2. PREVIOUS LECTURE REVIEW
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What is Media research method?
Media research method – are the practical techniques for working
with research development.
Tell 2 types of Research.
Primary research : Collecting data by yourself
Secondary research: Collecting data that are done by someone.
Tell about types of Research data.
Qualitative data : is non numerical data that is produced from the
qualitative research methods.
Quantitative data : refers to any information that can be
quantified, counted or measured and given a numerical values.
5. WHAT IS MEDIA VIOLENCE
Media violence - is this aspect of the mass media that
has attracted the largest amount of research funding.
Here, the consensus view is that there is a clear causal
link between media violence and antisocial behaviour. In
Europe the evidence is treated with some caution, but
only recently have there been attempts to explore the
media violence issue from other social scientific
perspectives.
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6. At present, there are several loose ends of research.
- First, the advertising industry uses psychological
theory in its own research, aimed at a business-oriented
readership.
- Second, there have been various studies of the
cognitive effects of television advertising, mostly on
children.
- Third, cultural scholars have examined rhetorical
appeals in advertising and the practice of “reading” ads.
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7. THE EFFECTS OF MEDIA VIOLENCE
Today, it seems that violence is an accepted part of
television programming and filmmaking, grossly
exaggerated in its prevalence, and glorified in digital
clarity.
Three major content analyses of television violence have
been conducted in the United States.
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8. 3 MAJOR CONTENT ANALYSES :
By George Gerbner and colleagues, spanned from 1967 to
1989. This analysis found that 80% of all the shows in the
study (mostly prime-time viewing) contained some element
of physical violence, although their definition of violence
was very broad (“physical force” might be more accurate a
term).
By Bradley Greenberg and colleagues in the mid-1970s,
whose definition included verbal aggression as well as other
forms of antisocial behaviour.
Was conducted during the 1990s—the National Television
Violence Study, funded by the National Cable Television
Association. This study used a more precise definition of
(physical) violence and found such content in 60% of
prime-time programming .
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9. WHAT ARE THE IMMEDIATE EFFECTS OF
WATCHING VIOLENT MEDIA?
Two particular explanations have been very influential
throughout the media violence debate. They are:
1. Role modelling, derived from social learning
theory (Bandura, 1973)
2. Excitation transfer, a cognitive/physiological
response to watching dramatic entertainment
(Zillmann, 1971)
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10. SURVEY METHODS
Opportunities to carry out natural experiments are,
of course, extremely rare, and restricted to unusual
circumstances. If we are interested in studying
everyday experiences of media we have to resort to
more contrived memory for differently structured
narratives (Berry, Scheffler, & Goldstein,1993), and
recall for different types of news content (Gunter,
Berry, & Clifford, 1981). Other experimental studies
have investigated the importance of cognitive load on
media processing; in these, secondary reaction-time
measures (e.g., how long it takes a television viewer
to respond to an audio tone or visual cue) have been
employed as a way of monitoring viewers’ attention to
media material
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11. SAMPLE SELECTION IN SURVEY RESEARCH
Because surveys are carried out in the real world,
the choice of respondents is a highly important
matter. We can no longer rely on student samples
from which to generalise our results, unless we are
studying a specific population (e.g., working-class
African American women, or young Bangladeshi men
in East London). The goal of a large-scale survey is
usually to assemble a sample that is representative of
the overall population. This may require stringent
recruitment procedures.
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12. THE “ACTIVE AUDIENCE”
Although uses and gratifications research has
helped to shift attention from passive to active media
users, the approach has nevertheless been
criticised—particularly by media scholars in the
cultural studies tradition—for working at the level of
the individual rather than focusing on the social and
cultural context of media use. In media studies (as
opposed to communication science), the preferred
term is audiences
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13. THE ORIGINS OF AUDIENCE RESEARCH, CERTAINLY IN EUROPE, CAN BE TRACED
TO THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE BIRMINGHAM CENTRE FOR CONTEMPORARY
CULTURAL STUDIES BY STUART HALL AND COLLEAGUES IN THE 1970S.
“CULTURAL STUDIES” IS A DISCIPLINARY HYBRID OF LITERARY THEORY, THE
ARTS, AND SOCIAL AND POLITICAL THEORY,STRONGLY INFLUENCED BY
POLITICAL THINKERS SUCH AS MARX AND GRAMSCI. ONE OBJECTIVE OF THE
BIRMINGHAM CENTRE WAS TO REPLACE THE TWO-STEP FLOW CONCEPT OF
COMMUNICATION (SENDER–MESSAGE–RECEIVER) AS THE DOMINANT MODEL OF
MEDIA RESEARCH WITH A CIRCUIT, IN WHICH INFORMATION IS ENCODED (E.G.,
USING TELEVISION PRODUCTION CODES) AND THEN DECODED BY THE AUDIENCE
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14. THE WAY FORWARD?
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It seems that, in terms of media theory and audiences,
something of a crossroads has been reached (Livingstone,
1999). Within media studies, authors like Ruddock (2001)
and Tulloch (2000) have begun to address the issue of
method, which cultural scholars have preferred to ignore in
their emphasis on excavating cultural meanings, “preferred
readings,” and the like. Media researchers are urged to
support their textual analyses with empirical data collected
from audiences themselves.
15. REFERENCES:
Arvind Kumar, “Psychology of Human Behavior”
David Giles, “Media Psychology”., 2003, (p. 47-52)
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16. Thank you for your
attention
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