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Running Head: Anxiety Disorders
Anxiety Disorders: Diagnosis and Treatment
Karanda Farmer
The University of Phoenix
BEH/225
March 31, 2013
Anxiety Disorders: Diagnosis and Treatment
Anxiety is a normal emotion experienced by every human being
every now and then when faced with problems. However,
excessive distress that interferes with a person’s ability to
operate normally causes anxiety disorder. Constant
overwhelming and crippling worry and fear characterize this
mental illness. This paper chronicles the diagnosis and
treatment of the following anxiety disorders: Obsessive-
Compulsive Disorder, Panic Disorder, Social Anxiety Disorder,
Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder, and Separation Anxiety.
Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder, OCD, is characterized by
excessive uneasiness, fear, and apprehension or worry caused by

intrusive thoughts, either real or imagined. The individual
experiencing this kind of disorder often exhibits ritualistic
behaviors: hand-washing several times a day, eating certain
foods at precise times, and opening or tapping on doors a
number of times before entering. The current trends in the field
of Psychiatry indicate that about a quarter of the population will
suffer from this disorder in their lifetime. If an adolescent is
diagnosed with OCD, the disorder will more than likely follow
the teen into adulthood. Compared to men, women are affected
by the disorder at a rate twice as high as men are affected.
Source for this entire paragraph.
The current general criteria used in the diagnosis of Obsessive-
Compulsive Disorder requires that an individual must have
either obsessions or compulsions, realize that they are excessive
or unreasonable, and they interfere with the individual’s daily
routine. The obsessions must be persistent and recurrent
thoughts or images that are intrusive and cause great distress.
The compulsions form specific criteria under which a repetitive
behavior, which is meant to prevent or distress, keeps on
driving the individual. Source?
Cognitive behavior therapy, medication, or both, are the
evidence-based treatments for OCD. Studies conducted indicate
that at least six months duration of treatment lowers the chances
of a relapse, though no optimal duration has been given.
Source? Too short to be a paragraph.
The trigger of Panic Disorder is mostly fear, stress, or an
excessive exercise routine. This is characterized by
apprehension and brief attacks of intense terror, and can lead to
confusion, nausea, shaking, and trembling. A diagnosis of Panic
Disorder is marked by persistent fear of future attack and their
potential this is an incomplete sentence. The sufferer, who is
mostly hyper-vigilant, often notices symptoms even outside a
specific panic episode. The heightened perception in body
changes is psychologically as life threatening leading to
recurrent panic attacks. This last sentence reads like an

incomplete sentence too.
When an individual undergoes therapy for Panic Disorder, they
are exposed to physical sensation of panic in a controlled and
safe environment, and this gives the person a healthier way to
cope. One might be asked to shake their head from side-to-side,
hyperventilate. Such exercise causes sensations like those
symptoms of panic. This exposure therapy gives the sufferer a
sense of control over their panic. Medication should only be
pursued in extreme cases, but should also be combined with
therapy and lifestyle changes that address the cause of the Panic
Disorder. Anti-depressants and Benzodiazepines are examples
of medication that can be used to mitigate the symptoms that
accompany Panic Disorder, on a short-term basis.
Social Anxiety Disorder is also known as Social Phobia, and is
characterized by intense fear of public embarrassment, scrutiny,
humiliation, and social interaction. Its symptoms include:
blushing, difficulty in speaking, sweating, and difficulty in
breathing. In severe, cases it can lead to total social isolation.
The sufferer often tries to avoid the source of anxiety, just like
all phobic disorders. The perception that one may be publicly
scrutinized causing embarrassment or humiliation may often
lead to a persistent fear of social situations. This criterion of
diagnosis is mainly used to determine whether one is suffering
from Social Anxiety Disorder. Its symptoms mimic that of other
disorders. Social anxiety can be experienced in other disorders,
for example, Depression and Substance Abuse.
Psychotherapy is a form of treatment that will assist the sufferer
with recognizing negative thoughts about themselves. Cognitive
types of counseling places the onus of responsibility of thought
pattern on the individual thus determining the way they react in
unwanted situations. Reword this sentence. Exposure therapy
may also be used to improve the skills of coping with anxiety
inducing situations thus increasing confidence to face them.
Selective serotonin inhibitors are the first medication tried for
severe symptom of social anxiety. How do you know this?
Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder, PTSD, is an anxiety disorder

that is caused by traumatic experience. This kind of disorder
can result from extreme situations for example: child abuse, a
hostage situation, or a serious automobile accident. A number of
treatments that can be used to treat PTSD are cognitive
behavioral therapy or support from loved ones. Before any
treatment and diagnosis is made for a patient with Post-
Traumatic Stress Disorder, the symptoms significantly disrupt
normal activities, lasting for more than one month. The most
common catalysts of this disorder include: substance abuse,
alcohol abuse, and depression. Re- experiencing the trauma and
heightened avoidance of activities that lead to the trauma are
some of the diagnosis identified with PTSD.
Psychotherapy assists the sufferer in exploring their thoughts
and feelings with regard to the trauma, by working through
feelings of mistrust, guilt, and self blame. These enhance the
individual activities to control and cope with intrusive
memories. By addressing problems in the patient’s life and
relationships, healing can be achieved. Anti-depressants such as
Prozac are sometimes prescribed to relieve secondary symptoms
like depression and anxiety.
A feeling of excessive level of anxiety causes Separation
Anxiety by being separated from a partner, parent, or place.
This anxiety can greatly affect the children in case of a
separation in marriage as the are not directly involve in the
conflict, it can also greatly affect someone who is attached to
specific place for it will take time for one to build new
relationship, familiarize with the culture and environment.
The diagnosis of Separation Anxiety causes excessive distress
when the diagnosed individual is removed from their attachment
figures. Persistence and excessive worry can cause possible
harm to the attachment figures. To some, it may cause refusal to
do daily routines in fair of separation. It may also cause eating
disorders.Separation anxiety disorder can be treated by anti-
anxiety medication, changing parenting methods, and
counseling. Treatment for severe cases may also include family

education, family therapy, and individual psychotherapy.
Works Cited
Reprinted with permission from Bucks County Community
College
HOW TO WRITE A LITERARY ANALYSIS ESSAY
The purpose of a literary analysis essay is to carefully examine
and sometimes evaluate a work of
literature or an aspect of a work of literature. As with any
analysis, this requires you to break the
subject down into its component parts. Examining the different
elements of a piece of literature is
not an end in itself but rather a process to help you better
appreciate and understand the work of
literature as a whole. For instance, an analysis of a poem might
deal with the different types of
images in a poem or with the relationship between the form and
content of the work. If you were to
analyze (discuss and explain) a play, you might analyze the
relationship between a subplot and the
main plot, or you might analyze the character flaw of the tragic
hero by tracing how it is revealed
through the acts of the play. Analyzing a short story might
include identifying a particular theme
(like the difficulty of making the transition from adolescence to
adulthood) and showing how the
writer suggests that theme through the point of view from which
the story is told; or you might also
explain how the main character’s attitude toward women is
revealed through his dialogue and/or
actions.

REMEMBER: Writing is the sharpened, focused expression of
thought and study. As you develop
your writing skills, you will also improve your perceptions and
increase your critical abilities.
Writing ultimately boils down to the development of an idea.
Your objective in writing a literary
analysis essay is to convince the person reading your essay that
you have supported the idea you
are developing. Unlike ordinary conversation and classroom
discussion, writing must stick
with great determination to the specific point of development.
This kind of writing demands
tight organization and control. Therefore, your essay must have
a central idea (thesis), it must
have several paragraphs that grow systematically out of the
central idea, and everything in it
must be directly related to the central idea and must contribute
to the reader’s
understanding of that central idea. These three principles are
listed again below:
1. Your essay must cover the topic you are writing about.
2. Your essay must have a central idea (stated in your thesis)
that
governs its development.
3. Your essay must be organized so that every part contributes
something to the reader’s understanding of the central idea.
THE ELEMENTS OF A GOOD ESSAY
The Thesis Statement

The thesis statement tells your reader what to expect: it is a
restricted, precisely worded
declarative sentence that states the purpose of your essay -- the
point you are trying to make.
Without a carefully conceived thesis, an essay has no chance of
success. The following are
thesis statements which would work for a 500-750 word literary
analysis essay:
Gwendolyn Brooks’s 1960 poem “The Ballad of Rudolph
Reed” demonstrates how
the poet uses the conventional poetic form of the ballad to treat
the unconventional
poetic subject of racial intolerance.
The fate of the main characters in Antigone illustrates the
danger of excessive pride.
The imagery in Dylan Thomas’s poem “Fern Hill” reveals the
ambiguity of our
relationship with nature.
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PLEASE NOTE: THE BEST PLACE TO PUT YOUR THESIS
STATEMENT IS AT THE END OF
YOUR INTRODUCTORY PARAGRAPH.

The Introduction
The introduction to your literary analysis essay should try to
arouse interest in your reader. To
bring immediate focus to your subject, you may want to use a
quotation, a provocative question, a
personal anecdote, a startling statement, or a combination of
these. You may also want to include
background information relevant to your thesis and necessary
for the reader to understand the
position you are taking.
In addition, you need to include the title of the work of
literature and name of the author.
The following are satisfactory introductory paragraphs which
include appropriate thesis statements:
A. What would you expect to be the personality of a man who
has his wife sent away to
a convent (or perhaps has had her murdered) because she took
too much pleasure in the
sunset and in a compliment paid to her by another man? It is
just such a man -- a
Renaissance duke -- that Robert Browning portrays in his poem
“My Last Duchess.”
Through what he says about himself, through his actions, and
through his interpretation of
earlier incidents, the Duke reveals the arrogance, jealousy, and
materialism that are his
most conspicuous traits.
B. The first paragraph of Alberto Alvaro Rios’s short story
“The Secret Lion” presents a

twelve-year-old boy’s view of growing up -- everything
changes. As the narrator tells us,
when the magician pulls a tablecloth out from under a pile of
dishes, children are amazed at
the “stay-the-same part,” while adults focus only on the
tablecloth itself (42). Adults have
the benefit of experience and know the trick will work as long
as the technique is correct.
When we “grow up” we gain this experience and knowledge, but
we lose our innocence and
sense of wonder. In other words, the price we pay for growing
up is a permanent sense of
loss. This tradeoff is central to “The Secret Lion.” The key
symbols in the story reinforce its
main theme: change is inevitable and always accompanied by a
sense of loss.
C. The setting of John Updike’s story “A & P” is crucial to
our understanding of Sammy’s
decision to quit his job. Even though Sammy knows that his
quitting will make life more
difficult for him, he instinctively insists upon rejecting what the
A & P represents in the story.
When he rings up a “No Sale” and “saunter[s]” out of the store,
Sammy leaves behind not
only a job but the rigid state of mind associated with the A & P.
Although Sammy is the
central character in the story and we learn much about him,
Updike seems to invest as
much effort in describing the setting as he does Sammy. The
title, after all, is not “Youthful
Rebellion” or “Sammy Quits” but “A & P.” In fact, the setting
is the antagonist of the story

and plays a role that is as important as Sammy’s.
The Body of the Essay and the Importance of Topic Sentences
The term regularly used for the development of the central idea
of a literary analysis essay is the
body. In this section you present the paragraphs (at least 3
paragraphs for a 500-750 word
essay) that support your thesis statement. Good literary
analysis essays contain an explanation of
your ideas and evidence from the text (short story, poem, play)
that supports those ideas. Textual
evidence consists of summary, paraphrase, specific details, and
direct quotations.
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Each of the paragraphs of your essay should contain a topic
sentence (usually the first sentence
of the paragraph) which states one of the topics associated with
your thesis, combined with some
assertion about how the topic will support the central idea. The
purpose of the topic sentence is
twofold:
1. To tie the details of the paragraph to your thesis
statement.
2. To tie the details of the paragraph together.

The substance of each of your developmental paragraphs (the
body of your essay) will be the
explanations, summaries, paraphrases, specific details, and
direct quotations you need to support
and develop the more general statement you have made in your
topic sentence. The following is
the first developmental paragraph after one of the introductory
paragraphs (C) above:
TOPIC SENTENCE
EXPLANATIONS AND
TEXTUAL EVIDENCE
Sammy's descriptions of the A & P present a
setting that is ugly, monotonous, and rigidly
regulated. We can identify with the uniformity
Sammy describes because we have all been in
chain stores. The fluorescent light is as blandly
cool as the "checkerboard green-and-cream
rubber tile floor" (486). The "usual traffic in the
store moves in one direction (except for the
swim suited girls, who move against it), and
everything is neatly organized and categorized
in tidy aisles. The dehumanizing routine of this
environment is suggested by Sammy's offhand
references to the typical shoppers as "sheep,"
"house slaves," and "pigs." These regular
customers seem to walk through the store in a
stupor; as Sammy tells us, not even dynamite
could move them out of their routine (485).

This paragraph is a strong one because it is developed through
the use of quotations, summary,
details, and explanation to support the topic sentence. Notice
how it relates back to the thesis
statement.
The Conclusion
Your literary analysis essay should have a concluding paragraph
that gives your essay a sense of
completeness and lets your readers know that they have come to
the end of your paper. Your
concluding paragraph might restate the thesis in different
words, summarize the main points you
have made, or make a relevant comment about the literary work
you are analyzing, but from a
different perspective. Do not introduce a new topic in your
conclusion. Below is the
concluding paragraph from the essay already quoted above (A)
about Browning's poem "My Last
Duchess":
If the Duke has any redeeming qualities, they fail to appear in
the poem. Browning's
emphasis on the Duke's traits of arrogance, jealousy, and
materialism make it apparent that
anyone who might have known the Duke personally would have
based his opinion of him on
these three personality "flaws." Ultimately, our opinion of the
Duke is not a favorable one,
and it is clear that Browning meant us to feel this way.

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The Title of Your Essay
It is essential that you give your essay a title which is
descriptive of the approach you are taking in
your paper. Just as you did in your introductory paragraph, try
to get the reader's attention. Using
only the title of the literary work you are examining is
unsatisfactory. The titles that follow are
appropriate for the papers (A, B, C) discussed above:
Robert Browning's Duke: So What's to Like?
The A & P as a State of Mind
"The Secret Lion": It's Hard to Grow Up
Audience
Consider the reader for whom you are writing your essay.
Imagine you are writing for other
students in your class who have about as much education as you
do. They have read the
assigned work just as you have, but perhaps they have not
thought about it in exactly the same
way as you. In other words, it is not necessary to "retell" the
work of literature in any way.
Rather it is your role to be the explainer or interpreter of the
work -- to tell what certain elements of
the work mean in relation to your central idea (thesis). When

you make references to the text of
the short story, poem, or play, you are doing so in order to
remind your audience of something they
already know. The principle emphasis of your essay is to draw
conclusions and develop
arguments.
USING TEXTUAL EVIDENCE
The skillful use of textual evidence -- summary, paraphrase,
specific detail, and direct
quotations -- can illustrate and support the ideas you are
developing in your essay. However,
textual evidence should be used judiciously and only when it
directly relates to your topic. The
correct and effective use of textual evidence is vital to the
successful literary analysis essay.
Summary
If a key event or series of events in the literary work support a
point you are trying to make, you
may want to include a brief summary, making sure that you
show the relevance of the event or
events by explicitly connecting your summary to your point.
Below is an effective summary (with
its relevance clearly pointed out) from the essay already quoted
above on "The Secret Lion" (B):
The boys find the grinding ball, but later attempt to bury it
(SUMMARY). Burying it is
their futile attempt to make time stand still and to preserve

perfection
(RELEVANCE).
Paraphrase
You can make use of paraphrase when you need the details of
the original, but not necessarily the
words of the original: paraphrase to put someone else's words
into your own words. Below is an
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example (also from the paper on "The Secret Lion") of how to
"translate" original material into part
of your own paper:
Original: "I was twelve and in junior high school and
something happened that we didn't
have a name for, but it was nonetheless like a lion, and roaring,
roaring that
way the biggest things do."
Paraphrase: Early in the story, the narrator tells us that when
he turned twelve and started
junior high school, life changed in a significant way that he and
his friends
couldn't quite find a name for.

Specific Detail
Various types of details from the text lend concrete support to
the development of the central idea
of your literary analysis essay. These details add credibility to
the point you are developing.
Below is a list of some of the details which could have been
used in the developmental paragraph
from the paper on John Updike's short story "A & P" (see the
paragraph again for which details
were used and how they were used).
"usual traffic"
"fluorescent lights"
"checkerboard green-and-cream rubber-tile floor"
"electric eye"
shoppers like "sheep," "houseslaves," and "pigs"
neatly stacked food
dynamite
Using Direct Quotations
Quotations can illuminate and support the ideas you are trying
to develop. A judicious use of
quoted material will make your points clearer and more
convincing. As with all the textual
evidence you use, make sure you explain how the evidence is
relevant -- let the reader know
what you make of the quotations you cite. Below are guidelines
and examples that should help
you use quotations effectively:
1. Brief quotations (four lines or fewer of prose and three lines
or fewer of poetry) should be
carefully introduced and integrated into the text of your paper.

Put quotation marks around
all briefly quoted material.
Prose example:
As the "manager" of the A & P, Lengel is both the guardian and
enforcer of "policy." When
he gives the girls "that sad Sunday-school-superintendent
stare," we know we are in the
presence of the A & P's version of a dreary bureaucrat who
"doesn't miss much" (487).
Make sure you give page numbers when necessary. Notice that
in this example the
page numbers are in parenthesis after the quotation marks but
before the period.
Poetry example:
From the beginning, the Duke in Browning's poem gives the
reader a sense of how
possessive he really is: "That's my last Duchess on the wall, /
Looking as if she were alive"
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(1-2). We can't help notice how, even though the Duke is
talking about her portrait, his main

concern is that she belongs to him. Notice that line # 1 is
separated from line # 2 by a
slash. Make sure you give the line numbers when necessary.
2. Lengthy quotations should be separated from the text of your
paper. More than four lines
of prose should be double spaced and indented ten spaces from
the left margin, with the
right margin the same as the rest of your paper. More than
three lines of poetry should be
double spaced and centered on the page. Note: do not use
quotation marks to set off
these longer passages because the indentation itself indicates
that the material is
quoted.
Prose example:
The first paragraph of "The Secret Lion" introduces the
narrator as someone who has just
entered adolescence and isn't quite sure what to make of it:
I was twelve and in junior high school and something
happened that we didn't have a
name for, but it was there nonetheless like a lion, and roaring,
roaring that way the
biggest things do. Everything changed. Just that. Like the rug,
the one that gets

pulled -- or better, like the tablecloth those magicians pull
where the stuff on the table
stays the same but the gasp! from the audience makes the
staying-the-same part not
matter. Like that. (41-42) Make sure you give page numbers
when necessary.
Notice in this example that the page numbers are in parenthesis
after the
period of the last sentence.
Poetry example:
The Duke seems to object to the fact that his "last Duchess" is
not discriminating enough
about bestowing her affection. In the following lines from the
middle of the poem, the Duke
lists examples of this "fault":
Sir, 'twas all one! My favor at her breast,
The drooping of the daylight in the west,
The bough of cherries some officious fool
Broke in the orchard for her, the white mule
She rode with round the terrace -- all and each
Would draw from her alike the approving speech. (25-30)
Make sure you give line numbers when necessary.
3. If any words are added to a quotation in order to explain who
or what the quotation refers to,
you must use brackets to distinguish your addition from the
original source.

Example:
The literary critic John Strauss asserts that "he [Young
Goodman Brown] is portrayed as
self-righteous and disillusioned." Brackets are used here
because there is no way of
knowing who "he" is unless you add that information.
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Brackets are also used to change the grammatical structure of a
quotation so that it fits into
your sentence.
Example:
Strauss also argues that Hawthorne "present[s] Young
Goodman Brown in an ambivalent
light." Brackets are used here to add the "s" to the verb
"present" because otherwise
the sentence would not be grammatically correct.

4. You must use ellipsis if you omit any words from the original
source you are quoting.
Ellipsis can be used at the beginning, in the middle, or at the
end of the quotation,
depending on where the missing words were originally. Ellipsis
is formed by either three
or four periods with a space between each period.
Original: "Early to bed and early to rise makes a man healthy,
wealthy and wise."
Example (omission from beginning):
This behavior ". . . makes a man healthy, wealthy, and wise."
Ellipsis formed by three
dots after the quotation marks.
Example (omission from middle):
This maxim claims that "Early to bed . . . makes a man healthy,
wealthy, and wise." Ellipsis
formed by three dots used in place of the words "and early to
rise."
Example (omission from end):
He said, "Early to bed and early to rise makes a man healthy . . .
." Ellipsis is formed by

four dots before the quotation marks -- the fourth dot is really a
period which ends
the sentence.
5. Use a single line of spaced periods to indicate the omission
of an entire line of poetry.
Example:
The Duke seems to object to the fact that his "last Duchess" is
not discriminating enough
about bestowing her affection:
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The drooping of the daylight in the West,
The bough of cherries some officious fool
Broke in the orchard for her, while the white mule
She rode around the terrace -- like and each
Would draw from her alike the approving speech. (26-30)
Punctuating Direct Quotations
You will be able to punctuate quoted materials accurately if you
observe the following conventions
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used in writing about literature:

1. When the quoted material is part of your own sentence, place
periods and commas inside
the quotation marks.
Example:
The narrator of "The Secret Lion" says that the change was "like
a lion." The period is
inside the quotation marks.
2. When the quoted material is part of your own sentence, but
you need to include a
parenthetical reference to page or line numbers, place the
periods and commas after the
reference.
Example:
The narrator of "The Secret Lion" says that the change was
"like a lion" (41). The
period is outside the quotation marks, after the parenthetical
reference.
3. When the quoted material is part of your own sentence,
punctuation marks other than
periods and commas, such as question marks, are placed outside

the quotation marks,
unless they are part of the quoted material.
Example (not part of original):
Why does the narrator of "The Secret Lion" say that the change
was "like a lion"? The
question mark is placed after the quotation marks because it
does not appear in the
original -- it ends a question being asked about the story.
Example (part of original):
The Duke shows his indignation that the Duchess could like
everyone and everything when
he says, "Sir, 'twas all one!" The exclamation point is placed
inside the quotation
marks because it appears in the original.
4. When the original material you are quoting already has
quotations marks (for instance,
dialog from a short story), you must use single quotation marks
within the double quotation
marks.
Example:

Lengel tries to stop Sammy from quitting by saying, " 'Sammy,
you don't want to do this to
your Mom and Dad'. "
THREE CONVENTIONS TO REMEMBER WHEN WRITING A
LITERARY ANALYSIS ESSAY
1. You must give a clear, full reference to the work and author
you are writing about
somewhere in your introductory paragraph (see the example
introductory paragraphs A,
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B, and C above).
2. Use the correct format for referring to the work you are
discussing. The titles of short
stories, poems, and essays should be placed in quotation marks;
the titles of novels, plays,
films, and TV shows should be either underlined or italicized:
"My Last Duchess" (poem) Antigone (play)
"The Secret Lion" (short story) Forest Gump (movie)
Pride and Prejudice (novel) Roseanne (TV show)

3. Use the present tense when you are discussing and writing
about literature -- literary works
are considered to exist in the present (see all the example
paragraphs throughout).
CHECKLIST
1. Is the topic you have chosen to write about manageable for
the length of the paper you are
writing?
Is it too narrow or too broad?
2. Is your title engaging? Does it suggest the approach you are
taking in your paper?
3. Does your first paragraph introduce your topic, name the
writer and the work, and end with
your thesis statement? Will it get the reader's attention?
4. Is your thesis clear? Does it state the central idea of your
paper?
5. Is your paper organized in a way that your reader will be
able to follow?
6. Are your developmental paragraphs unified (everything in
the paragraph relates to the topic
of the paragraph) and coherent (everything in the paragraph is

arranged in a logical order)?
7. Have you used transitional words where necessary within
each paragraph? Are there
transitions linking all the paragraphs of your essay?
8. Does your concluding paragraph provide a sense of closure?
9. Have you used technical terms correctly?
10. Have you used brief summary, paraphrase, specific details,
and direct quotations? Have
you explained why you are using them and how they support
your central idea?
11. If you have used information from sources outside the actual
work of literature (for example,
books of criticism), have you documented this information
properly? To provide
documentation for literary papers, you need to use MLA
documentation style, which can
found in most English handbooks and in books on how to write
research papers.
12. Have you proofread your final draft?
What this handout is about
This handout discusses common logical fallacies that you may
encounter in your own writing or the writing of others. The
handout provides definitions, examples, and tips on avoiding

these fallacies.
Arguments
Most academic writing tasks require you to make an argument—
that is, to present reasons for a particular claim or interpretation
you are putting forward. You may have been told that you need
to make your arguments more logical or stronger. And you may
have worried that you simply aren’t a logical person or
wondered what it means for an argument to be strong. Learning
to make the best arguments you can is an ongoing process, but it
isn’t impossible: “Being logical” is something anyone can do,
with practice.
Each argument you make is composed of premises (this is a
term for statements that express your reasons or evidence) that
are arranged in the right way to support your conclusion (the
main claim or interpretation you are offering). You can make
your arguments stronger by
using good premises (ones you have good reason to believe
are both true and relevant to the issue at hand),
making sure your premises provide good support for your
conclusion (and not some other conclusion, or no conclusion at
all),
checking that you have addressed the most important or
relevant aspects of the issue (that is, that your premises and
conclusion focus on what is really important to the issue), and
not making claims that are so strong or sweeping that you
can’t really support them.
You also need to be sure that you present all of your ideas in an
orderly fashion that readers can follow. See our handouts on
argument and organization for some tips that will improve your
arguments.
This handout describes some ways in which arguments often fail

to do the things listed above; these failings are called fallacies.
If you’re having trouble developing your argument, check to see
if a fallacy is part of the problem.
It is particularly easy to slip up and commit a fallacy when you
have strong feelings about your topic—if a conclusion seems
obvious to you, you’re more likely to just assume that it is true
and to be careless with your evidence. To help you see how
people commonly make this mistake, this handout uses a
number of controversial political examples—arguments about
subjects like abortion, gun control, the death penalty, gay
marriage, euthanasia, and pornography. The purpose of this
handout, though, is not to argue for any particular position on
any of these issues; rather, it is to illustrate weak reasoning,
which can happen in pretty much any kind of argument. Please
be aware that the claims in these examples are just made-up
illustrations—they haven’t been researched, and you shouldn’t
use them as evidence in your own writing.
What are fallacies?
Fallacies are defects that weaken arguments. By learning to
look for them in your own and others’ writing, you can
strengthen your ability to evaluate the arguments you make,
read, and hear. It is important to realize two things about
fallacies: first, fallacious arguments are very, very common and
can be quite persuasive, at least to the casual reader or listener.
You can find dozens of examples of fallacious reasoning in
newspapers, advertisements, and other sources. Second, it is
sometimes hard to evaluate whether an argument is fallacious.
An argument might be very weak, somewhat weak, somewhat
strong, or very strong. An argument that has several stages or
parts might have some strong sections and some weak ones. The
goal of this handout, then, is not to teach you how to label
arguments as fallacious or fallacy-free, but to help you look
critically at your own arguments and move them away from the
“weak” and toward the “strong” end of the continuum.

So what do fallacies look like?
For each fallacy listed, there is a definition or explanation, an
example, and a tip on how to avoid committing the fallacy in
your own arguments.
Hasty generalization
Definition: Making assumptions about a whole group or range
of cases based on a sample that is inadequate (usually because it
is atypical or too small). Stereotypes about people (“librarians
are shy and smart,” “wealthy people are snobs,” etc.) are a
common example of the principle underlying hasty
generalization.
Example: “My roommate said her philosophy class was hard,
and the one I’m in is hard, too. All philosophy classes must be
hard!” Two people’s experiences are, in this case, not enough
on which to base a conclusion.
Tip: Ask yourself what kind of “sample” you’re using: Are you
relying on the opinions or experiences of just a few people, or
your own experience in just a few situations? If so, consider
whether you need more evidence, or perhaps a less sweeping
conclusion. (Notice that in the example, the more modest
conclusion “Some philosophy classes are hard for some
students” would not be a hasty generalization.)
Missing the point
Definition: The premises of an argument do support a particular
conclusion—but not the conclusion that the arguer actually
draws.
Example: “The seriousness of a punishment should match the
seriousness of the crime. Right now, the punishment for drunk
driving may simply be a fine. But drunk driving is a very
serious crime that can kill innocent people. So the death penalty

should be the punishment for drunk driving.” The argument
actually supports several conclusions—”The punishment for
drunk driving should be very serious,” in particular—but it
doesn’t support the claim that the death penalty, specifically, is
warranted.
Tip: Separate your premises from your conclusion. Looking at
the premises, ask yourself what conclusion an objective person
would reach after reading them. Looking at your conclusion, ask
yourself what kind of evidence would be required to support
such a conclusion, and then see if you’ve actually given that
evidence. Missing the point often occurs when a sweeping or
extreme conclusion is being drawn, so be especially careful if
you know you’re claiming something big.
Post hoc (also called false cause)
This fallacy gets its name from the Latin phrase “post hoc, ergo
propter hoc,” which translates as “after this, therefore because
of this.”
Definition: Assuming that because B comes after A, A caused
B. Of course, sometimes one event really does cause another
one that comes later—for example, if I register for a class, and
my name later appears on the roll, it’s true that the first event
caused the one that came later. But sometimes two events that
seem related in time aren’t really related as cause and event.
That is, correlation isn’t the same thing as causation.
Examples: “President Jones raised taxes, and then the rate of
violent crime went up. Jones is responsible for the rise in
crime.” The increase in taxes might or might not be one factor
in the rising crime rates, but the argument hasn’t shown us that
one caused the other.
Tip: To avoid the post hoc fallacy, the arguer would need to
give us some explanation of the process by which the tax

increase is supposed to have produced higher crime rates. And
that’s what you should do to avoid committing this fallacy: If
you say that A causes B, you should have something more to
say about how A caused B than just that A came first and B
came later.
Slippery slope
Definition: The arguer claims that a sort of chain reaction,
usually ending in some dire consequence, will take place, but
there’s really not enough evidence for that assumption. The
arguer asserts that if we take even one step onto the “slippery
slope,” we will end up sliding all the way to the bottom; he or
she assumes we can’t stop partway down the hill.
Example: “Animal experimentation reduces our respect for life.
If we don’t respect life, we are likely to be more and more
tolerant of violent acts like war and murder. Soon our society
will become a battlefield in which everyone constantly fears for
their lives. It will be the end of civilization. To prevent this
terrible consequence, we should make animal experimentation
illegal right now.” Since animal experimentation has been legal
for some time and civilization has not yet ended, it seems
particularly clear that this chain of events won’t necessarily
take place. Even if we believe that experimenting on animals
reduces respect for life, and loss of respect for life makes us
more tolerant of violence, that may be the spot on the hillside at
which things stop—we may not slide all the way down to the
end of civilization. And so we have not yet been given
sufficient reason to accept the arguer’s conclusion that we must
make animal experimentation illegal right now.
Like post hoc, slippery slope can be a tricky fallacy to identify,
since sometimes a chain of events really can be predicted to
follow from a certain action. Here’s an example that doesn’t
seem fallacious: “If I fail English 101, I won’t be able to
graduate. If I don’t graduate, I probably won’t be able to get a

good job, and I may very well end up doing temp work or
flipping burgers for the next year.”
Tip: Check your argument for chains of consequences, where
you say “if A, then B, and if B, then C,” and so forth. Make
sure these chains are reasonable.
Weak analogy
Definition: Many arguments rely on an analogy between two or
more objects, ideas, or situations. If the two things that are
being compared aren’t really alike in the relevant respects, the
analogy is a weak one, and the argument that relies on it
commits the fallacy of weak analogy.
Example: “Guns are like hammers—they’re both tools with
metal parts that could be used to kill someone. And yet it would
be ridiculous to restrict the purchase of hammers—so
restrictions on purchasing guns are equally ridiculous.” While
guns and hammers do share certain features, these features
(having metal parts, being tools, and being potentially useful
for violence) are not the ones at stake in deciding whether to
restrict guns. Rather, we restrict guns because they can easily
be used to kill large numbers of people at a distance. This is a
feature hammers do not share—it would be hard to kill a crowd
with a hammer. Thus, the analogy is weak, and so is the
argument based on it.
If you think about it, you can make an analogy of some kind
between almost any two things in the world: “My paper is like a
mud puddle because they both get bigger when it rains (I work
more when I’m stuck inside) and they’re both kind of murky.”
So the mere fact that you can draw an analogy between two
things doesn’t prove much, by itself.
Arguments by analogy are often used in discussing abortion—
arguers frequently compare fetuses with adult human beings,

and then argue that treatment that would violate the rights of an
adult human being also violates the rights of fetuses. Whether
these arguments are good or not depends on the strength of the
analogy: do adult humans and fetuses share the properties that
give adult humans rights? If the property that matters is having
a human genetic code or the potential for a life full of human
experiences, adult humans and fetuses do share that property, so
the argument and the analogy are strong; if the property is being
self-aware, rational, or able to survive on one’s own, adult
humans and fetuses don’t share it, and the analogy is weak.
Tip: Identify what properties are important to the claim you’re
making, and see whether the two things you’re comparing both
share those properties.
Appeal to authority
Definition: Often we add strength to our arguments by referring
to respected sources or authorities and explaining their
positions on the issues we’re discussing. If, however, we try to
get readers to agree with us simply by impressing them with a
famous name or by appealing to a supposed authority who really
isn’t much of an expert, we commit the fallacy of appeal to
authority.
Example: “We should abolish the death penalty. Many respected
people, such as actor Guy Handsome, have publicly stated their
opposition to it.” While Guy Handsome may be an authority on
matters having to do with acting, there’s no particular reason
why anyone should be moved by his political opinions—he is
probably no more of an authority on the death penalty than the
person writing the paper.
Tip: There are two easy ways to avoid committing appeal to
authority: First, make sure that the authorities you cite are
experts on the subject you’re discussing. Second, rather than
just saying “Dr. Authority believes X, so we should believe it,

too,” try to explain the reasoning or evidence that the authority
used to arrive at his or her opinion. That way, your readers have
more to go on than a person’s reputation. It also helps to choose
authorities who are perceived as fairly neutral or reasonable,
rather than people who will be perceived as biased.
Ad populum
Definition: The Latin name of this fallacy means “to the
people.” There are several versions of the ad populum fallacy,
but what they all have in common is that in them, the arguer
takes advantage of the desire most people have to be liked and
to fit in with others and uses that desire to try to get the
audience to accept his or her argument. One of the most
common versions is the bandwagon fallacy, in which the arguer
tries to convince the audience to do or believe something
because everyone else (supposedly) does.
Example: “Gay marriages are just immoral. 70% of Americans
think so!” While the opinion of most Americans might be
relevant in determining what laws we should have, it certainly
doesn’t determine what is moral or immoral: there was a time
where a substantial number of Americans were in favor of
segregation, but their opinion was not evidence that segregation
was moral. The arguer is trying to get us to agree with the
conclusion by appealing to our desire to fit in with other
Americans.
Tip: Make sure that you aren’t recommending that your readers
believe your conclusion because everyone else believes it, all
the cool people believe it, people will like you better if you
believe it, and so forth. Keep in mind that the popular opinion is
not always the right one.
Ad hominem and tu quoque
Definitions: Like the appeal to authority and ad populum
fallacies, the ad hominem (“against the person”) and tu quoque

(“you, too!”) fallacies focus our attention on people rather than
on arguments or evidence. In both of these arguments, the
conclusion is usually “You shouldn’t believe So-and-So’s
argument.” The reason for not believing So-and-So is that So-
and-So is either a bad person (ad hominem) or a hypocrite (tu
quoque). In an ad hominem argument, the arguer attacks his or
her opponent instead of the opponent’s argument.
Examples: “Andrea Dworkin has written several books arguing
that pornography harms women. But Dworkin is just ugly and
bitter, so why should we listen to her?” Dworkin’s appearance
and character, which the arguer has characterized so
ungenerously, have nothing to do with the strength of her
argument, so using them as evidence is fallacious.
In a tu quoque argument, the arguer points out that the opponent
has actually done the thing he or she is arguing against, and so
the opponent’s argument shouldn’t be listened to. Here’s an
example: imagine that your parents have explained to you why
you shouldn’t smoke, and they’ve given a lot of good reasons—
the damage to your health, the cost, and so forth. You reply, “I
won’t accept your argument, because you used to smoke when
you were my age. You did it, too!” The fact that your parents
have done the thing they are condemning has no bearing on the
premises they put forward in their argument (smoking harms
your health and is very expensive), so your response is
fallacious.
Tip: Be sure to stay focused on your opponents’ reasoning,
rather than on their personal character. (The exception to this is,
of course, if you are making an argument about someone’s
character—if your conclusion is “President Jones is an
untrustworthy person,” premises about her untrustworthy acts
are relevant, not fallacious.)
Appeal to pity

Definition: The appeal to pity takes place when an arguer tries
to get people to accept a conclusion by making them feel sorry
for someone.
Examples: “I know the exam is graded based on performance,
but you should give me an A. My cat has been sick, my car
broke down, and I’ve had a cold, so it was really hard for me to
study!” The conclusion here is “You should give me an A.” But
the criteria for getting an A have to do with learning and
applying the material from the course; the principle the arguer
wants us to accept (people who have a hard week deserve A’s)
is clearly unacceptable. The information the arguer has given
might feel relevant and might even get the audience to consider
the conclusion—but the information isn’t logically relevant, and
so the argument is fallacious. Here’s another example: “It’s
wrong to tax corporations—think of all the money they give to
charity, and of the costs they already pay to run their
businesses!”
Tip: Make sure that you aren’t simply trying to get your
audience to agree with you by making them feel sorry for
someone.
Appeal to ignorance
Definition: In the appeal to ignorance, the arguer basically says,
“Look, there’s no conclusive evidence on the issue at hand.
Therefore, you should accept my conclusion on this issue.”
Example: “People have been trying for centuries to prove that
God exists. But no one has yet been able to prove it. Therefore,
God does not exist.” Here’s an opposing argument that commits
the same fallacy: “People have been trying for years to prove
that God does not exist. But no one has yet been able to prove
it. Therefore, God exists.” In each case, the arguer tries to use
the lack of evidence as support for a positive claim about the
truth of a conclusion. There is one situation in which doing this

is not fallacious: if qualified researchers have used well-
thought-out methods to search for something for a long time,
they haven’t found it, and it’s the kind of thing people ought to
be able to find, then the fact that they haven’t found it
constitutes some evidence that it doesn’t exist.
Tip: Look closely at arguments where you point out a lack of
evidence and then draw a conclusion from that lack of evidence.
Straw man
Definition: One way of making our own arguments stronger is
to anticipate and respond in advance to the arguments that an
opponent might make. In the straw man fallacy, the arguer sets
up a weak version of the opponent’s position and tries to score
points by knocking it down. But just as being able to knock
down a straw man (like a scarecrow) isn’t very impressive,
defeating a watered-down version of your opponent’s argument
isn’t very impressive either.
Example: “Feminists want to ban all pornography and punish
everyone who looks at it! But such harsh measures are surely
inappropriate, so the feminists are wrong: porn and its fans
should be left in peace.” The feminist argument is made weak
by being overstated. In fact, most feminists do not propose an
outright “ban” on porn or any punishment for those who merely
view it or approve of it; often, they propose some restrictions
on particular things like child porn, or propose to allow people
who are hurt by porn to sue publishers and producers—not
viewers—for damages. So the arguer hasn’t really scored any
points; he or she has just committed a fallacy.
Tip: Be charitable to your opponents. State their arguments as
strongly, accurately, and sympathetically as possible. If you can
knock down even the best version of an opponent’s argument,
then you’ve really accomplished something.
Red herring

Definition: Partway through an argument, the arguer goes off on
a tangent, raising a side issue that distracts the audience from
what’s really at stake. Often, the arguer never returns to the
original issue.
Example: “Grading this exam on a curve would be the most fair
thing to do. After all, classes go more smoothly when the
students and the professor are getting along well.” Let’s try our
premise-conclusion outlining to see what’s wrong with this
argument:
Premise: Classes go more smoothly when the students and the
professor are getting along well.
Conclusion: Grading this exam on a curve would be the most
fair thing to do.
When we lay it out this way, it’s pretty obvious that the arguer
went off on a tangent—the fact that something helps people get
along doesn’t necessarily make it more fair; fairness and justice
sometimes require us to do things that cause conflict. But the
audience may feel like the issue of teachers and students
agreeing is important and be distracted from the fact that the
arguer has not given any evidence as to why a curve would be
fair.
Tip: Try laying your premises and conclusion out in an outline-
like form. How many issues do you see being raised in your
argument? Can you explain how each premise supports the
conclusion?
False dichotomy
Definition: In false dichotomy, the arguer sets up the situation
so it looks like there are only two choices. The arguer then
eliminates one of the choices, so it seems that we are left with

only one option: the one the arguer wanted us to pick in the first
place. But often there are really many different options, not just
two—and if we thought about them all, we might not be so
quick to pick the one the arguer recommends.
Example: “Caldwell Hall is in bad shape. Either we tear it down
and put up a new building, or we continue to risk students’
safety. Obviously we shouldn’t risk anyone’s safety, so we must
tear the building down.” The argument neglects to mention the
possibility that we might repair the building or find some way
to protect students from the risks in question—for example, if
only a few rooms are in bad shape, perhaps we shouldn’t hold
classes in those rooms.
Tip: Examine your own arguments: if you’re saying that we
have to choose between just two options, is that really so? Or
are there other alternatives you haven’t mentioned? If there are
other alternatives, don’t just ignore them—explain why they,
too, should be ruled out. Although there’s no formal name for
it, assuming that there are only three options, four options, etc.
when really there are more is similar to false dichotomy and
should also be avoided.
Begging the question
Definition: A complicated fallacy; it comes in several forms and
can be harder to detect than many of the other fallacies we’ve
discussed. Basically, an argument that begs the question asks
the reader to simply accept the conclusion without providing
real evidence; the argument either relies on a premise that says
the same thing as the conclusion (which you might hear referred
to as “being circular” or “circular reasoning”), or simply
ignores an important (but questionable) assumption that the
argument rests on. Sometimes people use the phrase “beg the
question” as a sort of general criticism of arguments, to mean
that an arguer hasn’t given very good reasons for a conclusion,
but that’s not the meaning we’re going to discuss here.

Examples: “Active euthanasia is morally acceptable. It is a
decent, ethical thing to help another human being escape
suffering through death.” Let’s lay this out in premise-
conclusion form:
Premise: It is a decent, ethical thing to help another human
being escape suffering through death.
Conclusion: Active euthanasia is morally acceptable.
If we “translate” the premise, we’ll see that the arguer has
really just said the same thing twice: “decent, ethical” means
pretty much the same thing as “morally acceptable,” and “help
another human being escape suffering through death” means
something pretty similar to “active euthanasia.” So the premise
basically says, “active euthanasia is morally acceptable,” just
like the conclusion does. The arguer hasn’t yet given us any real
reasons why euthanasia is acceptable; instead, she has left us
asking “well, really, why do you think active euthanasia is
acceptable?” Her argument “begs” (that is, evades) the real
question.
Here’s a second example of begging the question, in which a
dubious premise which is needed to make the argument valid is
completely ignored: “Murder is morally wrong. So active
euthanasia is morally wrong.” The premise that gets left out is
“active euthanasia is murder.” And that is a debatable premise—
again, the argument “begs” or evades the question of whether
active euthanasia is murder by simply not stating the premise.
The arguer is hoping we’ll just focus on the uncontroversial
premise, “Murder is morally wrong,” and not notice what is
being assumed.
Tip: One way to try to avoid begging the question is to write out
your premises and conclusion in a short, outline-like form. See

if you notice any gaps, any steps that are required to move from
one premise to the next or from the premises to the conclusion.
Write down the statements that would fill those gaps. If the
statements are controversial and you’ve just glossed over them,
you might be begging the question. Next, check to see whether
any of your premises basically says the same thing as the
conclusion (but in different words). If so, you’re probably
begging the question. The moral of the story: you can’t just
assume or use as uncontroversial evidence the very thing you’re
trying to prove.
Equivocation
Definition: Equivocation is sliding between two or more
different meanings of a single word or phrase that is important
to the argument.
Example: “Giving money to charity is the right thing to do. So
charities have a right to our money.” The equivocation here is
on the word “right”: “right” can mean both something that is
correct or good (as in “I got the right answers on the test”) and
something to which someone has a claim (as in “everyone has a
right to life”). Sometimes an arguer will deliberately, sneakily
equivocate, often on words like “freedom,” “justice,” “rights,”
and so forth; other times, the equivocation is a mistake or
misunderstanding. Either way, it’s important that you use the
main terms of your argument consistently.
Tip: Identify the most important words and phrases in your
argument and ask yourself whether they could have more than
one meaning. If they could, be sure you aren’t slipping and
sliding between those meanings.
So how do I find fallacies in my own writing?
Here are some general tips for finding fallacies in your own
arguments:

Pretend you disagree with the conclusion you’re defending.
What parts of the argument would now seem fishy to you? What
parts would seem easiest to attack? Give special attention to
strengthening those parts.
List your main points; under each one, list the evidence you
have for it. Seeing your claims and evidence laid out this way
may make you realize that you have no good evidence for a
particular claim, or it may help you look more critically at the
evidence you’re using.
Learn which types of fallacies you’re especially prone to, and
be careful to check for them in your work. Some writers make
lots of appeals to authority; others are more likely to rely on
weak analogies or set up straw men. Read over some of your old
papers to see if there’s a particular kind of fallacy you need to
watch out for.
Be aware that broad claims need more proof than narrow
ones. Claims that use sweeping words like “all,” “no,” “none,”
“every,” “always,” “never,” “no one,” and “everyone” are
sometimes appropriate—but they require a lot more proof than
less-sweeping claims that use words like “some,” “many,”
“few,” “sometimes,” “usually,” and so forth.
Double check your characterizations of others, especially
your opponents, to be sure they are accurate and fair.
Literary Analysis: Using Elements of Literature
Students are asked to write literary analysis essays because this
type of assignment encourages you to think about how and why
a poem, short story, novel, or play was written. To successfully
analyze literature, you’ll need to remember that authors make
specific choices for particular reasons. Your essay should point
out the author’s choices and attempt to explain their
significance.
Another way to look at a literary analysis is to consider a piece

of literature from your own perspective. Rather than thinking
about the author’s intentions, you can develop an argument
based on any single term (or combination of terms) listed
below. You’ll just need to use the original text to defend and
explain your argument to the reader.
Allegory - narrative form in which the characters are
representative of some larger humanistic trait (i.e. greed,
vanity, or bravery) and attempt to convey some larger lesson or
meaning to life. Although allegory was originally and
traditionally character based, modern allegories tend to parallel
story and theme.
William Faulkner’s A Rose for Emily- the decline of the Old
South
Robert Louis Stevenson’s Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr.
Hyde- man’s struggle to contain his inner primal instincts
District 9- South African Apartheid
X Men- the evils of prejudice
Harry Potter- the dangers of seeking “racial purity”
Character - representation of a person, place, or thing
performing traditionally human activities or functions in a work
of fiction
Protagonist - The character the story revolves around.
Antagonist - A character or force that opposes the
protagonist.
Minor character - Often provides support and illuminates the
protagonist.
Static character - A character that remains the same.
Dynamic character - A character that changes in some
important way.
Characterization - The choices an author makes to reveal a
character’s personality, such as appearance, actions, dialogue,
and motivations.

Look for: Connections, links, and clues between and about
characters. Ask yourself what the function and significance of
each character is. Make this determination based upon the
character's history, what the reader is told (and not told), and
what other characters say about themselves and others.
Connotation - implied meaning of word. BEWARE!
Connotations can change over time.
confidence/ arrogance
mouse/ rat
cautious/ scared
curious/ nosey
frugal/ cheap
Denotation - dictionary definition of a word
Diction - word choice that both conveys and emphasizes the
meaning or theme of a poem through distinctions in sound, look,
rhythm, syllable, letters, and definition
Figurative language - the use of words to express meaning
beyond the literal meaning of the words themselves
Metaphor - contrasting to seemingly unalike things to
enhance the meaning of a situation or theme without using like
or as
You are the sunshine of my life.
Simile - contrasting to seemingly unalike things to enhance
the meaning of a situation or theme using like or as
What happens to a dream deferred, does it dry up like a
raisin in the sun
Hyperbole - exaggeration
I have a million things to do today.
Personification - giving non-human objects human

characteristics
America has thrown her hat into the ring, and will be
joining forces with the British.
Foot - grouping of stressed and unstressed syllables used in line
or poem
Iamb - unstressed syllable followed by stressed
Made famous by the Shakespearian sonnet, closest to the
natural rhythm of human speech
How do I love thee? Let me count the ways
Spondee - stressed stressed
Used to add emphasis and break up monotonous rhythm
Blood boil, mind-meld, well- loved
Trochee - stressed unstressed
Often used in children’s rhymes and to help with
memorization, gives poem a hurried feeling
While I nodded, nearly napping, suddenly there came a
tapping,
Anapest - unstressed unstressed stressed
Often used in longer poems or “rhymed stories”
Twas the night before Christmas and all through the
house
Dactyls - stressed unstressed unstressed
Often used in classical Greek or Latin text, later revived
by the Romantics, then again by the Beatles, often thought to
create a heartbeat or pulse in a poem
Picture yourself in a boat on a river,
With tangerine trees and marmalade skies.
The iamb stumbles through my books; trochees rush and
tumble; while anapest runs like a hurrying brook; dactyls are
stately and classical.
Imagery - the author’s attempt to create a mental picture (or
reference point) in the mind of the reader. Remember, though

the most immediate forms of imagery are visual, strong and
effective imagery can be used to invoke an emotional,
sensational (taste, touch, smell etc) or even physical response.
Meter - measure or structuring of rhythm in a poem
Plot - the arrangement of ideas and/or incidents that make up a
story
Foreshadowing - When the writer clues the reader in to
something that will eventually occur in the story; it may be
explicit (obvious) or implied (disguised).
Suspense - The tension that the author uses to create a
feeling of discomfort about the unknown
Conflict - Struggle between opposing forces.
Exposition - Background information regarding the setting,
characters, plot.
Rising Action - The process the story follows as it builds to
its main conflict
Crisis - A significant turning point in the story that
determines how it must end
Resolution/Denouement - The way the story turns out.
Point of View - pertains to who tells the story and how it is
told. The point of view of a story can sometimes indirectly
establish the author's intentions.
Narrator - The person telling the story who may or may not
be a character in the story.
First-person - Narrator participates in action but sometimes
has limited knowledge/vision.
Second person - Narrator addresses the reader directly as
though she is part of the story. (i.e. “You walk into your
bedroom. You see clutter everywhere and…”)
Third Person (Objective) - Narrator is unnamed/unidentified
(a detached observer). Does not assume character's perspective

and is not a character in the story. The narrator reports on
events and lets the reader supply the meaning.
Omniscient - All-knowing narrator (multiple perspectives).
The narrator knows what each character is thinking and feeling,
not just what they are doing throughout the story. This type of
narrator usually jumps around within the text, following one
character for a few pages or chapters, and then switching to
another character for a few pages, chapters, etc. Omniscient
narrators also sometimes step out of a particular character’s
mind to evaluate him or her in some meaningful way.
Rhythm - often thought of as a poem’s timing. Rhythm is the
juxtaposition of stressed and unstressed beats in a poem, and is
often used to give the reader a lens through which to move
through the work. (See meter and foot)
Setting - the place or location of the action. The setting
provides the historical and cultural context for characters. It
often can symbolize the emotional state of characters. Example
– In Poe’s The Fall of the House of Usher, the crumbling old
mansion reflects the decaying state of both the family and the
narrator’s mind. We also see this type of emphasis on setting in
Thomas Mann’s Death in Venice.
Speaker - the person delivering the poem. Remember, a poem
does not have to have a speaker, and the speaker and the poet
are not necessarily one in the same.
Structure (fiction) - The way that the writer arranges the plot of
a story.
Look for: Repeated elements in action, gesture, dialogue,
description, as well as shifts in direction, focus, time, place,
etc.
Structure (poetry) - The pattern of organization of a poem. For

example, a Shakespearean sonnet is a 14-line poem written in
iambic pentameter. Because the sonnet is strictly constrained, it
is considered a closed or fixed form. An open or free form poem
has looser form, or perhaps one of the author’s invention, but it
is important to remember that these poems are not necessarily
formless.
Symbolism - when an object is meant to be representative of
something or an idea greater than the object itself.
Cross - representative of Christ or Christianity
Bald Eagle - America or Patriotism
Owl - wisdom or knowledge
Yellow - implies cowardice or rot
Tone - the implied attitude towards the subject of the poem. Is
it hopeful, pessimistic, dreary, worried? A poet conveys tone by
combining all of the elements listed above to create a precise
impression on the reader.
Psychological
Disorders12
Enduring Issues in
Psychological Disorders
Perspectives on
• Historical Views of
• The Biological Model
• The Psychoanalytic Model
• The Cognitive–Behavioral

Model
• The Diathesis–Stress Model
and Systems Theory
• The Prevalence of
• Mental Illness and the Law
• Classifying Abnormal
Behavior
Mood Disorders
• Depression
• Suicide
• Mania and Bipolar Disorder
• Causes of Mood Disorders
Anxiety Disorders
• Specific Phobias
• Panic Disorder
• Other Anxiety Disorders
• Causes of Anxiety Disorders
Psychosomatic and
Somatoform Disorders
Dissociative Disorders
Sexual and Gender-Identity
Disorders
Personality Disorders
Schizophrenic Disorders
• Types of Schizophrenic
Disorders

• Causes of Schizophrenia
Childhood Disorders
Gender and Cultural
Differences in Psychological
Disorders
• Gender Differences
• Cultural Differences
O V E R V I E W
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Understanding Psychology, Ninth Edition, by Charles G. Morris
and Albert A. Maisto. Published by Prentice Hall. Copyright ©
2010 by Pearson Education, Inc.
J
ack was a very successful chemical engineer known for the
meticulous accuracy of his work. But Jack also had a “little
quirk.” He constantly felt compelled to double-, triple-, and
even quadruple-check things to assure himself that they were
done properly. For instance, when leaving his apartment in the
morning, he occasionally got as far as the garage—but
invariably
he would go back to make certain that the door was securely
locked and the stove, lights, and other appliances were all
turned
off. Going on a vacation was particularly difficult for him
because

his checking routine was so exhaustive and time-consuming.
Yet
Jack insisted that he would never want to give up this chronic
checking. Doing so, he said, would make him “much too
nervous.”
For Claudia, every day was more than just a bad-hair day.
She was always in utter despair over how “hideous” her hair
looked. She perceived some parts of it to be too long, and others
to be too short. In her eyes, one area would look much too
“poofy,” while another area would look far too flat. Claudia got
up early each morning just to work on her hair. For about 2
hours
she would wash it, dry it, brush it, comb it, curl it, straighten it,
and snip away infinitesimal amounts with an expensive pair of
hair-cutting scissors. But she was never satisfied with the
391
results. Not even trips to the most expensive salons could make
her feel content about her hair. She declared that virtually every
day was ruined because her hair looked so bad. Claudia said
that she desperately wanted to stop focusing on her hair, but for
some reason she just couldn’t.
Jonathan was a 22-year-old auto mechanic whom everyone
described as a loner. He seldom engaged in conversation and
seemed lost in his own private world. At work, the other
mechanics took to whistling sharply whenever they wanted to
get his attention. Jonathan also had a “strange look” on his face
that could make customers feel uncomfortable. But his oddest
behavior was his assertion that he sometimes had the distinct
feeling his dead mother was standing next to him, watching
what he did. Although Jonathan realized that his mother was not
really there, he nevertheless felt reassured by the illusion of her
presence. He took great care not to look or reach toward the

spot where he felt his mother was, because doing so inevitably
made the feeling go away.
Cases adapted from J. S. Nevis, S. A. Rathus, & B. Green
(2005). Abnormal Psychol-
ogy in a Changing World (5th ed.) Upper Saddle River, NJ:
Prentice Hall.
ENDURING ISSUES IN PSYCHOLOGICAL
DISORDERS
As we explore psychological disorders in this chapter, we will
again encounter some of the
enduring issues that interest psychologists. A recurring topic is
the relationship between
genetics, neurotransmitters, and behavior disorders (mind–
body). We will also see that
many psychological disorders arise because a vulnerable person
encounters a particularly
stressful environment (person–situation). As you read the
chapter, think about how you
would answer the question “What is normal?” and how the
answer to that question has
changed over time and differs even today across cultures
(diversity–universality). Consider
also whether a young person with a psychological disorder is
likely to suffer from it later in
life and, conversely, whether a well-adjusted young person is
immune to psychological dis-
orders later in life (stability–change).
PERSPECTIVES ON PSYCHOLOGICAL
DISORDERS
How does a mental health professional define a psychological
disorder?

When is a person’s behavior abnormal? This is not always easy
to determine. There is no
doubt about the abnormality of a man who dresses in flowing
robes and accosts pedestri-
ans on the street, claiming to be Jesus Christ, or a woman who
dons an aluminum-foil hel-
met to prevent space aliens from “stealing” her thoughts. But
other instances of abnormal
behavior aren’t always so clear. What about the three people we
have just described? All of
them exhibit unusual behavior. But does their behavior deserve
to be labeled “abnormal”?
Do any of them have a genuine psychological disorder?
The answer depends in part on the perspective you take. As
Table 12–1 summarizes,
society, the individual, and the mental health professional all
adopt different perspectives
L E A R N I N G O B J E C T I V E S
• Compare the three perspectives on
what constitutes abnormal behavior.
Explain what is meant by the statement
“Identifying behavior as abnormal is
also a matter of degree.” Distinguish
between the prevalence and incidence
of psychological disorders, and
between mental illness and insanity.
• Describe the key features of the
biological, psychoanalytic,
cognitive–behavioral, diathesis–stress,
and systems models of psychological
disorders.

• Explain what is meant by “DSM-IV-TR”
and describe the basis on which it
categorizes disorders.
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392 Chapter 12
when distinguishing abnormal behavior from normal behavior.
Society’s main standard of
abnormality is whether the behavior fails to conform to
prevailing ideas about what is
socially expected of people. In contrast, when individuals assess
the abnormality of their
own behavior, their main criterion is whether that behavior
fosters a sense of unhappiness
and lack of well-being. Mental health professionals take still

another perspective. They
assess abnormality chiefly by looking for maladaptive
personality traits, psychological dis-
comfort regarding a particular behavior, and evidence that the
behavior is preventing the
person from functioning well in life.
These three approaches to identifying abnormal behavior are not
always in agree-
ment. For example, of the three people previously described,
only Claudia considers her
own behavior to be a genuine problem that is undermining her
happiness and sense of
well-being. In contrast to Claudia, Jack is not really bothered by
his compulsive behavior
(in fact, he sees it as a way of relieving anxiety); and Jonathan
is not only content with
being a loner, but he also experiences great comfort from the
illusion of his dead
mother’s presence. But now suppose we shift our focus and
adopt society’s perspective.
In this case, we must include Jonathan on our list of those
whose behavior is abnormal.
His self-imposed isolation and talk of sensing his mother’s
ghost violate social expecta-
tions of how people should think and act. Society would not
consider Jonathan normal.
Neither would a mental health professional. In fact, from the
perspective of a mental
health professional, all three of these cases show evidence of a
psychological disorder.
The people involved may not always be distressed by their own
behavior, but that behav-
ior is impairing their ability to function well in everyday
settings or in social relation-
ships. The point is that there is no hard and fast rule as to what

constitutes abnormal
behavior. Distinguishing between normal and abnormal
behavior always depends on the
perspective taken.
Identifying behavior as abnormal is also a matter of degree. To
understand why, imag-
ine that each of our three cases is slightly less extreme. Jack is
still prone to double-checking,
but he doesn’t check over and over again. Claudia still spends
much time on her hair, but she
doesn’t do so constantly and not with such chronic
dissatisfaction. As for Jonathan, he only
occasionally withdraws from social contact; and he has had the
sense of his dead mother’s
presence just twice over the last 3 years. In these less severe
situations, a mental health pro-
fessional would not be so ready to diagnose a mental disorder.
Clearly, great care must be
taken when separating mental health and mental illness into two
qualitatively different cate-
gories. It is often more accurate to think of mental illness as
simply being quantitatively dif-
ferent from normal behavior—that is, different in degree. The
line between one and the
other is often somewhat arbitrary. Cases are always much easier
to judge when they fall at
the extreme end of a dimension than when they fall near the
“dividing line.”
Table 12–1 PERSPECTIVES ON PSYCHOLOGICAL
DISORDERS
Standards/Values Measures
Society Orderly world in which people assume responsibility for

their
assigned social roles (e.g., breadwinner, parent), conform to
prevailing mores, and meet situational requirements.
Observations of behavior, extent to which a person fulfills
society’s expectations and measures up to prevailing standards.
Individual Happiness, gratification of needs. Subjective
perceptions of self-esteem, acceptance, and well-being.
Mental health
professional
Sound personality structure characterized by growth,
development, autonomy, environmental mastery, ability to
cope with stress, adaptation.
Clinical judgment, aided by behavioral observations and
psychological tests of such variables as self-concept; sense of
identity; balance of psychic forces; unified outlook on life;
resistance to stress; self-regulation; the ability to cope with
reality; the absence of mental and behavioral symptoms;
adequacy in interpersonal relationships.
Source: From “A Tripartite Model of Mental Health and
Therapeutic Outcomes with Special Reference to Negative
Effects on Psychotherapy” by H. H. Strupp and
S. W. Hadley, American Psychologist, 32 (1977), pp. 187–196.
Copyright © 1977 by American Psychological Association.
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Psychological Disorders 393
Historical Views of
How has the view of psychological
disorders changed over time?
The place and times also contribute to how we define
mental disorders. Thousands of years ago, mysterious
behaviors were often attributed to supernatural powers
and madness was a sign that spirits had possessed a per-
son. As late as the 18th century, the emotionally dis-
turbed person was thought to be a witch or to be
possessed by the devil. Exorcisms, ranging from the
mild to the hair raising, were performed, and many
people endured horrifying tortures. Some people were
even burned at the stake.
By the late Middle Ages, there was a move away
from viewing the mentally ill as witches and possessed
by demons, and they were increasingly confined to
public and private asylums. Even though these institu-
tions were founded with good intentions, most were little more
than prisons. In the
worst cases, inmates were chained down and deprived of food,
light, or air in order to
“cure” them.
Little was done to ensure humane standards in mental
institutions until 1793, when
Philippe Pinel (1745–1826) became director of the Bicêtre

Hospital in Paris. Under his
direction, patients were released from their chains and allowed
to move about the hospital
grounds, rooms were made more comfortable and sanitary, and
questionable and violent
medical treatments were abandoned (James Harris, 2003).
Pinel’s reforms were soon fol-
lowed by similar efforts in England and, somewhat later, in the
United States where
Dorothea Dix (1802–1887), a schoolteacher from Boston, led a
nationwide campaign for
the humane treatment of mentally ill people. Under her
influence, the few existing asylums
in the United States were gradually turned into hospitals.
The basic reason for the failed—and sometimes abusive—
treatment of mentally dis-
turbed people throughout history has been the lack of
understanding of the nature and
causes of psychological disorders. Although our knowledge is
still inadequate, important
advances in understanding abnormal behavior can be traced to
the late 19th and 20th cen-
turies, when three influential but conflicting models of
abnormal behavior emerged: the
biological model, the psychoanalytic model, and the cognitive–
behavioral model.
The Biological Model
How can biology influence the development of psychological
disorders?
The biological model holds that psychological disorders are
caused by physiological mal-
functions often stemming from hereditary factors. As we shall
see, support for the biologi-

cal model has been growing rapidly as scientists make advances
in the new interdisciplinary
field of neuroscience, which directly links biology and behavior
(see Chapter 2, “The Biolog-
ical Basis of Behavior”).
For instance, new neuroimaging techniques have enabled
researchers to pinpoint
regions of the brain involved in such disorders as schizophrenia
(Kumra, 2008; Ragland,
2007) and antisocial personality (Birbaumer et al., 2005;
Narayan et al., 2007). By unravel-
ing the complex chemical interactions that take place at the
synapse, neurochemists have
spawned advances in neuropharmacology leading to the
development of promising new
psychoactive drugs (see Chapter 13, “Therapies”). Many of
these advances are also linked to
the field of behavior genetics, which is continually increasing
our understanding of the role
In the 17th century, French physicians tried
various devices to cure their patients of
“fantasy and folly.”
biological model View that psychological
disorders have a biochemical or physiological
basis.
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of specific genes in the development of complex disorders such
as schizophrenia (Horiuchi
et al., 2006; Tang et al., 2006; Ying-Chieh Wang et al., 2008)
and autism (Kuehn, 2006; Losh,
Sullivan, Trembath, & Piven, 2008).
Although neuroscientific breakthroughs are indeed remarkable,
to date no neu-
roimaging technique can clearly and definitively differentiate
among various mental dis-
orders (Callicott, 2003; Sarason & Sarason, 1999). And despite
the availability of an
increasing number of medications to alleviate the symptoms of
some mental disorders,
most drugs can only control—rather than cure—abnormal
behavior. There is also some
concern that advances in identifying the underlying neurological
structures and mecha-
nisms associated with mental illnesses may interfere with the
recognition of equally impor-
tant psychological causes of abnormal behavior (Dudai, 2004;
Widiger & Sankis, 2000).

Despite this concern, the integration of neuroscientific research
and traditional psycholog-
ical approaches to understanding behavior is taking place at an
increasingly rapid pace, and
will undoubtedly reshape our view of mental illness in the
future (Lacy & Hughes, 2006;
Westen, 2005).
The Psychoanalytic Model
What did Freud and his followers believe was the underlying
cause
of psychological disorders?
Freud and his followers developed the psychoanalytic model
during the late 19th and early
20th centuries. (See Chapter 10, “Personality.”) According to
this model, behavior disorders
are symbolic expressions of unconscious conflicts, which can
usually be traced to childhood.
The psychoanalytic model argues that in order to resolve their
problems effectively, people
must become aware that the source of their problems lies in
their childhood and infancy.
Although Freud and his followers profoundly influenced both
the mental health disci-
plines and Western culture, only weak and scattered scientific
evidence supports their psy-
choanalytic theories about the causes and effective treatment of
mental disorders.
The Cognitive–Behavioral Model
According to the cognitive–behavioral model, what causes
abnormal behavior?
A third model of abnormal behavior grew out of 20th-century

research on learning and
cognition. The cognitive–behavioral model suggests that
psychological disorders, like all
behavior, result from learning. For example, a bright student
who believes that he is acade-
mically inferior to his classmates and can’t perform well on a
test may not put much effort
into studying. Naturally, he performs poorly, and his poor test
score confirms his belief that
he is academically inferior.
The cognitive–behavioral model has led to innovations in the
treatment of psycholog-
ical disorders, but the model has been criticized for its limited
perspective, especially its
emphasis on environmental causes and treatments.
The Diathesis–Stress Model
and Systems Theory
Why do some people with a family history of a psychological
disorder
develop the disorder, whereas other family members do not?
Each of the three major theories is useful in explaining the
causes of certain types of disor-
ders. The most exciting recent developments, however,
emphasize integration of the vari-
ous theoretical models to discover specific causes and specific
treatments for different
mental disorders.
394 Chapter 12
psychoanalytic model View that
psychological disorders result from unconscious
internal conflicts.

cognitive–behavioral model View that
psychological disorders result from learning
maladaptive ways of thinking and behaving.
The cognitive–behavioral view of mental dis-
orders suggests that people can learn—and
unlearn—thinking patterns that affect their
lives unfavorably. For example, an athlete who
is convinced she will not win may not practice
as hard as she should and end up “defeating
herself.”
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One promising integrative approach is seen in the diathesis–
stress model
(McKeever & Huff, 2003; L. A. Schmidt, Polak, & Spooner,
2005). This model suggests
that a biological predisposition called a diathesis must combine
with a stressful circum-
stance before the predisposition to a mental disorder is
manifested (S. R. Jones & Ferny-
hough, 2007).

The systems approach, also known as the biopsychosocial
model, examines how bio-
logical risks, psychological stresses, and social pressures and
expectations combine to pro-
duce psychological disorders (Fava & Sonino, 2007; Weston,
2005). According to this
model, emotional problems are “lifestyle diseases” that, much
like heart disease and many
other physical illnesses, result from a combination of risk
factors and stresses. Just as heart
disease can result from a combination of genetic predisposition,
personality styles, poor
health habits (such as smoking), and stress, psychological
problems result from several risk
factors that influence one another. In this chapter, we follow the
systems approach in exam-
ining the causes and treatments of abnormal behavior.
diathesis Biological predisposition.
systems approach View that biological,
psychological, and social risk factors combine
to produce psychological disorders. Also
known as the biopsychosocial model of
psychological disorders.
Mind–Body Causes of Mental Disorders
Throughout this chapter, as we discuss what is known about the
causes of psychological
disorders, you will see that biological and psychological factors
are intimately connected.
For example, there is strong evidence for a genetic component
in some personality disor-
ders as well as in schizophrenia. However, not everyone who
inherits these factors develops

a personality disorder or suffers from schizophrenia. Our
current state of knowledge allows
us to pinpoint certain causative factors for certain conditions,
but it does not allow us to
completely differentiate biological and psychological factors. ■
The Prevalence of Psychological Disorders
How common are mental disorders?
Psychologists and public-health experts are concerned with both
the prevalence and
the incidence of mental health problems. Prevalence refers to
the frequency with which
a given disorder occurs at a given time. If there were 100 cases
of depression in a popu-
lation of 1,000, the prevalence of depression would be 10%. The
incidence of a disorder
refers to the number of new cases that arise in a given period. If
there were 10 new cases
of depression in a population of 1,000 in a single year, the
incidence would be 1%
per year.
In 2005, the National Institute of Mental Health conducted a
survey finding that
26.2% or approximately 57.7 million Americans were suffering
from a mental disorder.
While only about 6% were regarded as having a serious mental
illness, almost half the peo-
ple (45%) suffering from one mental disorder also met the
criteria for 2 or more other
mental disorders (Kessler, Chiu, Demler, & Walters, 2005).
Notably, mental disorders are
the leading cause of disability in the United States for people
between the ages of 15 and 44
(The World Health Organization, 2004). Figure 12–1 shows the

prevalence for some of the
more common mental disorders among adult Americans. As
shown in Figure 12–1, anxi-
ety disorders are the most common mental disorder followed by
mood disorders. (All of
these are described in detail later in this chapter.)
More recently diagnostic interviews with more than 60,000
people in 14 countries
around the world showed that over a 1-year period, the
prevalence of moderate or serious
psychological disorders varied widely from 12% of the
population in the Americas to 7% in
Europe, 6% in the Middle East and Africa, and just 4% in Asia
(World Health Organization
[WHO] World Mental Health Survey Consortium, 2004).
diathesis–stress model View that people
biologically predisposed to a mental disorder
(those with a certain diathesis) will tend to exhibit
that disorder when particularly affected by stress.
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Mental Illness and the Law
Is there a difference between being “mentally ill”
and being “insane”?
Particularly horrifying crimes have often been attributed to
mental disturbance, because
it seems to many people that anyone who could commit such
crimes must be “crazy.”
But to the legal system, this presents a problem: If a person is
truly “crazy,” are we justi-
fied in holding him or her responsible for criminal acts? The
legal answer to this ques-
tion is a qualified yes. A mentally ill person is responsible for
his or her crimes unless he
or she is determined to be insane. What’s the difference
between being “mentally ill” and
being “insane”? Insanity is a legal term, not a psychological
one. It is typically applied to
defendants who were so mentally disturbed when they
committed their offense that
they either lacked substantial capacity to appreciate the
criminality of their actions (to
know right from wrong) or to conform to the requirements of
the law (to control their
behavior).
When a defendant is suspected of being mentally disturbed or
legally insane,
another important question must be answered before that person

is brought to trial: Is
the person able to understand the charges against him or her and
to participate in a
defense in court? This issue is known as competency to stand
trial. The person is exam-
ined by a court-appointed expert and, if found to be
incompetent, is sent to a mental
institution, often for an indefinite period. If judged to be
competent, the person is
required to stand trial.
396 Chapter 12
Figure 12–1
Prevalence of selected mental disorders in the United States.
A 2005 survey by the National Institute of Mental Health found
that approximately 26.2%, or about
57.7 million Americans suffer from a mental disorder. The
prevalence among adult Americans for a
few of the more common mental disorders is shown here.
Source: National Institute of Mental Health (2005).
0
Major Depressive Disorder
5 10 15 2520
Number of American Adults (in millions)
30 35 40 45
Bipolar 2.6%
Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder 3.5%
Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) 4.1%

6.7%
Specific Phobias 8.7%
All Mood Disorders 9.5%
All Anxiety Disorders 18.1%
Schizophrenia 1.1%
Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder 1.0%
insanity Legal term applied to defendants who
do not know right from wrong or are unable to
control their behavior.
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Classifying Abnormal Behavior
Why is it useful to have a manual of psychological disorders?

For nearly 40 years, the American Psychiatric Association
(APA) has issued a manual
describing and classifying the various kinds of psychological
disorders. This publication,
the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
(DSM), has been revised four
times. The DSM-IV-TR (American Psychiatric Association,
2000) provides a complete
list of mental disorders, with each category painstakingly
defined in terms of significant
behavior patterns (see Table 12–2). The DSM has gained
increasing acceptance because
its detailed criteria for diagnosing mental disorders have made
diagnosis much more reli-
able. Today, it is the most widely used classification of
psychological disorders. In the
remainder of this chapter, we will explore some of the key
categories in greater detail.
Table 12–2 DIAGNOSTIC CATEGORIES OF DSM-IV-RT
Category Example
Disorders Usually First Diagnosed in Infancy,
Childhood, or Adolescence
Mental retardation, learning disorders, autistic disorder,
attention-deficit/hyperactivity
disorder.
Delirium, Dementia, and Amnestic and Other
Cognitive Disorders
Delirium, dementia of the Alzheimer’s type, amnestic disorder.

Mental Disorders Due to a General Medical
Condition
Psychotic disorder due to epilepsy.
Substance-Related Disorders Alcohol dependence, cocaine
dependence, nicotine dependence.
Schizophrenia and Other Psychotic Disorders Schizophrenia,
schizoaffective disorder, delusional disorder.
Mood Disorders Major depressive disorder, dysthymic disorder,
bipolar disorder.
Anxiety Disorders Panic disorder with agoraphobia, social
phobia, obsessive-compulsive disorder, post-
traumatic stress disorder, generalized anxiety disorder.
Somatoform Disorders Somatization disorder, conversion
disorder, hypochondriasis.
Factitious Disorders Factitious disorder with predominantly
physical signs and symptoms.
Dissociative Disorders Dissociative amnesia, dissociative fugue,
dissociative identity disorder, depersonalization
disorder.
Sexual and Gender-Identity Disorders Hypoactive sexual desire
disorder, male erectile disorder, female orgasmic disorder,
vaginismus.
Eating Disorders Anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa.
Sleep Disorders Primary insomnia, narcolepsy, sleep terror
disorder.
Impulse-Control Disorders Kleptomania, pyromania,
pathological gambling.
Adjustment Disorders Adjustment disorder with depressed
mood, adjustment disorder with conduct disturbance.
Personality Disorders Antisocial personality disorder,
borderline personality disorder, narcissistic personality

disorder, dependent personality disorder.
Answers:1. supernatural.2. genetic.3. Insanity.4. (T).5. (F).6.
(F).
CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING
1. It is likely that people in early societies believed that
________ forces caused abnormal behavior.
2. There is growing evidence that ________ factors are involved
in mental disorders as diverse
as schizophrenia, depression, and anxiety.
3. ________ is a legal term that is not the same thing as mental
illness.
Indicate whether the following statements are true (T) or false
(F):
4. The line separating normal from abnormal behavior is
somewhat arbitrary.
5. About two-thirds of Americans are suffering from one or
more serious mental disorders
at any given time.
6. The cognitive view of mental disorders suggests that they
arise from unconscious conflicts,
often rooted in childhood.
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MOOD DISORDERS
How do mood disorders differ from ordinary mood changes?
Most people have a wide emotional range; they can be happy or
sad, animated or quiet,
cheerful or discouraged, or overjoyed or miserable, depending
on the circumstances. In
some people with mood disorders, this range is greatly
restricted. They seem stuck at one
or the other end of the emotional spectrum—either consistently
excited and euphoric or
consistently sad—regardless of life circumstances. Others with
mood disorders alternate
between the extremes of euphoria and sadness.
Depression

How does clinical depression differ from ordinary sadness?
The most common mood disorder is depression, a state in which
a person feels over-
whelmed with sadness. Depressed people lose interest in the
things they normally enjoy.
Intense feelings of worthlessness and guilt leave them unable to
feel pleasure. They are tired
and apathetic, sometimes to the point of being unable to make
the simplest decisions.
Many depressed people feel as if they have failed utterly in life,
and they tend to blame
themselves for their problems. Seriously depressed people often
have insomnia and lose
interest in food and sex. They may have trouble thinking or
concentrating—even to the
extent of finding it difficult to read a newspaper. In fact,
difficulty in concentrating and
subtle changes in short-term memory are sometimes the first
signs of the onset of depres-
sion (Janice Williams et al., 2000). In extreme cases, depressed
people may be plagued by
suicidal thoughts or may even attempt suicide (C. T. S. Kumar,
Mohan, & Ranjith, 2006).
The earlier the age of onset of depressive symptoms, the greater
the likelihood that suicide
may be attempted (A. H. Thompson, 2008).
Clinical depression is different from the “normal” kind of
depression that all people
experience from time to time. Only when depression is long
lasting and goes well beyond
the typical reaction to a stressful life event is it classified as a
mood disorder (American Psy-
chological Association, 2000). (See “Applying Psychology:
Recognizing Depression.”)

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