This document provides an overview of the 7th Canadian edition of the textbook "Educational Psychology" by Woolfolk, Winne, and Perry. It includes information about the authors, new content in this edition, and acknowledgements. Specifically, it covers updated treatments of key topics like teaching models, neuroscience, technology, diversity, and language development. The goal is to provide a clear and up-to-date overview of the field of educational psychology.
2. NANCY PERRY
University of British Columbia
EDUCATIONALPSYCHOLOG
Pearson Canada Inc., 26 Prince Andrew Place, North York,
Ontario M3C 2H4.
Copyright 2020, 2016, 2012 Pearson Canada Inc. All rights
reserved.
Printed in the United States of America. This publication is
protected by copyright, and permission should be obtained
from the publisher prior to any prohibited reproduction, storage
in a retrieval system, or transmission in any form or by
any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or
otherwise. For information regarding permissions, request
forms, and the appropriate contacts, please contact Pearson
Canadas Rights and Permissions Department by visiting
www.pearson.com/ca/en/contact-us/permissions.html.
Authorized adaptation from Educational Psychology, Thirteenth
Edition. Copyright 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.,
Hoboken, New Jersey, USA. Used by permission. All rights
reserved. This edition is authorized for sale only in Canada.
Attributions of third-party content appear on the appropriate
page within the text. Cover Image: Anatoli Styf/Shutterstock
3. PEARSON and ALWAYS LEARNING are exclusive trademarks
owned by Pearson Canada Inc., or its affiliates in Canada
and/or other countries.
Unless otherwise indicated herein, any third party trademarks
that may appear in this work are the property of their respective
owners and any references to third party trademarks, logos, or
other trade dress are for demonstrative or descriptive purposes
only. Such references are not intended to imply any
sponsorship, endorsement, authorization, or promotion of
Pearson Canada
products by the owners of such marks, or any relationship
between the owner and Pearson Canada or its affiliates, authors,
licensees, or distributors.
If you purchased this book outside the United States or Canada,
you should be aware that it has been imported without the
approval of the publisher or the author.
ISBN 978-0-13-483221-0
1 20
Library and Archives Canada Cataloguing in Publication
Hoy, Anita Woolfolk, 1947-, author
Educational psychology / Woolfolk, Winne, Perry. Seventh
4. Canadian edition.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-0-13-483221-0 (softcover)
1. Educational psychologyTextbooks. 2. Textbooks.
I. Winne, Philip H., author II. Perry, Nancy E. (Nancy
Ellen), 1962-, author III. Title.
LB1051.H69 2019 370.15 C2018-906496-
To my mother,
Marion Wieckert Pratt.
A remarkable educator,
an adventurous world traveler,
a courageous advocate for all in need,
and a wonderful guide in lifethank
you.
A.W.
In memory of missed parents,
Bill Perry and Jean and Hawley Winne.
5. Great teachers all!
And to family, friends, and students,
who continue to teach us the joys of life and learning.
P.H.W.
N.E.P
ABOUT THE AUTHORS
So you will know the authors a bit better, here is some
information.
Anita Woolfolk was born in Fort Worth, Texas, where her
mother taught child development
at TCU and her father was an early worker in the computer
industry. She is a Texas Long-hornall
her degrees are from the University of Texas, Austin, the last
one a PhD. After
graduating, she worked as a child psychologist in elementary
and secondary schools in
15 counties of central Texas. She began her career in higher
education as a professor of
educational psychology at Rutgers University, and then moved
to The Ohio State University
in 1994. Today she is Professor Emerita at Ohio State. Anitas
6. research focuses on motivation
and cognition, specifically, students and teachers sense of
efficacy and teachers beliefs about
education. For many years she was the editor of Theory Into
Practice, a journal that brings
the best ideas from research to practicing educators. She has
published over 80 books, book
chapters, and research articles with her students and colleagues.
Anita has served as vice-president
for Division K (Teaching & Teacher Education) of the American
Educational
Research Association and president of Division 15Educational
Psychology of the American
Psychological Association. Just before completing this edition
of Educational Psychology, she
collaborated with Nancy Perry, University of British Columbia,
to write the second edition of
Child Development (Pearson, 2015), a book for all those who
work with and love children.
Philip H. Winne received his Ph.D. from Stanford University,
accepted a position at Simon
Fraser University in 1975, and has happily worked there his
entire career. He is a profes-sor
as SFU and previously served as associate dean for Graduate
7. Studies and Research in
the Faculty of Education. His research accomplishments earned
him two terms as a Tier I
Canada Research Chair in Self-Regulated Learning & Learning
Technologies and election
as a fellow of the American Educational Research Association,
the American Psychological
Association, the Association for Psychological Science, and the
Canadian Psychological
Association. His research interests include self-regulated
learning, metacognition, motiva-tion,
study tactics and learning strategies, adaptive software for
research, and promoting
self-regulated learning. To pursue these topics, he leads a team
developing state-of-the-art
software called nStudy. As students use nStudy to study online,
the software collects
extensive and detailed data about how they study. He has
published more than 170 schol-arly
works and served as president of the Canadian Educational
Researchers Association,
the Canadian Association for Educational Psychology, and
Division 15Educational Psy-chology
of the American Psychological Association. He co-edited the
8. Handbook of Edu-cational
Psychology (second edition) with Patricia Alexander and the
field-leading journal
Educational Psychologist (20012005), with Lyn Corno. He has
served as Associate Editor
of the British Journal of Educational Psychology for nearly 20
years, and currently is a
member of the editorial board of seven other leading journals in
the field.
Nancy Perry worked as a classroom and resource teacher in
school districts in British
Columbia, Canada, before obtaining her Ph.D. from the
University of Michigan in 1996.
Today, she is a professor of Educational and Counselling
Psychology, and Special Education
at the University of British Columbia (UBC). There, she teaches
courses in two program
areasHuman Development, Learning, and Culture; and Special
Education; and supports
students in a B.Ed. cohort that focuses on promoting self-
regulated learning (SRL) in the
middle years. She is a recipient of UBCs Killam Teaching Prize
and holds the Dorothy Lam
Chair in Special Education. Her research examines the role of
9. task structures, instructional
practices, and interpersonal relationships in promoting
motivation and self-regulation in
school. Related projects are profiled on her website: Seeding
Success through Motivation
and Self-Regulation in Schools, http://self-
regulationinschool.research.educ.ubc.ca. In addi-tion
to these teaching and research activities, Nancy has served an
Associate Editor for the
Journal of Learning and Instruction, President of Division
15Educational Psychology of
the American Psychological Association, President of the
Canadian Association for Educa-tional
Psychology, Member of the Executive Boards of the Canadian
Association for Studies
in Education and Division 15Educational Psychology as
Member-at-Large
PREFACE
Many of you reading this book are enrolled in an educational
psychology course as part
of your professional preparation for teaching, counselling,
speech therapy, nursing, or
10. psychology. The material in this text should be of interest to
everyone who is concerned
about education and learning, from the kindergarten volunteer
to the instructor in a
community program for adults with disabilities. No background
in psychology or educa-tion
is necessary to understand this material. It is as free of jargon
and technical lan-guage
as possible, and many people have worked to make this edition
clear, relevant,
and interesting.
Since the first edition of Educational Psychology appeared,
there have been many
exciting developments in the field. The seventh Canadian
edition continues to emphasize
the educational implications and applications of research on
child development, cognitive
science, learning, motivation, teaching, and assessment. Theory
and practice are not sepa-rated
in the text but are considered together. The book is written to
show how information
and ideas drawn from research in educational psychology can be
applied to solve the
everyday problems of teaching. To help you explore the
11. connections between research
and practice, you will find in these pages a wealth of examples,
lesson segments, case
studies, guidelines, and even practical tips from experienced
teachers. As you read this
book, we believe you will see the immense value and usefulness
of educational psychol-ogy.
The field offers unique and crucial knowledge to any who dare
to teach and to all
who love to learn.
NEW CONTENT IN THE SEVENTH CANADIAN EDITION
Across the book, there is increased coverage of a number of
important topics. Some of
these include
New explorations of current research on teaching and models of
expert teaching,
introduced in Chapter 1 and continued throughout the book.
Increased coverage of the brain, neuroscience, and teaching
emphasized in Chapter 2
and also integrated into several other chapters.
Increased coverage of the impact of technology and virtual
learning environ-ments
12. on the lives of students and teachers today.
Increased emphasis on diversity in todays classrooms,
especially in Chapters 1
to 6. Portraits of students in educational settings make diversity
real and human
for readers.
Key content changes in each chapter include the following:
Chapter 1 Learning, Teaching, and Educational Psychology
Our goal is that this text will provide the knowledge and skills
that will enable you
to build a solid foundation for an authentic sense of teaching
efficacy in every context
and for every student. There is new information about models of
good teaching here
and throughout the text. Also, the section on research now
examines different kinds
of qualitative and quantitative research and what you can learn
from each approach
(see Table 1.2).
Chapter 2 Cognitive Development
New information on the brain, synaptic plasticity, executive
functioning, and implica-tions
13. for teaching, including an approach based on Vygotsky called
Tools of the Mind
vi PREFACE
Chapter 3 Self and Social and Moral Development
New sections on cultural differences in play, physical activity
and students with
disabilities, eating disorders and the websites that promote
them, self-conceptparticularly
elaborations of gender and sexual identityand Jonathan Haidts
model of moral psychology.
Chapter 4 Learner Differences and Learning Needs
New sections on nine possible multiple intelligences, autism
spectrum disorders,
student drug use, and ways to identify students who are gifted
and talented.
Chapter 5 Language Development, Language Diversity, and
Immigrant Education
New information on learning to read, emergent literacy and
language diversity, shel-tered
instruction, and student-led conferences.
14. Chapter 6 Culture and Diversity
New coverage of homeless and highly mobile students,
expanded coverage of pov-erty
and school achievement, opportunity gaps, and stereotype
threat.
Chapter 7 Behavioural Views of Learning
Expanded coverage of teaching implications of behavioural
learning.
Chapter 8 Cognitive Views of Learning
Updated coverage of working memory, developmental
differences, and teaching
implications of cognitive learning theories.
Chapter 9 Complex Cognitive Processes
Updated sections on metacognition and learning strategies,
creativity, and transfer,
and a new section on Paul and Elders model of critical thinking.
Chapter 10 The Learning Sciences and Constructivism
New material on inquiry learning and teaching in a digital
world, including Bettys
Brainan example of a virtual learning environmentthe use of
games in teaching,
and the initiative to teach computational thinking and coding.
15. Chapter 11 Social Cognitive Views of Learning and Motivation
Updated coverage of self-efficacy, self-regulated learning, and
new material on emo-tional
self-regulation.
Chapter 12 Motivation in Learning and Teaching
Updated treatment of self-determination theory and goal theory,
expanded coverage
of helping students cope with anxiety, and new material on flow
and motivation
PREFACE
Chapter 13 Creating Learning Environments
New sections on understanding your beliefs about classroom
management, creating
caring relationships, bullying, restorative justice, and Marvin
Marshalls views on
consequences and penalties.
Chapter 14 Teaching Every Student
Updated discussion of research on teaching, as well as a new
section on understand-ing
by design.
16. Chapter 15 Classroom Assessment, Grading, and Standardized
Testing
Updated material on student testing.
A CRYSTAL-CLEAR PICTURE OF THE FIELD
AND WHERE IT IS HEADED
The seventh Canadian edition maintains the lucid writing style
for which the book is
renowned. The text provides accurate, up-to-date coverage of
the foundational areas
within educational psychology: learning, development,
motivation, teaching, and assess-ment,
combined with intelligent examination of emerging trends in the
field and society
that affect student learning, such as student diversity, inclusion
of students with special
learning needs, education and neuroscience, and technology.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
During the years we have worked on this book, from initial
draft to this most recent revi-sion,
many people have supported the project. Without their help, this
text simply could
not have been written.
17. Many educators contributed to this and previous editions. For
recent contributions,
we give thanks to
Lisa Dack, Ontario Institute for Studies in Education
Marian Jazvac-Martek, McGill University
Anoop Gupta, University of Windsor
Ashleigh Lerch, Western University
Elsa Lo, Concordia University
Chris Mattatall, University of Lethbridge
Julie Mueller, Wilfrid Laurier University
Nancy Norman, University of the Fraser Valley
Alexa Okrainec, Brandon University
Sheila Windle, University of Ottawa
Stephanie Yamniuk, University of Winnipeg
For reviews in connection with the sixth, fifth, and fourth
Canadian editions, thanks to
Ajit Bedi, Memorial University of Newfoundland
Scott Conrod, McGill University
Connie Edwards, University of Toronto
18. Sonja Grover, Lakehead University
Michael Harrison, University of Ottawa
Linda Lysynchuck, Laurentian University
Anne MacGregor, Douglas College
vi
viii PREFACE
Rob McTavish, Simon Fraser University
Marlene Maldonado-Esteban, University of Windsor
Carlin J. Miller, University of Windsor
John C. Nesbit, Simon Fraser University
Gene Ouellette, Mount Allison University
Krista Pierce, Red Deer College
Jeff St. Pierre, University of Western Ontario
Noella Piquette-Tomei, University of Lethbridge
Kenneth A. Pudlas, Trinity Western University
Jill Singleton-Jackson, University of Windsor
Irina Tzoneva, University of Fraser Valley
19. Jennifer A. Vadeboncoeur, University of British Columbia
David Young, University of Western Ontario
PHIL WINNE AND NANCY PERR
BRIEF CONTENTS
1 Learning, Teaching, and Educational Psychology 1
PART I STUDENTS
2 Cognitive Development 22
3 Self and Social and Moral Development 64
4 Learner Differences and Learning Needs 110
5 Language Development, Language Diversity,
and Immigrant Education 160
6 Culture and Diversity 195
PART II LEARNING AND MOTIVATION
7 Behavioural Views of Learning 232
8 Cognitive Views of Learning 266
9 Complex Cognitive Processes 302
10 The Learning Sciences and Constructivism 342
20. 11 Social Cognitive Views of Learning and Motivation 382
12 Motivation in Learning and Teaching 414
PART III TEACHING AND ASSESSING
13 Creating Learning Environments 457
14 Teaching Every Student 497
15 Classroom Assessment, Grading, and Standardized Testing
53
CONTENTS
About the Authors iv
Preface v
CHAPTER 1
LEARNING, TEACHING,
AND EDUCATIONAL
PSYCHOLOGY 1
Teachers CasebookIncluding All Students: What
Would You Do? 1
Overview and Objectives 2
21. Learning and Teaching Today 2
Classrooms Today Are Dramatically Diverse 2
Confidence in Every Context 3
Do Teachers Make a Difference? 4
What Is Good Teaching? 5
Inside Three Classrooms 5
What Are the Concerns of Beginning Teachers? 7
The Role of Educational Psychology 8
In the Beginning: Linking Educational Psychology and
Teaching 8
Educational Psychology Today 8
Is It Just Common Sense? 9
Using Research to Understand and Improve
Learning 10
POINT/COUNTERPOINT: What Kind of Research Should
Guide Education? 13
Theories for Teaching 15
Supporting Student Learning 18
22. Summary 19
Teachers CasebookWhat Is an Effective Teacher? What
Would They Do? 20
CHAPTER 2
COGNITIVE
DEVELOPMENT 22
Teachers CasebookSymbols and Cymbals:
What Would You Do? 22
Overview and Objectives 23
A Definition of Development 23
Three Questions Across the Theories 24
General Principles of Development 25
The Brain and Cognitive Development 25
The Developing Brain: Neurons 26
The Developing Brain: Cerebral Cortex 28
Adolescent Development and the Brain 30
Putting It All Together: How the Brain Works 30
Neuroscience, Learning, and Teaching 31
23. POINT/COUNTERPOINT: Brain-Based Education 34
Lessons for Teachers: General Principles 34
Piagets Theory of Cognitive Development 36
Influences on Development 37
Basic Tendencies in Thinking 37
Four Stages of Cognitive Development 38
FAMILY AND COMMUNITY PARTNERSHIPS GUIDELINES:
Helping Families Care for Preoperational Children 41
GUIDELINES: Teaching the Concrete-Operational Child 44
Information Processing and Neo-Piagetian Views of Cognitive
Development 45
GUIDELINES: Helping Students to Use Formal Operations 46
Limitations of Piagets Theory 47
Vygotskys Sociocultural Perspective 50
The Social Sources of Individual Thinking 50
Cultural Tools and Cognitive Development 51
The Role of Language and Private Speech 52
The Zone of Proximal Development 54
24. Limitations of Vygotskys Theory 55
Implications of Piagets and Vygotskys Theories for
Teachers 55
Piaget: What Can We Learn? 55
Vygotsky: What Can We Learn? 57
An Example Curriculum: Tools of the Mind 58
Reaching Every Student: Teaching in the Magic Middle 59
GUIDELINES: Applying Vygotskys Ideas to Teaching 60
Cognitive Development: Lessons for Teachers 60
Summary 60
Teachers CasebookSymbols and Cymbals: What Would
They Do? 62
CHAPTER 3
SELF AND SOCIAL AND MORAL
DEVELOPMENT 64
Teachers CasebookMean Girls: What Would You Do? 64
Overview and Objectives 6
25. CONTENTS
Physical Development 65
Physical and Motor Development 65
GUIDELINES: Dealing with Physical Differences in the
Classroom 68
Play, Recess, and Physical Activity 68
Challenges in Physical Development 70
GUIDELINES: Supporting Positive Body Images in
Adolescents 72
Bronfenbrenner: The Social Context for Development 72
Families 73
FAMILY AND COMMUNITY PARTNERSHIPS GUIDELINES:
Connecting with Families 76
GUIDELINES: Helping Children of Divorce 77
Peers 78
Reaching Every Student: Teacher Support 80
Teachers and Child Abuse 81
Society and Media 83
26. Identity and Self-Concept 84
Erikson: Stages of Individual Development 84
GUIDELINES: Encouraging Initiative and Industry 86
GUIDELINES: Supporting Identity Formation 89
Ethnic and Racial Identity 90
Self-Concept 91
Sex Differences in Self-Concept of Academic Competence 93
Self-Esteem 94
POINT/COUNTERPOINT: What Should Schools Do to
Encourage Students Self-Esteem? 95
Understanding Others and Moral Development 96
Theory of Mind and Intention 96
Moral Development 96
Moral Judgments, Social Conventions, and Personal Choices 98
Diversity in Moral Reasoning 100
Beyond Reasoning: Haidts Social Intuitionist Model of Moral
Psychology 100
Moral Behaviour 101
27. GUIDELINES: Dealing with Aggression and Encouraging
Cooperation 104
Personal/Social Development: Lessons for Teachers 106
Summary 106
Teachers CasebookMean Girls: What Would They Do? 108
CHAPTER 4
LEARNER DIFFERENCES AND
LEARNING NEEDS 110
Teachers CasebookIncluding Every Student: What Would
You Do? 110
Students with Sensory Impairments 148
Students with Autism Spectrum Disorders 150
Special Education and Inclusion 151
Education Laws and Policies Pertaining to Exceptional
Students 151
POINT/COUNTERPOINT: Is Inclusion a Reasonable
Approach to Teaching Exceptional Students? 153
FAMILY AND COMMUNITY PARTNERSHIPS GUIDELINES:
28. Productive Conferences 154
Response to Intervention (RTI) 154
Universal Designs for Learning 156
Summary 156
Teachers CasebookIncluding Every Student: What Would
They Do? 158
Overview and Objectives 111
Language and Labelling 111
Disabilities and Handicaps 112
Person-First Language 113
Possible Biases in the Application of Labels 113
Intelligence 114
What Does Intelligence Mean? 114
Multiple Intelligences 115
Multiple Intelligences: Lessons for Teachers 118
Intelligence as a Process 118
Measuring Intelligence 119
GUIDELINES: Interpreting IQ Scores 121
29. Sex Differences in Intelligence 122
Learning and Thinking Styles 124
Learning Styles and Preferences 124
Beyond Either/Or 126
Students Who are Gifted and Talented 126
Who Are These Students? 127
Identifying and Teaching Students Who
Are Gifted 129
Students with Learning Challenges 132
Neuroscience and Learning Challenges 132
Students with Learning Disabilities 133
Students with Hyperactivity and Attention
Disorders 137
Lessons for Teachers: Learning Disabilities
and ADHD 139
Students with Language and Communication
Disorders 140
Students with Emotional or Behavioural
30. Disorders 141
Students with Developmental Disabilities 144
Students with Physical Disabilities and Chronic
Health Concerns 145
GUIDELINES: Teaching Students with Developmental
Disabilities 146
x
xii CONTENTS
CHAPTER 5
LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT,
LANGUAGE DIVERSITY, AND
IMMIGRANT EDUCATION 160
Teachers CasebookSupporting Language Diversity in the
Classroom: What Would You Do? 160
Overview and Objectives 161
The Development of Language 161
What Develops? Language and Cultural Differences 161
31. When and How Does Language Develop? 162
Emergent Literacy 165
Emergent Literacy and Bilingual Children 167
GUIDELINES: Supporting Language and Promoting
Literacy 168
Diversity in Language Development 168
Dual-Language Development 169
Signed Languages 172
What Is Involved in Being Bilingual? 172
Contextualized and Academic Language 173
GUIDELINES: Promoting Language Learning 175
Dialect Differences in the Classroom 175
Dialects 176
Genderlects 177
Teaching Students and English Language Learners 177
Immigrants and Refugees 178
Classrooms Today 179
Four Student Profiles 179
32. Generation 1.5: Students in Two Worlds 180
Bilingual Education and English Learners 181
POINT/COUNTERPOINT: What Is the Best Way to Teach
English Language Learners? 182
Sheltered Instruction 184
Affective and Emotional/Social Considerations 186
GUIDELINES: Providing Emotional Support and Increasing
Self-Esteem for English Language Learners 187
Working with Families: Using the Tools
of the Culture 188
FAMILY AND COMMUNITY PARTNERSHIPS GUIDELINES:
Welcoming All Families 189
Challenges: English Language Learners with Disabilities and
Special Gifts 190
English Language Learners with Disabilities 190
Reaching Every Student: Recognizing Giftedness
in Bilingual Students 191
Summary 192
33. Teachers CasebookCultures Clash in the Classroom: What
Would They Do? 193
CHAPTER 6
CULTURE AND
DIVERSITY 195
Teachers CasebookWhite Girls Club: What Would
You Do? 195
Overview and Objectives 196
Todays Diverse Classrooms 196
Culture and Group Membership 196
Meet Four Students 198
Cautions about Interpreting
Cultural Differences 200
Economic and Social Class Differences 201
Social Class and SES 201
Extreme Poverty: Homeless and Highly
Mobile Students 202
Poverty and School Achievement 202
34. POINT/COUNTERPOINT: Is Tracking an Effective
Strategy? 205
GUIDELINES: Teaching Students Who Live in
Poverty 206
Ethnicity and Race Differences in Teaching
and Learning 206
Terms: Ethnicity and Race 206
Ethnic and Racial Differences
in School Achievement 207
The Legacy of Discrimination 208
Stereotype Threat 212
Gender in Teaching and Learning 214
Sex and Gender 214
Gender Roles 216
Gender Bias in Curriculum 218
Gender Bias in Teaching 218
GUIDELINES: Avoiding Gender Bias in Teaching 219
Multicultural Education: Creating Culturally
35. Compatible Classrooms 220
Culturally Relevant Pedagogy 221
Fostering Resilience 223
FAMILY AND COMMUNITY PARTNERSHIPS GUIDELINES:
Building Learning Communities 224
Diversity in Learning 225
Lessons for Teachers: Teaching Every Student 227
GUIDELINES: Culturally Relevant Teaching 229
Summary 229
Teachers CasebookWhite Girls Club: What
Would They Do? 23
CONTENTS
CHAPTER 7
BEHAVIOURAL VIEWS OF
LEARNING 232
Teachers CasebookSick of Class: What Would
You Do? 232
36. Overview and Objectives 233
Understanding Learning 233
Neuroscience of Behavioural Learning 234
Learning Is Not Always What It Seems 234
Early Explanations of Learning: Contiguity
and Classical Conditioning 236
GUIDELINES: Applying Classical Conditioning 237
Operant Conditioning: Trying New Responses 237
Types of Consequences 238
Reinforcement Schedules 240
Antecedents and Behaviour Change 242
Putting It All Together to Apply Operant Conditioning:
Applied Behaviour Analysis 243
Methods for Encouraging Behaviours 244
GUIDELINES: Applying Operant Conditioning: Using Praise
Appropriately 245
GUIDELINES: Applying Operant Conditioning: Encouraging
Positive Behaviours 247
37. Contingency Contracts, Token Reinforcement, and Group
Consequences 248
Token Reinforcement Systems 249
Handling Undesirable Behaviour 251
GUIDELINES: Applying Operant Conditioning: Using
Punishment 253
Reaching Every Student: Severe Behaviour Problems 253
Contemporary Applications: Functional Behavioural
Assessment, Positive Behaviour Supports,
and Self-Management 254
Discovering the Why: Functional Behavioural
Assessments 255
Positive Behaviour Supports 256
Self-Management 258
FAMILY AND COMMUNITY PARTNERSHIPS GUIDELINES:
Applying Operant Conditioning: Student
Self-Management 259
Challenges, Cautions, and Criticisms 260
38. Beyond Behaviourism: Banduras Challenge
and Observational Learning 260
Criticisms of Behavioural Methods 261
POINT/COUNTERPOINT: Should Students Be Rewarded
for Learning? 262
Ethical Issues 263
Behavioural Approaches: Lessons for Teachers 263
Summary 264
Teachers CasebookSick of Class: What Would
They Do? 265
CHAPTER 8
COGNITIVE VIEWS OF
LEARNING 266
Teachers CasebookRemembering the Basics: What Would
You Do? 266
Overview and Objectives 267
Elements of the Cognitive Perspective 267
Comparing Cognitive and Behavioural Views 267
39. The Brain and Cognitive Learning 268
The Importance of Knowledge in Cognition 269
Cognitive Views of Memory 269
Sensory Memory 270
Attention and Teaching 274
Working Memory 274
GUIDELINES: Gaining and Maintaining Attention 275
Cognitive Load and Retaining Information 278
Individual Differences in Working Memory 280
Long-Term Memory 282
Capacity, Duration, and Contents of
Long-Term Memory 282
Explicit Memories: Semantic and Episodic 284
Implicit Memories 288
Retrieving Information in Long-Term Memory 289
Individual Differences in Long-Term Memory 290
Teaching for Deep, Long-Lasting Knowledge: Basic Principles
and Applications 290
40. Constructing Declarative Knowledge: Making Meaningful
Connections 290
FAMILY AND COMMUNITY PARTNERSHIPS GUIDELINES:
Organizing Learning 292
Reaching Every Student: Make It Meaningful 293
Development of Procedural Knowledge 296
POINT/COUNTERPOINT: Whats Wrong
with Memorizing? 297
GUIDELINES: Helping Students Understand and
Remember 298
Summary 299
Teachers CasebookRemembering the Basics: What Would
They Do? 300
xii
xiv CONTENTS
CHAPTER 9
COMPLEX COGNITIVE
41. PROCESSES 302
Teachers CasebookUncritical Thinking: What Would
You Do? 302
Overview and Objectives 303
Metacognition 304
Metacognitive Knowledge and Regulation 304
Individual Differences in Metacognition 305
Lessons for Teachers: Developing Metacognition 305
Learning Strategies 307
Being Strategic about Learning 307
Visual Tools for Organizing 310
Reading Strategies 312
Applying Learning Strategies 313
GUIDELINES: Becoming an Expert Student 314
Reaching Every Student: Learning Strategies for Struggling
Students 314
Problem Solving 315
Identifying: Problem Finding 316
42. Defining Goals and Representing the Problem 317
Searching for Possible
Solution
Strategies 321
Anticipating, Acting, and Looking Back 322
Factors That Hinder Problem Solving 323
Expert Knowledge and Problem Solving 324
GUIDELINES: Applying Problem Solving 325
Creativity: What It is and Why It Matters 326
Assessing Creativity 327
OK, but So What: Why Does Creativity Matter? 327
What Are the Sources of Creativity? 327
Creativity in the Classroom 329
43. The Big C: Revolutionary Innovation 329
GUIDELINES: Applying and Encouraging Creativity 330
Critical Thinking and Argumentation 331
One Model of Critical Thinking: Paul and Elder 332
Applying Critical Thinking in Specific Subjects 333
Argumentation 333
POINT/COUNTERPOINT: Should Schools Teach Critical
Thinking and Problem Solving? 334
…
PRAISEFORCRUCIALACCOUNTABILITY
77. A reflection paper is not a summary of the course readings or a
stream of
conscious mind dump on paper.
Main themes
Readings
Integrate
Effects on:
Thinking
Practice
Classroom
Experience
1. As the diagram suggests, a reflection paper is your
identification of the main
themes of the readings integrated with your classroom
experience and how both
affect your thinking and practice.
2. A reflection paper is your chance to add your thoughts and
analysis to what
78. you have read and experienced.
3. A reflection paper is meant to illustrate your understanding
of the material and
how it affects your ideas and possible practice in future.
4. Begin by jotting down some of the reading material and class
experiences that
stand out in your mind. Decide why they stand out to you.
5. It may be helpful to use the restorative questions to generate
some of your
thoughts and feelings about the course experience.
6. Using the first person singular (“I”), relate the readings and
classes to your
previous knowledge and experience.
7. Consider if and how what you have read and learned changes
your thinking
and might affect your practice in both personal and professional
situations.
8. Review the readings and class notes to be sure you’ve
included all the
79. relevant information you can and made all the connections you
can.
9. Give your reflection paper structure with an opening
paragraph, main body,
and conclusion.
10. It may be helpful to write the body of the paper first by
using Steps 4-7, and
then decide what your opening paragraph should say. The
opening paragraph
may be brief, only a sentence or two, but it should offer some
overall statement
of your perspective based on what you’ve learned (e.g., Before I
read the articles
for YC/ED 501, I had never considered that I was an
authoritative supervisor, that
is, someone who gives my staff firm direction but little
support.). Then you could
go on to describe which readings or class experiences affected
your thinking and
why. You could disagree with some of the readings or ideas.
The conclusion of
80. IIRP/4/6/10MM/BR/SO
your reflection may also be brief (e.g., I realize that I must
learn how to be more
supportive to get the best from my staff.). Or it could be
uncertain (e.g., I don’t
agree with everything I learned but I am going to consider using
some of the
practices in future to see if they change my office
environment.).
11. Include in-text references and a reference page for any
materials you cite
using APA citation formatting.
PROFESSOR CAVANAUGH
SPRING 2021
TRINITY WESTERN UNIVERSITY
81. 1
LDRS 400 IN & N2
Interpersonal Leadership: Managing Conflict
Three (3) Analysis & Reflection Papers
15+15+20 = 50% of Final Grade
Each student will be writing three (3) 7-8 page analysis and
reflection papers based on each
of the three (3) frameworks we will be studying throughout the
course and applied to three
(3) personal conflicts individually experienced by the student in
the last 12 -18 months. Each
of the frameworks provide theoretical and practical tools to
manage oneself when faced
with challenging conflicts, both personally and professionally.
Each paper will adhere to APA 6th edition style including 12pt
font, Times New Roman,
double-spaced, 1-inch margins, page numbers.
Each paper will include a title page (1 page), a reference page
82. (1 page) and 4-6 pages of
analysis and reflection = 7-8 page paper. APA formatted sub-
headings in a paper are an
excellent way to organize your ideas and let the reader know
where your ideas are moving
next (HINT!)
Each paper will have 6-8 in-text citations:
• a minimum of 3 from the original textbook, and
• a minimum of 3 from other course material or approved
academic resources.
o Outside academic sources may be used to support your work,
however blogs,
social media outlets, Wikipedia, Buzzfeed, Dictionaries, etc. are
NOT
acceptable sources for these 6-8 references (so you can use
other quotes,
blogs, etc. but they do not count towards this requirement).
Each paper will reflect an actual conflict, accountability
conversation and negotiation
that each student has personally experienced in their own life,
preferably in the last 12-
83. 18 months. If you are having a challenge with this, please talk
to the professor well in
advance of the deadlines to discuss your options. Please note,
Assignment #2 has a
required appendix and Assignment #3 has the option of two
students working together to
create a combined submission (case study paper + PPT)
Plagiarism, ghost-writing and sloppy APA adherence are simply
unacceptable for a 4th year
University course. If you are struggling with your assignments
or do not understand the
requirements, it is your responsibility to get clarity and
assistance before the assignment is
due.
PROFESSOR CAVANAUGH
SPRING 2021
84. TRINITY WESTERN UNIVERSITY
2
ANALYSIS & REFLECTION PAPER #1: Conflict
DUE: Sunday, February 7th, 2021 by 11:55pm
Using the text, Have a Nice Conflict (2012), analyze a personal
conflict you have
experienced in the last 12-18 months. Include the following in
your analysis:
1. Step 1: EXPLAIN: Briefly EXPLAIN the conflict (who was
involved, when, what the
issue was, what exactly was said or done to create the conflict.
2. Step 2: ANALYZE & EVALUATE: ANALYZE the conflict
using the core principles of
anticipate, prevent, identify, manage and resolve (as outlined in
the textbook).
Including the following observations as you think about and
85. analyze the conflict:
3. SDI & Motivational Values
Ø Discuss your MVS, how does your unique colour show up in
this conflict?
Where do your strengths or weaknesses show up in the
conflict?
Ø What about the other person/party – what might their
motivational value
system be? Please give an example.
Ø What do you think were the intentions of the other
person/party? Why does
this matter? What were your primary motivations or intentions
in this
conflict? Please give an example. What motivational value
systems were you
operating with?
Ø Was the conflict resolved?
If YES—explain the resolution and evaluate the result
If NO—discuss what you could do to resolve it or even if it
can be
86. resolved. Provide examples to support your ideas.
4. Step 3: RECOMMENDATIONS: Based on what you have
learned in the book, online
lectures, activities and your own SDI Assessments, answer the
following in your
recommendations:
• What can you do now to resolve this conflict (if it is has not
already
been resolved)
• What key 1-2 things might you do differently in future
conflicts?
ANALYSIS & REFLECTION PAPER #2: Crucial
Accountability
DUE: Sunday, March 7th, 2021 by 11:55pm
Using the text, Crucial Accountability, you will be making some
key discoveries about areas
that you both succeed and struggle with in keeping yourself and
others accountable:
87. 1. Step 1: READ THE TEXT & TAKE THE ASSESSMENT:
After reading the textbook, take
the self-assessment test (Appendix A, pp. 247-251) and review
your results. The
survey is divided in the seven chapters of the book that cover
the crucial
accountability skills (five questions each). You will need to
read each chapter in order
to understand your results and the process of holding healthy
accountability
conversations.
PROFESSOR CAVANAUGH
SPRING 2021
TRINITY WESTERN UNIVERSITY
3
2. Step 2: ANALYZE & EVALUATE: Choose TWO of the
seven areas where you scored the
most “yes” answers and observe, analyze and reflect on those
88. specific areas.
• What does this score mean to your ability to hold yourself or
others accountable?
• Does it accurately reflect some areas of weakness in your
accountability?
• Consider how your MVS shows up in the area of
accountability. Include any
insights you may have about SDI results and your Crucial
Accountability Survey
results. Discuss and explain your answer with examples.
• For each of these 2 accountability areas you wrote about,
make 2
recommendations how you can improve your accountability to
yourself and
others as you navigate bad behavior and broken promises in
your
work/home/school/ life relationships. For example, if you are
evaluating,
“Describing the Gap”, what two recommendations can you make
for yourself in
this specific area to improve your ability to describe the gap
when holding an
accountability conversation. Do this for both of the sections you
89. are analyzing.
3. Step 3: RECOMMENDATIONS: Based on what you learned
from the textbook, online
lectures and activities, answer this question: Why do you think
accountability is an
important leadership skill – personally and organizationally?
Provide support,
citations and an example or two to support your thinking from
all course material to
date and other outside sources as applicable.
ANALYSIS & REFLECTION PAPER #3: Negotiation
DUE: Sunday, April 4, 2021 by 11:55pm
3. A Case Study in Negotiation. Using the text, Getting to Yes,
you OR you and a partner
will analyze a negotiation one of you have personally
experienced in the last 12-18
months. You each will bring a real-life negotiation to your
initial meeting and together
you will decide which one to use. Together you will co-write
your own Case Study
90. Paper and corresponding PPT and submit both jointly. This
assignment can be done
individually or with a partner.
Include the following in your submission:
Step 1: TITLE: Create an engaging title for this Case Study.
Step 2: KEY QUESTION/ CHALLENGE TO OVERCOME: You
will create a key question
that this case study will attempt to answer. It may be a
negotiation challenge to
overcome, a specific aspect of this negotiation that needs
further analysis. It may
connect to the complexity of negotiation or how the keys to
principled negotiation
are the solution to becoming more successful at negotiation.
Whatever your question
is (and it can be 1-3 sentences), make sure that it gets answered
by the end of your
case study.
Step 3: INTRODUCTION and BACKGROUND: Briefly explain
the details of this
negotiation (who was involved, when, what the negotiation was
91. about, what exactly
was said or done in the negotiation). Provide important details
that will help the
reader fully understand the nature of the events surrounding the
negotiation.
PROFESSOR CAVANAUGH
SPRING 2021
TRINITY WESTERN UNIVERSITY
4
STEP 4: ANALYZE & PROVIDE SOULTIONS: Analyze the
negotiation using the
framework of the 4 keys of principled negotiation (as outlined
in the textbook),
discuss the following questions in your paper:
o how could you separate people from the problem?
o what are the keys interests v. positions for each party in this
negotiation?
92. o what options for mutual gain are available?
o are there any objective criteria that could be used in this
negotiation?
o what might a win-win-solution look like for all parties
involved in this
negotiation?
Step 5: CONCLUSION: Make sure your conclusion summarizes
and answers the key
question/ challenge to overcome that you posed at the beginning
of this case study.
Also include the key 1-2 things might you would recommend
the reader do in future
negotiations to achieve a win-win successful outcome.
GRADING RUBRIC FOR EACH PAPER 15+15+20 = 50% of
final grade
Grading Rubric for Critical Thinking, Reflection & Application
(10pts):
Emerging (0-3 pts) Developing (4-8pts) Mastering (9-10pts)
93. Student responds to question(s)
with a basic understanding of the
question(s), little to no critical
thinking, little to any application
of ideas, little to any use of
supporting evidence.
Student demonstrates some
understanding of the questions(s),
some critical thinking, application
of basic ideas, and use of evidence
(citations and/ or personal
examples).
Student demonstrates exemplary
understanding of the question (s)
advanced use of critical thinking,
application of ideas and use of
evidence (citations and/ or
personal examples, examples
from the movie and from course
material to date).
Grading Rubric for Composition and Style (3 pts):
94. Emerging (0-1 pt) Developing (2 pts) Mastering (3 pts)
Sequence of ideas is difficult to
follow, no clear point, poor word
choice, no or poorly used source
text (doesn’t use “they say/ I say”
pattern)
Logical sequence of ideas that is
fairly easy to follow; clear points’
fairly good word choice; fairly well
used source text (makes some use
of the “they say/ I say” pattern).
Exemplary organization of ideas
that is very easy to follow; strong
points, well-chosen words, very
thoughtful use of the source text
(uses they say/ I say” pattern).
Grading Rubric for Grammar and APA Details (2 pts):
Emerging (0 pts) Developing (1 pt) Mastering (2 pts)
Language or APA flaws in three or
95. more areas.
Language or APA flaws in no more
than two areas.
No significant or notable language
or APA flaws.
m
what
would
you
do?
Tursunbaev
96. Ruslan/Shutterstock
CHAPTER
2
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
TEACHERS CASEBOOK: Symbols and Cymbals
The provincial curriculum guide calls for a unit on poetry,
including lessons on
symbolism in poems. You are concerned that many of your
grade 5 students may not
be ready to understand this abstract concept. To test the waters,
you ask a few
students to describe a symbol.
Its sorta like a big metal thing that you bang together. Tracy
waves her hands
like a drum major.
97. Yeah, Sean adds, my sister plays one in the high school band.
You realize they are on the wrong track here, so you try again. I
was thinking of
a different kind of symbol, like a ring as a symbol of marriage
or a heart as a symbol
of love, or . . .
You are met with blank stares.
Trevor ventures, You mean like the Olympic torch?
And what does that symbolize, Trevor? you ask.
Like I said, a torch. Trevor wonders how you could be so dense.
CRITICAL THINKING
What do these students reactions tell you about childrens
thinking?
How would you approach this unit?
98. What would you do to listen to your students thinking so that
you could
match your teaching to their level of thinking?
How would you give your students concrete experience with the
concept of
symbolism?
How will you decide if the students are developmentally ready
for this material
zhi
Highlight
OVERVIEW AND OBJECTIVES
What is going on with Trevor? In this chapter, you will find out.
We begin with a definition of
development and three issues that have intrigued psychologists
99. who study it: nature versus
nurture, continuity versus discontinuity, and critical versus
sensitive periods for development.
Next, we look at general principles of human development that
most psychologists affirm.
To understand cognitive development, we begin by studying
how the brain works, and then
we explore the ideas of two of the most influential cognitive
developmental theorists, Jean
Piaget and Lev Vygotsky. Piagets ideas have implications for
teachers about how their
students think and what they can learn. We will consider
criticisms of his ideas as well. The
work of Lev Vygotsky, a Russian psychologist, highlights the
important role teachers and
parents play in the cognitive development of the child.
Vygotskys theory is becoming more
100. and more influential in the field of child development. By the
time you have completed this
chapter, you should be able to:
2.1 Provide a definition of development that takes into account
three agreed-upon
principles and describe three continuing debates about
development, along with
current consensus on these questions.
2.2 Summarize some current research on the physical
development of the brain and
possible implications for teaching.
2.3 Explain the principles and stages presented in Piagets theory
of cognitive development.
2.4 Explain the principles presented in Vygotskys theory of
development.
101. 2.5 Discuss how the ideas of Piaget and Vygotsky influence
current educational research
and practice.
A DEFINITION OF DEVELOPMENT
In the next few chapters, we will explore how students develop,
and we will encounter
some surprising situations. In this chapter, you will learn why
the following children
behave in peculiar ways:
Leah, a 5-year-old, is certain that rolling out a ball of clay into
a snake makes more clay.
A 9-year-old child in Geneva, Switzerland, firmly believes that
it is impossible to be Swiss
and Genevan at the same time, insisting, Im already Swiss, I
cant also be Genevan.
Jamal, a very bright elementary school student, cannot answer
102. the question, How
would life be different if people did not have to sleep? because
he insists, People
have to sleep!
A young girl who once said her feet hurt suddenly begins to
refer to her foots hurting,
then describes her footses, before she finally returns to talking
about her feet.
A 2-year-old brings his own mother to comfort a friend who is
crying, even though the
friends mother is available too.
What explains these interesting events? You will soon find out,
because you are enter-ing
the world of child and adolescent development.
The term development in its most general psychological sense
refers to certain
103. changes that occur in human beings (or animals) between
conception and death. The term
is not applied to all changes, but rather to those that appear in
orderly ways and remain
for a reasonably long period of time. A temporary change
caused by a brief illness, for
example, is not considered a part of development. Human
development can be divided
into a number of different aspects. Physical development, as
you might guess, deals with
changes in the body. Personal development is the term generally
used for changes in an
Development Orderly, adaptive
changes that humans (or animals)
go through from conception to
104. death.
Physical development Changes
in body structure that take place
as one grows.
Personal development Changes
in personality that take place as
one grows.
2
24 PART 1 STUDENTS
individuals personality. Social development refers to changes in
the way an individual
relates to others. And cognitive development refers to changes
in thinking, reasoning, and
105. decision making.
Many changes that occur during development are simply matters
of growth and matu-ration.
Maturation refers to changes that occur naturally and
spontaneously, and that are,
to a large extent, genetically programmed. Such changes emerge
over time and are rela-tively
unaffected by environment, except in cases of malnutrition or
severe illness. Much
of a persons physical development falls into this category.
Other changes are brought
about through learning, as individuals interact with their
environment. Such changes make
up a large part of a persons social development. What about the
development of thinking
and personality? Most psychologists agree that in these areas,
106. both maturation and interac-tion
with the environment (or nature and nurture, as they are
sometimes called) are impor-tant,
although they may disagree about the amount of emphasis to
place on each. Nature
versus nurture is one of three continuing discussions in theories
of development.
Three Questions Across the Theories
Because there are many different approaches to research and
theory, as you saw in Chap-ter
1, there are some continuing debates about key questions
surrounding development.
What is the Source of Development? Nature Versus Nurture.
Which is more important
in development, the nature of an individual (heredity, genes,
biological processes, mat-uration,
107. etc.) or the nurture of environmental contexts (education,
parenting, culture,
social policies, etc.)? This debate has raged for at least 2000
years, and has had many
labels along the way, including heredity versus environment,
biology versus culture,
maturation versus learning, and innate versus acquired abilities.
In earlier centuries,
philosophers, poets, religious leaders, and politicians argued the
question. Today scientists
bring new tools to the discussion as they can map genes or trace
the effects of drugs on
brain activity, for example (Gottlieb, Wahlsten, & Lickliter,
2006). Even in scientific expla-nations,
the pendulum has swung back and forth between nature and
nurture (Cairns &
Cairns, 2006; Overton, 2006).
108. Today the environment is seen as critical, but so are biological
factors and individual
differences. In fact, some psychologists assert that behaviours
are determined 100% by
biology and 100% by environmentthey cannot be separated
(Miller, 2002). Current views
emphasize complex coactions (joint actions) of nature and
nurture. For example, a child
born with a very easygoing, calm disposition will likely el icit
different reactions from
parents, playmates, and teachers compared to a child who is
often upset and difficult to
soothe; this shows that individuals are active in constructing
their own environments. But
environments shape individuals as wellif not, what good would
education be? So today,
109. the either/or debates about nature and nurture are of less
interest to educational and
developmental psychologists. As a pioneering developmental
psychologist said over 100
years ago, the more exciting questions involve understanding
how both causes work
together (Baldwin, 1895, p. 77).
Social development Changes
over time in the ways in which
one relates to others.
Cognitive development Gradual,
orderly changes by which mental
processes become more complex
and sophisticated.
110. Maturation Genetically
programmed, naturally
occurring changes over time.
Coactions Joint actions of
individual biology and
environmenteach shapes and
influences the other.
What is the Shape of Development? Continuity Versus
Discontinuity. Is human devel-opment
a continuous process of adding to and increasing abilities, or
are there leaps or
moves to new stages when abilities actually change? A
continuous process would be like
gradual improvement in your running endurance through
systematic exercise. A discon-tinuous
111. change (also called qualitative) would be like many of the
changes that occur in
humans during puberty, such as the ability to reproducean
entirely different ability.
Qualitative changes are contrasted with purely quantitative
change, such as an adolescent
growing taller.
You can think of continuous or quantitative change like walking
up a ramp to go higher
and higher. Progress is steady. A discontinuous or qualitative
change is more like walking
up stairsthere are level periods, then you move up to the next
step all at once. Piagets
theory of cognitive development, described in the next section,
is an example of qualitative,
discontinuous change in childrens thinking abilities. But other
112. explanations of cognitive
development based on learning theories emphasize gradual,
continuous quantitative change
CHAPTER 2 COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
Timing: Is It too Late? Critical Periods and Earlier versus Later
Experiences. Are
there critical periods when certain abilities, such as language,
need to develop? If those
opportunities are missed, can the child still catch up? These are
questions about timing
and development. Many earlier psychologists, particularly those
influenced by Freud,
believed that early childhood experiences were critical,
especially for emotional/social
and cognitive development. Does early toilet training really set
113. all of us on a particular
life path? Probably not. More recent research shows that later
experiences are powerful,
too, and can change the direction of development (Kagan &
Herschkowitz, 2005). Most
psychologists today talk about sensitive periods, not critical
periods. There are times
when a person is especially ready for or responsive to certain
experiences. Also, early
experiences, particularly those that have an adverse impact, can
have long-term conse-quences
for development.
Beware of Either/Or. As you might imagine, the debates above
proved too compli-cated
to be settled by splitting alternatives into either/or possibilities
(Griffins & Gray,
114. 2005). Today, most psychologists see human development,
learning, and motivation as
a set of interacting and coacting contexts, from the inner
biological structures and pro-cesses
that influence development, such as genes, cells, nutrition, and
disease, to the
external factors of families, neighbourhoods, social
relationships, educational and health
institutions, public policies, time periods, historical events, and
so on. So the effects of
a childhood disease on the cognitive development of a child
born in the sixteenth cen-tury
to a poor family and treated by bloodletting or leeches will be
quite different from
the effect of the same disease on a child born in 2018 to a
wealthy family and given the
best treatment available for the time period. Throughout the rest
115. of this text, we will try
to make sense of development, learning, motivation, and
teaching without falling into
the either/or trap.
General Principles of Development
Although there is disagreement about what is involved in
development and about the way
it takes place, there are a few general principles that almost all
theorists would support.
1. People develop at different rates. In your own classroom, you
will have a whole range
of examples of different developmental rates. Some students
will be larger, better
coordinated, or more mature in their thinking and social
relationships. Others will be
much slower to mature in these areas. Except in rare cases of
116. very rapid or very slow
development, such differences are normal, and are to be
expected in any large group
of students.
2. Development is relatively orderly. People develop certain
abilities before others. In
infancy, they sit before they walk, babble before they talk, and
see the world through
their own eyes before they can begin to imagine how others see
it. In school, they
master addition before algebra, Harry Potter before
Shakespeare, and so on. But
orderly does not necessarily mean linear or predictablepeople
might advance,
stay the same for a period of time, or even go backward.
3. Development takes place gradually. Very rarely do changes
117. appear overnight. A stu-dent
who cannot manipulate a pencil or answer a hypothetical
question may well
develop this ability, but the change is likely to take time.
THE BRAIN AND COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
If you have taken an introductory psychology class, you have
read about the brain and
nervous system. You probably remember that there are several
different areas of the brain,
and that certain areas are involved in particular functions. For
example, the feathery look-ing
cerebellum coordinates and orchestrates balance and smooth,
skilled movementsfrom
the graceful gestures of a dancer to the everyday action of
eating without stabbing
yourself in the nose with a fork. The cerebellum may also play a
118. role in higher cognitive
functions such as learning. The hippocampus is critical in
recalling new information and
recent experiences, while the amygdala directs emotions. The
thalamus is involved in our
25
Sensitive periods Times when a
person is especially ready for or
responsive to certain experiences
26 PART 1 STUDENTS
FIGURE 2.1
REGIONS OF THE BRAIN
Cerebrum
120. Parietal Lobe
Basal Ganglia
Thalamus
Occipital Lobe
Cerebellum
Hippocampus
ability to learn new information, particularly if it is verbal.
Figure 2.1 shows the various
regions of the brain.
Advances in brain imaging techniques have allowed scientists
remarkable access to
Functional magnetic resonance
imaging (fMRI) An MRIis an
imaging technique that uses a
121. magnetic field along with radio
waves and a computer to create
detailed pictures of the inside of
the body. A functional MRI uses
the MRI to measure the tiny
changes that take place in the
brain during brain activity.
Event-related potential (ERP)
Measurements that assess
electrical activity of the brain
through the skull or scalp.
Positron emission tomography
122. (PET) A method of localizing and
measuring brain activity using
computer-assisted motion
pictures of the brain.
Neurons Nerve cells that store
and transfer information.
Neurogenesis The production of
new neurons.
Synapses The tiny space
between neurons; chemical
messages are sent across
these gaps.
the functioning brain. For example, functional magnetic
123. resonance imaging (fMRI) shows
how blood flows within the brain when children or adults do
different cognitive tasks.
Event-related potential (ERP) measurements assess electrical
activity of the brain through
the skull or scalp as people perform activities such as reading or
learning vocabulary
words. Positron emission tomography (PET) scans can track
brain activity under different
conditions.
Lets begin our look at the brain by examining its tiny
componentsneurons, synapses,
and glial cells.
The Developing Brain: Neurons
A newborn babys brain weighs about one pound, or 454 grams,
barely one-third of the
124. weight of an adult brain. But this infant brain has billions of
neurons, the specialized nerve
cells that accumulate and transmit information (in the form of
electrical activity) in the
brain and other parts of the nervous system. Neurons are a
greyish colour, so they some-times
are called the grey matter of the brain. One neuron has the
information processing
capacity of a small computer. That means the processing power
of one 3-pound (1.4-kilogram)
human brain is likely greater than all the computers in the
world. Of course, computers
do many things, like calculate square roots of large numbers,
much faster than humans
can (Anderson, 2010). These incredibly important neuron cells
are tinyabout 30 000
125. could fit on the head of a pin (Sprenger, 2010). Scientists once
believed that all the neurons
a person would ever have were present at birth, but now we
know that the production of
new neurons, neurogenesis, continues into adulthood (Koehl &
Abrous, 2011).
Neuron cells send out long arm-and branch-like fibres called
axons and dendrites
to connect with other neuron cells. The fibre ends from different
neurons do not actually
touchthere are tiny spaces between them, about one billionth of
a metre in length, called
synapses. Neurons share information using electrical signals
and by releasing chemicals
that jump across the synapses. Axons transmit information out
to muscles, glands, or other
neurons; dendrites receive information and transmit it to the
126. neuron cells themselves.
Communication between neurons by these synaptic
transmissions is strengthened or
weakened, depending on patterns of use. So the strength of
these synaptic connections
is dynamicalways changing. This is called synaptic plasticity, or
just plasticity, a very
important concept for educators, as you will see soon.
Connections between neurons
become stronger with use or practice and weaker when not used
(Dubinsky, Roehrig, &
Varma, 2013). Figure 2.2 shows these components of the neuron
system (Anderson, 2010)
CHAPTER 2 COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
FIGURE 2.2
127. A SINGLE NEURON
Each neuron (nerve cell) includes dendrites that bring in
messages and an axon that sends out
messages. This is a single neuron, but each neuron is in a
network with many others.
Axon sends messages
to other cells
Neuron
Myelin cover on the
axon accelerates
transmission of
impulses
27
128. Dendrites receive
messages from
other neurons
Axon
In the synapse,
neurotransmitters
carry information
between neurons
Neurotransmitters
Source: Pearson Education, Inc.
Synapse Dendrite
At birth, each of the childs 100 to 200 billion neurons has about
2500 synapses.
129. However, the fibres that reach out from the neurons and the
synapses between the fibre
ends increase during the first years of life, perhaps into
adolescence or longer. By ages 2
to 3, each neuron has around 15 000 synapses. Children this age
have many more syn-apses
than they will have as adults. In fact, they are oversupplied with
the neurons and
synapses that they will need to adapt to their environments.
However, only those neurons
that are used will survive. Unused neurons will be pruned. This
pruning is necessary
and supports cognitive development. Researchers have found
that some developmental
disabilities are associated with a gene defect that interferes with
pruning (Bransford,
Brown, & Cocking, 2000; Cook & Cook, 2014).
130. Two kinds of overproduction and pruning processes take place.
One is called
experience-expectant because synapses are overproduced in
certain parts of the brain
during specific developmental periods, awaiting (expecting)
stimulation. For example,
during the first months of life, the brain expects visual and
auditory stimulation. If a
normal range of sights and sounds occurs, then the visual and
auditory areas of the brain
develop. But children who are born completely deaf receive no
auditory stimulation and,
as a result, the auditory processing area of their brains becomes
devoted to processing
visual information. Similarly, the visual processing area of the
brain for children blind
131. from birth becomes devoted to auditory processing (Nelson,
2001; Neville, 2007).
Experience-expectant overproduction and pruning processes are
responsible for general
development in large areas of the brain and may explain why
adults have difficulty with
pronunciations that are not part of their native language. For
example, the distinction between
the sounds of r and l is important in English but not in Japanese,
so by about 10 months,
Japanese infants lose the ability to discriminate between r and l
those neurons are pruned
away. As a result, Japanese adults learning these sounds require
intense instruction and
practice (Bransford, Brown, & Cocking, 2000; Hinton,
Miyamoto, & Della-Chiesa, 2008)
132. 28 PART 1 STUDENTS
The second kind of synaptic overproduction
and pruning is called experience-dependent. Here,
synaptic connections are formed based on the indi-viduals
experiences. New synapses are formed in
response to neural activity in very localized areas of
the brain when the individual is not successful in
processing information. Again, more synapses are
produced than will be kept after pruning. Experi-ence-dependent
processes are involved in individual
learning, such as mastering unfamiliar sound pro-nunciations
in a second language you are studying,
133. or developing an ear for music.
Stimulating environments may help in the prun-SUPPORTING
BRAIN DEVELOPMENT Studies of the brain indicate that
stimulating environments and meaningful interactions with
parents and
teachers likely support better brain development.
ing process in early life (experience-expectant
period) and also may support increased synapse
development in adulthood (experience-dependent
period) (Cook & Cook, 2009). In fact, animal studies
have shown that rats raised in stimulating environ-ments
(with toys, tasks for learning, other rats, and
human handling) develop and retain 25% more syn-apses
134. than rats that are raised with little stimulation.
Even though the research with rats may not apply directly to
humans, it is clear that
extreme deprivation can have negative effects on human brain
development. Perhaps the
best examples of this come from studies of children raised in
institutions or orphanages
(Nelson et al., 2007; Twardosz, 2012). But extra stimulation
will not necessarily improve
development for young children who are getting adequate or
typical amounts (Byrnes &
Fox, 1998; Kolb & Whishaw, 1998). So spending money on
expensive toys or baby educa-tion
programs probably offers more stimulation than is necessary.
Pots and pans, blocks
and books, and sand and water all provide excellent
stimulationespecially if accompa-nied
135. by caring conversations with parents or teachers.
In Figure 2.2, it appears that there is nothing between the
neurons but air. Actually,
the spaces are filled with glial cells, the white matter of the
brain. There are trillions of
these cellsthey greatly outnumber neurons. Glial cells appear to
have many functions,
such as fighting infections, controlling blood flow and
communication among neurons,
and providing the myelin coating (see Figure 2.2) around axon
fibres (Ormrod, 2012).
Myelination, the coating of axon neuron fibres with an
insulating fatty glial covering, influ-ences
thinking and learning. This process is something like coating
bare electrical wires
with rubber or plastic. This myelin coating makes message
136. transmission faster and more
efficient. Myelination happens quickly in the early years, but
continues gradually into
adolescence, with the childs brain doubling in volume in the
first year of life and doubling
again around puberty (Anderson, 2010).
Glial cells The white matter of
the brain. These cells greatly
outnumber neurons and appear
to have many functions, such as
fighting infections, controlling
blood flow and communication
among neurons, and providing
the myelin coating around axon
137. fibres.
Myelination The process by
which neural fibres are coated
with a fatty sheath called myelin
that makes message transfer
more efficient.
The Developing Brain: Cerebral Cortex
Lets move from the neuron level to the brain itself. The outer
1/8-inch-thick (3.18-milli-metre)
covering is the cerebral cortexthe largest area of the brain. It is
a thin sheet of
neurons, but it is almost 3 square feet (0.28 square metres) in
area for adults. To get all
that area in your head, the sheet is crumpled together with many
138. folds and wrinkles
(Anderson, 2010). In humans, this area of the brain is much
larger than it is in lower
animals. The cerebral cortex accounts for about 85% of the
brains weight in adulthood
and contains the greatest number of neurons. The cerebral
cortex allows the greatest
human accomplishments, such as complex problem solving and
language.
The cortex is the last part of the brain to develop, so it is
believed to be more sus-ceptible
to environmental influences than other areas of the brain
(Gluck, Mercado, &
Myers, 2008; Schacter, Gilbert, & Wenger, 2009). Parts of the
cortex mature at different
rates. The region of the cortex that controls physical motor
movement matures first, then
139. the areas that control complex senses such as vision and
hearing, and last, the frontal lobe
Stephen
McBrady/PhotoEdit,
In
CHAPTER 2 COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
FIGURE 2.3
A VIEW OF THE CEREBRAL CORTEX
This is a simple representation of the left side of the human
brain, showing the cerebral cortex.
The cortex is divided into different areas, or lobes, each having
a variety of regions with different
functions. A few of the major functions are indicated here.
141. Temporal
lobe
Occipital
lobe
that controls higher-order thinking processes. The temporal
lobes of the cortex that play
major roles in emotions, judgment, and language do not develop
fully until the high school
years and maybe later.
Different areas of the cortex seem to have distinct functions, as
shown in Figure 2.3.
Even though different functions are found in particular areas of
the brain, these special-ized
functions are quite specific and elementary. To accomplish
more complex functions
142. such as speaking or reading, the various areas of the cortex
must communicate and work
together (Anderson, 2010; Byrnes & Fox, 1998).
Another aspect of brain functioning that has implications for
cognitive development
is lateralization, or the specialization of the two hemispheres of
the brain. We know that
each half of the brain controls the opposite side of the body.
Damage to the right side of
the brain will affect movement of the left side of the body and
vice versa. In addition,
certain areas of the brain affect particular behaviours. For most
of us, the left hemisphere
of the brain is a major factor in language processing, and the
right hemisphere handles
much of our spatial-visual information and emotions (nonverbal
information). For some
143. left-handed people, the relationship may be reversed, but for
most left-handers, and for
females on average, there is less hemispheric specialization
altogether (Anderson, 2010;
OBoyle & Gill, 1998). The brains of young children show more
plasticity (adaptability)
because they are not as specialized or lateralized as the brains
of older children and adults.
Young children with damage to the left side of the brain are
somewhat able to overcome
the damage, which allows language development to proceed.
Different areas of the brain
take over the functions of the damaged area. But in older
children and adults, this com-pensation
is less likely to occur after damage to the left brain hemisphere.
These differences in performance by the brains hemispheres,
144. however, are more
relative than absolute; one hemisphere is just more efficient
than the other in performing
certain functions. The left and right hemispheres process
language differently, but simul-taneously
(Alferink & Farmer-Dougan, 2010, p. 44). Nearly any task,
particularly the
complex skills and abilities that concern teachers, requires
simultaneous participation of
many different areas of the brain in constant communication
with each other. For exam-ple,
the right side of the brain is better at figuring out the meaning
of a story, but the
left side is where grammar and syntax are understood, so both
sides of the brain have
to work together in reading. Remember, no mental activity is
exclusively the work of a
145. Lateralization The specialization
of the two hemispheres (sides) of
the brain cortex.
Plasticity The brains tendency to
remain somewhat adaptable or
flexible
30 PART 1 STUDENTS
single part of the brainso there is no such thing as a right-
brained student unless that
individual has had the left hemisphere removeda rare and
radical treatment for some
forms of epilepsy.
146. Adolescent Development and the Brain
The brain continues to develop throughout childhood and
adolescence. During adoles-cence,
changes in the brain increase individuals abilities to control
their behaviour in
both low-stress and high-stress situations, to be more purposeful
and organized, and to
inhibit impulsive behaviour (Wigfield, Byrnes, & Eccles, 2006).
But these abilities are not
fully developed until the early 20s, so while adolescents may
seem like adults, at least
in low-stress situations, their brains are not fully developed.
Adolescents often have trou-ble
avoiding risks and controlling impulses. This is why adolescents
…
