
Sea represents the world
10 lavers 5 on right; 5 on left,
facing eastward
Cleansing of the entrails
and feet of the animals
sacrificed.
Bronze
Possibly 4x4x4 cubs., but unspecified.
Upper parts like round collars into which the lavers
were fitted.
Columns:
Jachin and
Boaz
Ornamental columns
at the entrance of the
porch
Possibly two incense
stands, named after the
first words of inscription.
4 cubs. in diameter
The Cherubim In the Holy of Holies
over the Ark of the
Covenant.
To serve God
Guardians of the
Covenant in the Holy of
Holies and the ‘Tree of
Life’ in the Garden of
Eden
Made of olive wood
10 cubs. high
Combined spread of four wings: 20 cubs.

The Levitical Priests
Their Function and Role in the Holy Temple
The following material is from The Temple Institute website:
http://www.templeinstitute.org/red_heifer/levitical_priests.htm
"And it shall be for them an appointment as priests forever, for all
generations." (Ex. 40:15)
"For the Lord your God has chosen him out of all your tribes, to stand to
serve in the name of the Lord, him and his sons forever." (Deut. 18:5)
Who are the Priests?
The first kohen, the founder of the priestly clan, was Aaron, brother of
Moses, of the tribe of Levi. All of Israel are descended from the twelve sons
of Jacob. Jacob's third son was Levi, and Aaron was a fourth generation
descendant of Levi.
Aaron and his four sons were designated as the first priests; Aaron served
as the first High Priest. All of his male descendants were chosen by God to
be priests forever; it is an eternal covenant. Thus even today, a kohen
amongst the Jewish people is genealogically a direct descendant of Aaron.
The Role of the Priests
The Holy One chose these men to be in a position of spiritual leadership. In
the days of the Temple, they were responsible for the sacred service. The
Hebrew word kohen actually means "to serve," and a deeper linguistic
connection can be found in the word ken, meaning "yes," itself related to
kivvun, "to direct." Thus a kohen is called upon to direct himself, and
others, in the proper service of God: "And you, separate your brother Aaron
and his sons from among the Israelites, and bring them close to you... so they
can serve me." (Ex. 28:1)
A Conduit for the Reception of Divine Blessing
The reader is undoubtedly most familiar with the primary role which the
priests perform in the Temple, that of officiating at the sacrifices and other
parts of the service. But more importantly, by attending to the various
aspects of the Divine service, the priests serve as a conduit to bring down
God's radiant blessing and influence into this world. In fact, it is on this
account that they are commanded to deliver God's blessing of peace and

love to the people, as well: "Say to Aaron and his sons... Thus shall you bless
the people of Israel: 'May the Lord bless you and protect you. May the Lord
shine His face upon you, and be gracious unto you. May the Lord lift up His
face to you and may He grant you peace'." (Numbers 6:22 - 26)
The Priestly Blessing is Delivered Daily in the Temple
Every day in the Temple, at the conclusion of the morning service, this
blessing was performed by the officiating priests, standing on the steps
leading up to the sanctuary. Thus while it is only God who has the power to
bestow blessing upon people, the function of the priests was to serve as a
vehicle, a medium, through which the Divine influence may descend.
"... He stands behind our wall... "
This concept of the priests "directing" the flow of Divine blessing is alluded
to by a verse in the Song of Songs (2:9 - 10): "Behold, He stands behind our
wall, watching through the windows, glancing through the cracks."
The sages of the Midrash interpret these words to mean that it is God who
stands behind the priests as they deliver His blessing. The illumination of
His Presence shines through their hands, which are outstretched as they
utter the priestly blessing.
The Priests Possess Special Qualities
The priests represent kindness, and the focusing of life's energies on
sanctity and Divine purpose. It was the attribute of kindness,
understanding and love for all which Aaron, the first High Priest, was best
known for, and his descendants are entrusted to exemplify Hillel's famous
dictum in the Chapters of the Fathers (Avot 1:12): "Be of the disciples of
Aaron, loving peace and pursuing peace, loving your fellow-creatures, and
drawing them near to the Torah." This quality was highly visible and
crucially instrumental following the rebellion of Korach, when it was
Aaron who saved the people from the full extent of Divine wrath (see
Numbers 17).
Because of their ability to invoke Heavenly influence, the sages even
record that the priestly families possess distinctive character traits and
qualities which are part of their special spiritual heritage: they are known
to be joyful, giving, and driven by a loftier nature. In the era of the Temple,
they were praised for their zeal and dedication to fulfill the
commandments and give honor to the Creator.
Later, through the ensuing course of history, it was generally the tribe of

Levi and the priestly family in particular that were exemplary in their
zealousness for the honor of God. Thus it was the priestly family of the
Hasmonaim - the famous "Maccabees" - who led the revolt against foreign
idolatrous influence and rededicated the Holy Temple, events marked by
the holiday of Hanukkah.
The daily blessing of the priests in the Temple serves to open the Heavenly
gates of mercy. Through it, the people of Israel merit not only material
well-being - including offspring and longevity - but spiritual blessings as
well; mercy, Divine protection and the greatest blessing of all... true peace.
Since the priests themselves represent the attribute of kindness, their
service brings the flow of God's blessing down to His people.
LITERACY MOMENT
Think, pair and share on the role
of the priests in the Temple.

Sacrificial Service in the Temple
Although the idea of the sacrifices may seem difficult for contemporary people to
accept, it was the commandment of G-d.
The Webster Dictionary definition is: an act of offering something precious to a
deity; specifically the offering of an immolated victim; something offered in
something else; something given up or lost; loss; deprivation.
However, the Hebrew word for "sacrifice" (Korban, le-hakriv) is from the same
root as "to come near, to approach. . . . to become closely involved in a
relationship with someone." This is meant to be the essence of the experience
which the bearer of the sacrifice undergoes. The sacrifices have great spiritual
and symbolic value and an intrinsic importance in themselves.
Abel and Cain are the first people mentioned in the Bible to have offered
sacrifice: vegetable or bloodless sacrifices, and animal or blood-giving sacrifices.
In the Book of Exodus, the proper place for sacrifices was to be ‘before the door
of the tabernacle’ where the altar of burnt offerings stood and where G-d met his
people, or simply before G-d, and later in the Jerusalem Temple (Deuteronomy)
In the Temple of Solomon, Solomon himself (though not a priest) offered three
times every year burnt offerings, thank-offerings and incense. He also built
altars in high places to idols. This practice continued down to the destruction of
the Temple e.g. vegetable, animal and, even sometimes, human sacrifices to Ba’al,
Moloch, Astarte and other false gods.

The prophets showed no enthusiasm for sacrifice:
Hosea: ‘I desire mercy, not sacrifice; knowledge of G-d over burnt offerings’
(Hosea 6).
Amos: ‘I (G-d) hate and despise your feast-days…. If you offer me burnt offerings
and your bloodless offerings, I will not accept them, nor will I regard the thank-
offerings of your fat beasts, … but let justice flow like water’ (Amos 5).
The Mosaic sacrifices are set forth in Leviticus. The categories are of bloodless
and blood-giving kinds. The division takes into account the nature of the offering
or the occasion for which the sacrifice is being made and the accompanying
sentiments or motives of the offerers. Sacrifices may also be divided into those
which are obligatory, such as the daily morning and afternoon sacrifices, and
those which are voluntary, offered by individuals for various personal reasons.
Every sacrifice required sanctification and was brought to the Court of the
Sanctuary. These were the main types of sacrifices:
(a) Burnt offerings or Olah (Animal usually): 14 types were included in this
category e.g. a woman who had given birth; ram brought by the High
Priest on Yom Kippur. Only male animals could be use and either sex of
fowl.
(b) Guilt offerings or Asham: There were six types of guilt offerings e.g.
Asham gezilot, the "guilt offering of theft." If a person denied falsely under
oath that he owed another person money, he had to return the amount
owed plus an additional fifth, and bring this sacrifice, consisting of a two-
year-old ram. The guilt-offering is regarded as serving to impress upon
the person bringing the sacrifice the enormity of his sin, to the extent that
whatever happened to the animal that was sacrificed should by rights
have happened to the sinner.
(c) Sin offering or Hatat: This sacrifice was brought when a person or an
entire community, through negligence, violated a commandment, where
the punishment for the deliberate violation would have been Karet (being
"cut off" from the community). Depending on the specific hatat involved, a
bull aged two or three years, a year-old he-goat, a year-old female sheep
or goat, or a fowl was offered. Where the hatat was to atone for a sin
committed by the High Priest or by the entire community, the animal or
fowl was burned outside the Temple. In all other cases, the priests ate the
meat.
(d) Peace offerings or Shelamim: (Animal, usually) There were four kinds of
peace offering e.g. the "community peace offering," brought on Shavu’ot
or the "festival peace offering" and the "festive peace offering," brought by
an individual, the former as a way of celebrating a festival, the latter as a
way of expressing thanks to G-d.
(e) A different form of sacrifice was that of the First Fruits, consisting of the
Seven Species for which the Land of Israel is praised: wheat, barley,
grapes, pomegranates, figs, olives, and dates. The species were carried in

a joyful procession to Jerusalem, especially for Shavu'ot, but could be
brought until Hanukkah. Each person who brought his first fruits to the
Temple had to make a declaration before a priest, the text of which is
recorded in Deuteronomy 26:5-10.
Animal sacrifices were usually accompanied by bloodless offerings e.g. wine or
drink-offering. The Law required that all animals be perfect though fowl lacked
this restriction. The utmost care was taken by the priest to receive the blood; it
represented the life or the soul. Only a circumcised Levite who was Levitically
pure and dressed in proper vestments could perform this act. The sprinkling of
blood was the exclusive privilege of the priests who were the sons of Aaron.
Bloodless offerings were brought alone e.g. the showbread or the frankincense
offering on the golden altar.
No particular time of day was specified for sacrifice except that the daily animal
offerings were to be killed in the morning and ‘between the two evenings’. Each
special day, such as the Sabbath and the days of each of the festivals, had its own
list of sacrifices as prescribed in the Torah. A detailed list of these is to be found
in Numbers 28-29.
Exercise
Describe the main types of sacrificial offerings of the Temple services. Explain
their purpose.
Jonah’s Diary entries about the Destruction of the Temple: 586 BCE
My name is Jonah. My family lived very near the Temple in Jerusalem. We loved
that place so much because it was the house of G-d; G-d was present. We saw
people coming from all directions daily to offer sacrifice. On three occasions in
the year they came to ‘see and be seen by the face of G-d’. This was a magnificent
Temple, the largest, most beautiful constructed for miles around. I thought, in the
back of my mind that, surely, the prophet Jeremiah could never have been right
when he suggested that the Temple could be destroyed. Had we gone that far
away from the commandments of God, that this should happen? No way! That
was a ridiculous thought! I mean look at all the acacia and olive wood doors, the
beautiful columns, the glistening gold, silver and bronze, the magnificence of the
Main hall, and the height of the building which dwarfed us considerably in its
shadow.
But then again… all had not been well in the last years of Solomon’s reign.
Prophets were sent to warn him and his followers of their idolatry but they
didn’t heed their warnings and considered them to be false messengers who
were scaremongering. Before Solomon’s time, we don’t forget the fate that befell
Zechariah, the prophet. In 661 BCE he warned the people of their ways and said
unless they changed that they would be destroyed. But instead of listening and
heeding Zechariah’s message, they murdered him in cold blood on Yom Kippur.
Being disobedient, their lives became less secure and they were thrust into
conflict with neighbouring kingdoms. Other prophets have come and gone in the

intervening years. They were still trying to talk sense to Solomon but they might
as well have been talking to the wall. He had loads of material possessions,
wealth greater than most in the region at the time, but he had gone astray from
the commandments of G-d and the keeping of the Law.
We were always in the middle of power-struggles between the Assyrians, the
Egyptians and now the Babylonians. We thought that we were strong in
standing up to the Babylonians, that we could defeat them… But then again, why
would they, or any of these kingdoms, be worried about us. After all, aren’t we
only very small? What good would we be to them? Why would they bother with
us? Weren’t there bigger fish to fry elsewhere? … but then again… we were in a
great strategic location. We were in the heart of the Levant giving access to
western Asia, the eastern Mediterranean, and northeast Africa... Of course, how
could we have been so stupid? To conquer Jerusalem would have meant the
inevitable extension of neigbouring kingdoms ….We thought that we would have
been protected by Egypt but they were too worried about themselves and their
own protection to get involved… But we couldn’t counter the might of the
Babylonians. We got too self-important, relying on our own power and on idols,
not on G-d’s. We thought we could do it without G-d. We just couldn’t. As I write
the tears are streaming down my face. The pain of this is so difficult to bear.
That man, King Nebuchadnezzar of Babylonia…such a name … NE-BU-CHAD-
NEZZAR … I can hardly pronounce it… his name is said to mean ‘Nebo, defend my
boundaries’… we should have known, even from that, the lengths this idol-
worshipper would go to in order to exert his power. To say his name fills me
with such fear and desolation. For the last months he and his armies have been
slowly advancing from the north, and finally they arrived to Judea and began to
cut us off. By the early part of the summer they encamped around Jerusalem.
You should have seen them. It appeared to have been thousands. I will never
forget what happened then. On the 7th of Av, the Babylonian armies besieged the
city, breaking down its walls.
I saw fires coming out of the
royal palace and other
buildings of the city. It was a
violent assault; the armies
killed nearly 940,000 people,
men, women and children.
Thousands died after that
immediate assault and many
died as a result of disease or
fire. My memory is filled
with the most appalling
images, terrible sounds, and
the stench of death. I cannot
get them out of my head.
They will stay with me forever. Within one month they had destroyed any
Jewish resistance. Those who could do so fled. But, unknown to them, the
Babylonians had created giant slave camps in the vicinity of the city into which

these people went. They had ensnared them so they could not escape. About
10,000 were deported to Babylon including the new king Jeconiah (either 8 or 18
years of age), his court officials and prominent craftmen. The high priest and
some of his cohort were executed. I was one of the many poor people who
survived and was allowed to remain in Jerusalem. We were left tending our vines
and fields. We were now ruled by a puppet-king, Zedekiah, employed by
Nebuchadnezzar.
And the Temple, the dwelling place of G-d was completely destroyed. At sunset
of the 9th of Av, they set fire to the Temple. That date is seared into all of Jewish
memory for ages to come. I remember it so clearly. Flames licked the sky.
Everything was destroyed. Everything of value like the sacred vessels, artwork,
gold and silver, were plundered and taken by the Babylonian armies, the prize of
their ‘victory’. The city and the Temple were completely ravaged. I am filled
with rage and uncertainty about the future. It seems so quiet here now in the
smouldering rubble and the stifling stench of death all around. I don’t know
anything anymore. I don’t even know who I am.
Exercise
1. Where did Jonah live?
2. What was the year of this diary entry?
3. Describe the significance of the Temple for Jonah.
4. Solomon was the person who built the first Temple. What problems were
happening to Solomon as the years went by during his reign?
5. Write a note on the strategic importance of Jerusalem.
6. Where is Babylonia in present-day maps?
7. Who was the king of Babylonia ?
8. What was the meaning of his name?
9. Why did the siege of Jerusalem happen?
10. What were the effects of the siege on the city and on its inhabitants?
11. What is meant by deportation?
12. Give other examples of deportations from Jewish history.
13. Why was the destruction of the Temple so significant in Jewish thought?
14. As the Temple was the place of divine presence, what was now to happen
to the Jewish people in their relationship with G-d?
15. Explain what you think Jonah means by his statement at the end of his
diary entry: ‘I don’t even know who I am.’
16. If the Jewish people listened carefully to the prophets, what changes
would they have had to make to their lives if the outcome was to be
different to what is described above?

Consequences of the Babylonian Exile
1. The breakup and displacement of Jews removed the threat of national
revival. This was achieved by keeping the leaders in captivity and leaving
the poor behind to tend the crops and vineyards meant
2. Life in captivity was not all slavery or horror. They were given social
freedom and economic opportunity. They were allowed to move about
freely, to live within their communities in small or larger cities, and carry
on a normal life. Their skills were valued by their captors. So secure
were their lives, that after Cyrus granted them freedom 70 years later,
many refused to leave and remained in Babylon.
3. The fall of Jerusalem was a turning point in Israel’s religious life because
they never again, according to scholars, returned to idol worship.
4. The captivity experience seemed to impress upon the Jewish people that
the G-d of Israel was a jealous G-d. The prophets had been right in their
warnings of the doom and destruction that would follow if the people did
not repent and follow their G-d and Him alone. The nation as a whole
accepted the verdict that G-d’s anger had been poured down upon them
for the sin of image worship. They reached the conclusion that only the
God of Israel should be worshipped.
5. Israel became a very zealous nation for its G-d. This zeal took the form of
devotion to G-d’s law, which led over the years to the creation of
numerous rules of conduct that went beyond the law itself. This has been
described as building “a hedge around the Law to render its infringement
or modification impossible” (Alfred Edersheim).
Exercise:
Imagine that you and your family were part of the Babylonian Exile. Write a
first-hand account of the effects of deportation on you and your family.
SECOND TEMPLE
ZERUBBABEL, CYRUS, CAMBYSES, DARIUS: 520 -19 BCE
HEROD: 19 BCE – 70 CE
The Desire to build a Second Temple
New government in Persia: Cyrus the Great in 538 BCE made re-
establishment of city of Jerusalem and rebuilding of Temple possible.
Jewish exiles began to return after 70 years in captivity: 42,360 returned
(Ezra 2:65)
They had a strong religious impulse and wanted to build the Temple and
bring back sacrificial rituals (Korbanot)

Zerubabbel, the governor, invited them, gave them gifts, and so the
foundations commenced.
Altar
Altar erected on site of old altar
Clearing of debris
535 BCE foundation stones were laid
Samaritans offered to help. Zerubabbel declined saying that the Jews must
build their Temple without help.
Cyrus died and was succeeded by his son, Cambyses.
An imposter ruled for seven or eight months until Darius I of Persia took
over in 522 BCE and saw the project to its completion
Consecration
The Temple was consecrated in Spring of 516 BCE, twenty years after the return
from captivity amidst great rejoicing. Jews were no longer an independent
people but subject to a foreign power.
The Second Temple lacked:
The Ark of the Covenant containing the Tablets of Stone, pot of manna and
Aaron’s rod
The Urim and Thummim (High Priest’s Breastplate)
The holy oil for ordination to priesthood, the High Priest, and consecration of
certain articles of the Tabernacle
The sacred fire
The Second Temple had:
Holy of Holies which was now separated from the hekhal by a veil and not by
a walled partition.
The Menorah
The Table of Showbread
The golden altar of incense with golden censers.
Political Changes Affecting Second Temple
Judea was part of the Kingdom of Egypt until 200 BCE
Judea was part of the Seleucid (Greek-Macedonian) Empire of Syria
Second Temple looted, religious services stopped and Judaism outlawed.
167 BCE Antiochus ordered an altar to Zeus erected in Temple, banned
circumcision, ordered pigs to be sacrificed at the altar.
Maccabean Revolt (167-160 BCE): Rural Jewish priest led revolt by refusing
to worship Greek gods. His son Judas Maccabee led a Jewish army to defeat
the Seleucids.
Hanukkah celebrates the re-dedication of Temple

Reconstruction under Herod
Massive expansion of Temple Mount
The Temple Mount was originally intended to be 1600 feet wide by 900 feet
deep by 9 stories high, with walls up to 16 feet deep, but had never been
finished.
To complete it, a trench was dug around the mountain, and huge stone
"bricks" were laid.
Some of these weighed well over 100 tons, the largest measuring 44.6 feet by
11 feet by 16.5 feet and weighing approximately 567 to 628 tons, while most
were in the range of 2.5 by 3.5 by 15 feet (approximately 28 tons).
Architects were Greek, Roman, Egyptian
Blocks quarried using pick-axes
These were cut into squares and numbered for their re-location
Oxen and specialised carts used to haul the loads
Roman pulleys and cranes also used
Pilgrimages to the Second Temple
From all across the Roman Empire
Arrived in Jaffa (Tel Aviv) by boat; then three days trek down to Jerusalem
Changed money, found lodging, purchased animal for sacrificial offering e.g.
pigeon, lamb
Approached public entrance on south side of the Temple Mount
Checked animal
Visited mikveh (ritual bath) for purification

Retrieved animal, headed for Huldah gates and eventually to Court of the
Gentiles.
Court of the Gentiles
Vendors selling souvenirs, sacrificial animals
Money changers
Kohanim (Priests) in white garments directed pilgrims, advised type of
sacrifices necessary
Surrounding the Court of the Gentiles
Behind was the Royal Portico which had a marketplace, administrative
quarters and a synagogue
On the upper floors, the great Jewish Sages held court; Kohanim (priests) and
Levites performed chores; tourists could observe
To the east was the Portico of Solomon
To the north, the Soreg, giant stone structure separating public from Jewish
areas.
Within the Soreg was the Temple itself.
TEMPLE WARNING:
NO FOREIGNER IS TO GO BEYOND THE
BALUSTRADE AND THE PLAZA OF THE
TEMPLE ZONE WHOEVER IS CAUGHT
DOING SO WILL HAVE HIMSELF TO
BLAME FOR HIS DEATH WHICH WILL
FOLLOW
Inside the Soreg
According to Jewish historian Josephus there were ten entrances to the inner
courts: four on the north; four on the south; one on the east; one for east and
west. Within this section was the Court of the Women, the Court of the Israelites
and the Court of the Priests.
Court of the Women
For men and women
Place for lepers, considered ritually
unclean
Ritually unclean cohen (priests) could
perform limited duties
Ritual barbershop for Nazirites (took
vows)
Court of the Israelites and the Court of the
Priests
Court of the Israelites could only be
entered by men

Sacrifices of the high priest from the Court of Priests was visible from there.
Court of the Priests was reserved for Levite Priests
Below is a picture of the High Priest in full ceremonial garments
Destruction of the Second Temple
In 66 CE the Jewish population
rebelled against the Roman
Empire. Four years later, in 70
CE, Roman legions under Titus
retook and subsequently
destroyed much of Jerusalem
and the Second Temple.
Although Jews continued to
inhabit the destroyed city,
Jerusalem was razed by the
Emperor Hadrian at the end of
the Bar Kokhba Revolt in 135 CE
when he established a new city
called Aelia Capitolina.
NUMERACY MOMENT
Calculate the difference
between the height and
length of Zerubbabel’s
Temple and Herod’s.

Exercise
Compare the First Temple and the Second Temple.
Consequences of the Destruction of the Second Temple
There is one excellent online resource with interactive maps, photos and images which would be
very good in dealing with this topic. It is Resources for History Teachers but, nevertheless, its
content is very helpful for context of JS. The URL is as follows:
http://resourcesforhistoryteachers.wikispaces.com/7.23
1. Jewish people were again separated from their contact with G-d.
2. Sadducees, Essenes and Zealots faded away because there was no longer
anything to fight for. Their existence focused on Temple ritual. Without
the Temple more than half of the laws of Judaism were no longer
applicable. Pharisees and Christians survived because they incorporated
the memory of the Temple in their religious life even after its destruction.
3. Rabbinic Judaism found a portable solution to religious practice no longer
dependent on the physical existence of the Temple. Religious practice
shifted to rabbinical authority.
4. Approximately 70 years after the Roman Conquest of Jerusalem Jews
began to anticipate the Messianic redemption. They believed that the
master of history who rebuilt the second Temple seventy years after the
destruction of the first would now build the third. The optimistic spirit of
hopeful anticipation which was typical of this period is expressed most
effectively by the leading Pharisee of the time Rabbi Akiva (c. 17- c.137
CE).
5. Rabbi Akiva hailed the charismatic military leader Simon Bar Koziva as
Messiah. He changed his name to Bar Kochba, meaning, "son of the star"
and appointed him leader of the Revolt which was to overthrow Rome,
reestablish Jewish sovereignty in Jerusalem and culminate in the
rebuilding of the Temple. The Revolt, which lasted from 132-135 CE won
mass support among the Jews. They fled to the caves of Judea and to the
hills of the Galilee filled with enthusiasm and messianic fervour. Early
successes provoked a fierce Roman counter-attack culminating in the
slaughter of 600, 000 men, women and children. Underground warriors
died of starvation. Akiva was publicly tortured. Jewish name of the city of
Jerusalem was replaced by Latin one: Aelia Capitolina. The hopes of
reclaiming Jerusalem were completely dashed.

6. Emperor Hadrian attempted to root out Judaism completely.
7. The consequences of the Bar Kochba revolt precipitated a significant
Jewish Diaspora, details of which follow below.
8. In the second century (CE) Jewish communities could be found in nearly
every notable centre throughout the Roman Empire, as well as scattered
communities found in centers beyond the its borders in northern Europe,
in eastern Europe, in southwestern Asia, and in Africa. Farther to the east
along trade routes, Jewish communities could be found throughout Persia
(Iraq) and in empires even farther east including in India and China.
9. In western Europe, following the collapse of the Western Roman Empire
in 476, and the re-orientation of trade due to the Moorish (Islamic)
conquest of Iberia (Spain and Portugal) in the 8th century,
communications between the Jewish communities in northern parts of
the former western empire became less frequent. At the same time, rule
under Islam resulted in freer trade and communications within the
Muslim world. Communities in Iberia remained in frequent contact with
Jewry in North Africa and the Middle East. Communities further afield, in
central and south Asia and central Africa, remained more isolated, and
continued to develop their own unique traditions.
10. For the Sephardim in Spain, it resulted in a "Hebrew Golden Age" in the
10th to 12th centuries. The 1492 expulsion from Spain by the Catholic
Monarchs however, made the Sephardic Jews hide and disperse to France,
Italy, England, the Netherlands, parts of what is now northwestern
Germany, and to other existing communities in Christian Europe, as well
as to those within the Ottoman Empire, to the Maghreb in North Africa
and smaller numbers to other areas of the Middle East, and eventually to
the Americas in the early 17th century.
11. In northern and Christian Europe during the 17th century financial
competition developed between the authority of the Pope in Rome and
other states and empires. This dynamic, with the Great Schism, anti-
Christian religious Crusades, and later protestations and wars between
Christians themselves, caused repeated periods and occurrences of
persecution against the established Jewish minority in ‘Ashkenaz’ - that
is, the areas that are now northern France and Germany - masses of Jews
began to move further to the east. There, they were welcomed by the king
of Poland, and with Lithuania, grew greatly, and relatively flourished to
the end of the 18th century.
12. In western Europe, the conditions for Jewry differed between the
communities within the various countries and over time, depending on
background conditions. With both pull and push factors operating,
Ashkenazi emigration to the Americans would increase in the early 18th
century with German-speaking Ashkenazi Jews, and end with a tidal wave
between 1880 and the early 20th century with Yiddish-speaking

Ashkenazim, as conditions in the east deteriorated under the failing
Russian Empire. With the Holocaust and the destruction of most
European Jewry, North America would hold the majority of world Jewry.

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