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1. Title: Examining Psychological Well-being, Parenting Efficacy, and Parenting Stress among Employed and
Unemployed Mothers
Introduction:
The well-being of mothers is a critical aspect that influences not only their own mental health but also
the overall family dynamics and the development of their children. The employment status of mothers
has emerged as an important factor that can significantly impact their psychological well-being, parental
efficacy, and parental stress levels. Understanding the effects of employment status on these variables is
crucial for developing interventions and support systems that cater to the diverse needs of employed
and unemployed mothers.
Existing research has provided insights into the relationship between employment status and
psychological well-being. Studies have found that employed mothers often experience a sense of
fulfillment, financial stability, and personal identity beyond their role as caregivers (Perry-Jenkins &
Gerstel, 2020; Schober, 2016). Engaging in meaningful work can contribute to higher levels of
psychological well-being and life satisfaction (Muller, 2019). On the other hand, unemployment can lead
to increased psychological distress and depressive symptoms among mothers (Coley et al., 2014; Reisel
et al., 2011). The loss of employment can result in financial strain, diminished self-esteem, and
heightened stress levels, negatively affecting maternal mental health (Nomaguchi & Milkie, 2003;
Steward & Barling, 2009).
Parental efficacy, which refers to a parent's confidence and belief in their abilities to fulfill their
parenting responsibilities, is another important aspect that can be influenced by employment status.
Employed mothers may face challenges in balancing work and family demands, which can impact their
perceptions of parenting competence and self-efficacy (Maunder et al., 2012). However, employment
can also provide opportunities for skill development, social support, and expanded social networks that
positively influence parental efficacy (Blair et al., 2019; O'Brien et al., 2009). Conversely, unemployed
mothers may experience a loss of confidence in their parenting abilities due to financial strain, social
isolation, and limited resources (Barnett & Hyde, 2001; Deater-Deckard et al., 2009).
Additionally, employment status can contribute to differences in parental stress levels among mothers.
Employed mothers may experience work-family conflicts, time pressures, and juggling multiple
responsibilities, leading to higher levels of parenting stress (Byron, 2005; Grzywacz & Marks, 2000).
Financial stress associated with unemployment can also contribute to elevated levels of parenting stress
among unemployed mothers (Letcher et al., 2012; Nepomnyaschy & Kalil, 2007).
While these studies have shed light on the relationship between employment status and psychological
well-being, a comprehensive comparative study is needed to directly compare employed and
unemployed mothers to gain a deeper understanding of the specific impacts of employment status on
psychological well-being, parental efficacy, and parental stress. This research aims to address this gap in
the literature by conducting a thorough investigation into these variables among employed and
unemployed mothers. The findings will provide valuable insights for the development of interventions
and support systems that cater to the specific needs of mothers in different employment contexts.

2. Rationale of the Study
Understanding the influence of employment status on psychological well-being, parenting efficacy, and
parental stress is of paramount importance. This study seeks to contribute to the existing literature by
conducting a comparative analysis of employed and unemployed mothers. By examining these variables,
we aim to identify the unique challenges and strengths associated with each group, informing the
development of targeted interventions and support systems. The findings will provide valuable insights
for policymakers, practitioners, and researchers in promoting the well-being of mothers and their
families.
Literature Review
The literature on the influence of employment status on psychological well-being, parenting efficacy,
and parental stress provides valuable insights into the complex dynamics and challenges faced by
employed and unemployed mothers. This section will review key studies and theories that have
examined these variables, shedding light on the underlying mechanisms and factors at play.
Psychological Well-Being:
Research has consistently shown that employed mothers report higher levels of psychological well-being
compared to unemployed mothers. In a study by Amstad et al. (2011), employed mothers reported
higher life satisfaction and lower levels of depression compared to unemployed mothers. The authors
found that employment provided mothers with a sense of purpose, social connection, and personal
fulfillment, contributing to their psychological well-being. Similarly, a longitudinal study by Kalil et al.
(2014) revealed that employed mothers had lower levels of psychological distress and higher self-
esteem than unemployed mothers.
Parenting Efficacy:
Employment status has implications for parenting efficacy, with employed and unemployed mothers
experiencing different challenges and strengths. Ranson and Urichuk (2008) found that employed
mothers reported lower levels of parenting self-efficacy compared to stay-at-home mothers. The
authors suggested that the juggling of work and family responsibilities might contribute to a perception
of lower competence in parenting. On the other hand, Blair et al. (2019) demonstrated that employment
can enhance parenting self-efficacy through the development of transferable skills, increased social
support, and expanded social networks. Their findings indicated that employed mothers reported higher
levels of parenting competence and confidence compared to unemployed mothers.

3. Unemployed mothers may face specific challenges that impact their parenting efficacy. In a study by
Meijers et al. (2017), unemployed mothers reported lower levels of parenting self-efficacy compared to
employed mothers. The authors highlighted the detrimental effects of unemployment, such as financial
strain and limited resources, which can undermine a mother's confidence in her parenting abilities.
Parental Stress:
Employment status is linked to differences in parental stress levels among mothers. Employed mothers
often experience work-family conflicts and time pressures, leading to higher levels of parenting stress. In
a study by Bryson et al. (2011), employed mothers reported higher levels of work-family conflict, which,
in turn, was associated with increased parenting stress. Similarly, a study by Grzywacz and Marks (2000)
found that employed mothers experienced higher levels of time pressure, which contributed to elevated
levels of parenting stress.
Unemployed mothers also face unique stressors that impact their parental stress levels. In a study by
Crouter et al. (2006), unemployed mothers reported higher levels of economic hardship, which was
associated with increased parenting stress. The financial strain and uncertainty associated with
unemployment can add an additional burden on mothers, affecting their ability to provide for their
children and meet their needs.
In conclusion, the literature suggests that employment status significantly influences maternal well-
being, parenting efficacy, and parental stress. Employed mothers often experience higher levels of
psychological well-being, while unemployment can lead to poorer mental health outcomes among
mothers. Employment can enhance parenting efficacy, but it also presents challenges in balancing work
and family responsibilities. Both employed and unemployed mothers face unique stressors that impact
their parental stress levels. Understanding these dynamics is crucial for developing interventions and
support systems that address the specific needs of employed and unemployed mothers.
Research methodology
Independent Variables- Employed and Unemployed mothers of delhi- NCR
Dependent Variables – Psychological well- being, Parental efficacy and Parental stress
Objectives of the Study:
1. To examine and compare the levels of psychological well-being among employed and
unemployed mothers.
2. To investigate and compare the levels of parenting efficacy between employed and unemployed
mothers.

4. 3. To explore and compare the levels of parental stress experienced by employed and unemployed
mothers.
4. To provide insights into the unique challenges and strengths faced by employed and
unemployed mothers in relation to their psychological well-being, parenting efficacy, and
parental stress levels.
5. To contribute to the existing literature and inform the development of targeted interventions
and support systems for mothers in different employment contexts.
Hypothesis:
H1: Employed mothers will report higher levels of psychological well-being compared to
unemployed mothers.
H2: Employed mothers will demonstrate higher levels of parenting efficacy compared to
unemployed mothers.
H3: Employed mothers will experience higher levels of parental stress compared to unemployed
mothers.
H4: Parental efficacy will mediate the relationship between employment status and
psychological well-being.
Sample: 200-300 employed ( minimum 1 year of experience) and unemployed within the age
range of 25-35 years having at least one child above 3 years of age.
Research Design:
A mixed-methods research design will be employed, combining quantitative surveys and
qualitative interviews. This approach will provide a comprehensive understanding of the
research topic, allowing for both statistical analysis and rich qualitative insights.
Participants:
The study will involve a diverse sample of employed and unemployed mothers of delhi -NCR.
Participants will be recruited through community organizations, social media platforms, and
local networks . The sample will aim for representation across various socioeconomic
backgrounds and demographic characteristics to ensure diversity.
Measures :
Psychological Well-being:
Warwick-Edinburgh Mental Well-being Scale (WEMWBS): A 14-item self-report scale assessing
overall mental well-being. Participants rate their agreement with statements related to positive
affect, satisfaction with life, and personal functioning. Higher scores indicate higher levels of
psychological well-being (Tennant et al., 2007).
Parenting Efficacy:

5. Parenting Sense of Competence Scale (PSOC): A 16-item scale measuring perceived parenting
competence and satisfaction. Participants rate their agreement with statements related to their
confidence in parenting and satisfaction with their parental role. Higher scores reflect higher
levels of parenting efficacy (Johnston & Mash, 1989).
Parental Stress:
Parenting Stress Index (PSI): A 36-item questionnaire assessing stress levels related to parenting.
It measures various domains of stress, including parental distress, parent-child dysfunctional
interaction, and difficult child characteristics. Higher scores indicate higher levels of parental
stress (Abidin, 1995).
Data Collection Procedure:
Participants will be recruited through stratified random sampling. After obtaining informed
consent, participants will complete a set of self-report measures, including the Warwick-
Edinburgh Mental Well-being Scale (WEMWBS) to assess psychological well-being, the Parenting
Sense of Competence Scale (PSOC) to measure parenting efficacy, and the Parenting Stress
Index (PSI) to evaluate parental stress. Demographic information, such as age, education level,
employment history, and number of children, will also be collected. Participants will have the
option to complete the questionnaires online or in-person. Confidentiality and anonymity will be
ensured throughout the data collection process.
Data analysis
Quantitative data analysis will be conducted using appropriate statistical techniques, such as t-
tests, ANOVA, and correlation analyses, to compare the variables of interest between employed
and unemployed mothers. Statistical software such as SPSS or R will be used for data analysis.
References:
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American Psychologist, 56(10), 781–796.
Byron, K. (2005). A meta-analytic review of work-family conflict and its antecedents. Journal of
Vocational Behavior, 67(2), 169–198.
Coley, R. L., Leventhal, T., Lynch, A. D., & Kull, M. (2014). Relations between housing
characteristics and the well-being of low-income children and adolescents. Developmental
Psychology, 50(3), 623–632.

6. Grzywacz, J. G., & Marks, N. F. (2000). Reconceptualizing the work-family interface: An
ecological perspective on the correlates of positive and negative spillover between work and
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Johnston, C., & Mash, E. J. (1989). A measure of parenting satisfaction and efficacy. Journal of
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Maunder, R. E., Hunter, K., & Davidson, G. (2012). The experience of the working mother: A
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Muller, H. J. (2019). Parenthood and life satisfaction: The moderating role of leisure. Journal of
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Nepomnyaschy, L., & Kalil, A. (2007). Effects of maternal employment and childcare
arrangements on preschoolers’ cognitive and behavioral outcomes: Evidence from the National
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O'Brien, M., Sims, S., & Huston, A. C. (2009). Changes in employed mothers' time use and effects
on child academic outcomes. Applied Developmental Science, 13(2), 48–65.
Abidin, R. R. (1995). Parenting Stress Index (PSI) manual (3rd ed.). Psychological Assessment
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systematic review and implications for research. Family Relations, 68(1), 181–203.
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