William Allan Kritsonis, PhD, Professor

JOURNAL
OF BORDER
EDUCATIONAL
RESEARCHV O L U M E 6 l N U M B E R 1
JBER

The Journal of Border Educational Research
ISSN: 1548-3185
Frequency: Biannually
Editor:
Randel D. Brown, Texas A&M International University
5201 Univeristy Boulevard Laredo, TX 78041
Content Editors:
Reynaldo Reyes III, University of Texas at El Paso
Jeffery H.D. Cornelius-White, Missouri State University
Duncan A. Rose, Newman University
Terry Shepherd, Indiana University South Bend
Mary A. Petron, Texas A&M International University
San Juanita G. Hachar, Texas A&M International University
Alfredo Ramirez Jr., Texas A&M International University
Diana Linn, Texas A&M International University
Jennifer Coronado, Texas A&M International University
Publication Design Coordinator:
Ana P. Clamont
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The Journal of Border Educational Research is an initiative of Texas A&M international University’s College of Education.
Articles and editorials published in the Journal of Border Educational Research do not necessarily reflect endorsement by
Texas A&M international University’s College of Education.
Editorial Policy: The Journal of Border Educational Research is published by Texas A&M International University’s
College of Education. It is a multidisciplinary journal for reporting original contributions of the highest quality about knowledge
and application of educational issues surrounding border regions and other cross-cultural experiences.
Editorial Review Board:
Blanca Araujo, University of Texas at El Paso
Ernest Awanta, University of Cambridge
Sean M. Chadwell, Texas A&M International University
Alberto Esquinca, University of Texas at El Paso
Verónica Galván Carlan, The University of Texas at Brownsville
Sergio D. Garza, Texas A&M International University
Humberto González, Texas A&M International University
Elaine Hampton, University of Texas at El Paso
Barbara Hong, Texas A&M International University
W. Fred Ivy, Texas A&M International University
Elena Izquierdo, University of Texas at El Paso
Kerrie Kephart, University of Texas at El Paso
Judith Lapadat, University of Northern British Columbia
Kevin Lindberg, Texas A&M International University
Juan R. Lira, Texas A&M International University
Anne Lowe, Université de Moncton
Ana Macias, University of Texas at El Paso
Judith Munter, University of Texas at El Paso
Sylvia Peregrino, University of Texas at El Paso
Trace Pirtle, Texas A&M International University
Lem L. Railsback, Texas A&M International University
Claudio Salinas, Texas A&M International University
Milagros Seda, University of Texas at El Paso
Sylvia R. Taube, Sam Houston State University
Char Ullman, University of Texas at El Paso
Miroslava Vargas, Texas A&M International University
Mary Ann Wallace, University of Texas at El Paso

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research, descriptions of successful practices to promote school improvement, the application of research to the design and
delivery of educational programs, experimental, correlational or observational studies, position papers, reviews of literature,
thesis and dissertation abstracts, and book reviews. Generally, articles selected are those written in an informal, practical,
and readable format.
The Journal of Border Educational Research also advocates for the expansion of university services and outreach
to public schools through research on innovative school practices. Some topics you might consider are partnership initiatives
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format and no longer than five pages in length.
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Dr. Randel D. Brown, Editor
Texas A&M International University
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Produced by the TAMIU Print Shop

Journal of Border Educational Research
Volume 6 l Number 1 l 2007
Contents
Volume 6 Number 1
Editorial .......................................................................................................................................... 3
Terry L. Shepherd
Environmental Responsibility: A Social Justice Mandate for Counseling ....................................... 5
Jeffrey H. D. Cornelius-White
Preparing Educators for Today’s Multicultural Schools: Moving from Philosophy to Practice in a
School Psychology Training Program .......................................................................................... 17
Eleanor T. Robertson
The Trump Status: An Analysis of First-Semester Freshmen Attitudes Towards Difference ........ 27
Pati K. Hendrickson and Lori J. Anderson
Analysis of Meta-Ethical Relationaships Between Instructors and Students ............................... 41
Kamal Dean Parhizgar and Fuzhan F. Parhizgar
Demographics Shaping Learning Communities: A Collective Case Study of Career Academies in
Public High Schools in San Diego ............................................................................................... 55
Marie Judson
An Exploratory Investigation into Social Variables Related to the Use of Codeswitching Among
Bilingual Children in Elementary Schools in a South Texas Border Area ..................................... 69
Emma Alicia Garza & Guadalupe Nancy Nava
She Teaches You Like if She Were Your Friend: Latino High School Students Describe Attributes
of a Caring Teacher ...................................................................................................................... 81
Rubén Garza
Peer Support for Students with Disabilities: Implications, Likelihood, and Advantages for the Rural
High School Campus ................................................................................................................... 93
Victoria Zascavage, Jennifer Schroeder-Steward,
William Masten and Philip Armstrong
Standards-based Mathematics Curriculum and Hispanic Middle School Students’ Attitudes and
Classroom Experiences ............................................................................................................. 103
James A. Telese
The Development of Master’s Degree and Certificate programs in Fitness and Sports Division at
Texas A&M International University ............................................................................................ 115
Sukho Lee

Journal of Border Educational Research
Adventure Games as Deaf Education Tools: Action Research Results ..................................... 123
Scott Whitney and Gabriel A. Martin
Teacher’s Voices
Listening to Teacher’s Voices: Current Educational Assessment
Practices in First Grade ...............................................................................................................131
Karla A. Cantu
Campus Level Grant Writing: Leveraging Teacher Talent to Access External Funding ............. 143
David E. Herrington, William Allan Kritsonis,
Kathleen Kidd Proctor and Guadalupe Garza-Brown

Journal of Border Educational Research Journal of Border Educational Research

The articles presented in the Journal of Border Educational Research
represent various views and perspectives on educational practices and concerns
within cross-cultural settings. Included topics cover field-based experiences, action
research, descriptions of successful educational practices and position papers that
address issues faced by students, teachers, and other professionals in border
regions and other cross-cultural situations.
The eclectic array of articles and essays included clearly represents the
concept that borders are more than merely marked lines on maps. Borders exist
wherever cultures meet and intermingle; where languages come together and
beliefs interact. The contributing authors have each chosen to address border
concerns and cross-cultural issues from their own perspectives and the results
are enlightening and informative. Each author addresses salient issues educators
face when working within culturally diverse groups.
The Journal of Border Educational Research is proud to share these
contributions to border research with you. We believe they significantly advance
cross-cultural education with thoughtful investigations of vital questions. We hope
that you find something in this issue that inspires you to reexamine the multicultural
issues in your environment.
RB
Randel D. Brown
Editor


Editorial
Education: What’s It All About?
One of the greatest proponents of public education, Thomas Jefferson, believed that only an
educated population could assure the survival of democracy. His Bill for the General Diffusion of
Knowledge in 1778 attempted to establish an elementary grade of instruction in Virginia that would
enable citizens to “understand their rights, to maintain them, and to exercise with intelligence their
parts in self-government” (Jefferson, 1984). In a time when liberty, freedom, and democracy were
a common concern, the purpose of education was to prepare individuals for civic duties.
The purpose of education has changed since the founding of our nation. The Cold War fueled
the criticism toward public education. Americans did not want to be second to the Soviet Union,
and the perceived blame was laid on public education. Throughout the remainder of the twentieth
century, education would be blamed for a multitude of problems, and blaming public education for
the societal, economic, and security problems of the nation became almost a national pastime for
politicians and business leaders (Graves, 2002; Schneider, Houston, 1993). As a result, three
major educational reforms have emerged over the last twenty-five years, A Nation at Risk, America
2000, and most recently, the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001.
A major component of No Child Left Behind includes strong accountability and is based on
the laudable goal that ALL children will be proficient in reading and math by 2014. Those who
are honest know that no matter the efforts made by teachers or the pressures placed on them by
external sources, some children will never be proficient in reading and math due to intellectual
abilities, disabilities, language differences, or home environment. These, and far too many other
variables in a child’s life are beyond the control of public education. If the No Child Left Behind
accountability system were applied to other professions, eventually lawyers would have to win every
case and doctors would have to cure every patient (Burroughs, 2007). The purpose of education
has changed. Education is now about “investing” in human resources that can benefit industry and
fuel the national economy. Accountability is not about the child; it is about economics.
For teachers, it is about the child. Teachers know when they go into the field they will make
far less money than their professional counterparts. They also know that every child is different,
with different strengths and needs. Each child is a snowflake, unique and different; not a uniformed
part to be put together on an assembly line that makes each child identical. Teachers look at the
whole child. They are not only concerned with the academic performance of their students, but the
emotional, and social well-being of all children, which are factors that cannot be tested. Despite
the education bashing, most teachers are good teachers who try to do their best to educate the
ethnically and linguistically diverse children of their classrooms. They care about their students.
They believe in their students. Their goal is to develop a well-round individual who will contribute
positively to a society, and ensure the survival of a democratic nation.
It is time the nation let those who know about education superintend education: teachers.
Doctors oversee their profession through the American Medical Association, and lawyers oversee
their profession through the American Bar Association. Professional teachers need to oversee
education through an American Education Association. They need to set educational standards,
certification requirements, and a code of professional ethics. Teachers needs to be viewed in the
same league as doctors and lawyers, and teaching needs to stand as a profession that draws the
best and brightest into the classrooms. Only then can we have high quality teachers.


Teachers are the ones in the field. They are the ones who know what it takes to educate
a child and they are honest about education. They know from experience and from their hearts
what many politicians and business leaders only say in their rhetoric. The bottom line is not about
economics; it is about the child.
Terry L. Shepherd
Indiana University South Bend
References
Burroughs, S. (2007, April 12). Statement of Steve Burroughs. Presented to the Education and
Labor Subcommittee: U.S. House of Representatives, Washington, DC. Retrieved April
20, 2007, fromhttp://www.nea.org/lac/esea/041207testi.html
Graves, D. H. (2002). Testing is not teaching: What should count in education. Portsmouth, NH:
Heinemann.
Jefferson, T. (1984). Thomas Jefferson: Writings: autobiography/notes on the state of Virginia/
public and private papers/addresses/letters (M. D. Peterson, Ed.). Washington, DC: Li-
brary of Congress.
Schneider, J., Houston, P. (1993). Exploding the myths: Another round in the education debate.
Washington, DC: American Association of Educational Service Agencies.


Environmental Responsibility: A Social Justice Mandate for Counseling
Jeffrey H. D. Cornelius-White
Missouri State University
Abstract
The author discusses how an invisible veil obscures environmental concerns
and their inherent relationships to the profession of counseling, articulating three
themes for counseling as a profession and practice: environmental responsibility
is related to well being, is the overarching issue of the 21st century, and is vital to
social justice.
Lee and Walz (1998), former president of the American Counseling Association and Director
of the ERIC Counseling Clearinghouse, respectively, have convincingly argued that action for social
justice is a mandate for counselors. Likewise, the ACA multicultural competencies and the recently
endorsed ACA resolutions on social justice make it clear that “social justice” is the “deep structure
of multicultural counseling,” a reality that “many people who view themselves as multicultural
advocates have lost sight of or perhaps never really understood” (D’Andrea Daniels, 2006, p. 44).
Unfortunately, social injustice work is still largely ignored in counselor education and academia.
Graduate student Talka (2003) wrote in CSJ Activist, “It is not uncommon for some graduate
programs to leave the element of social justice to a minimum, if not leave it out completely” (p. 5).
This paper will describe how one social justice issue, environmental responsibility, unduly has been
left out of the domain of counseling.
At a most basic level, there is a relationship between environmental responsibility and
subjective and physical well being. Networking the Worldwide Fund for Nature and the new
economics foundation, Shah et al. (2005) offer a review of the relationship of well-being and healthy
natural environments. They describe studies that have found cross-culturally that people prefer
natural landscapes to built ones. Natural environments within urban areas are associated with,
and in at least one case caused, increased social ties, the strongest factor associated with life
satisfaction. Green spaces encourage greater use of the outdoors, gathering of larger groups,
monitoring of urban areas against crime, and supervision of children. Likewise, environmental
responsibility also fosters counseling behaviors and intentions such as empathy, altruism (Mayer
Frantz, 2004; Schultz, Gouveia, Cameron, Tankha, Schmuck, Franek, 2005)
Natural environments have been shown to build resiliency. For example, a study looking at
disturbing circumstances in films that were followed by exposure to natural or built environment
showed a clear recovery effect for those exposed to the natural environment (Van der Berg, Koole
Van der Wulp, 2003). Environmental responsibility also increases resilience to mental fatigue,
aggression and violence when comparing residents of buildings with and without significant green
space. Natural environments increase human longevity, speed recovery from illness, lower blood
pressure, reduce stress and painkiller doses and help hospital staff perceive patients as more
cooperative (Shah et al., 2005). The World Health Organization (2005) has shown that air pollution
with particulate matter reduces lifespan of the average European citizen by 8.6 months. Economic
well being is also associated with high quality natural environments (Shah et al., 2005). The
duration and quality of children’s learning and creative and cooperative play appear to have an
association to exposure to trees and grass (Shah et al., 2005). Zindansek (2006) describes cross-


cultural data from over 100 countries that shows a “strong correlation between the environmental
sustainability index and the subjective well being index” (p. 2). Stated simply, happier countries are
more environmentally responsible.
Not only is it related to well-being, many experts view environmental responsibility as “the
major social issue of the present century” (Mayer Frantz, 2004). Regrettably the social salience of
environmental responsibility is hidden by an invisible veil that also conceals multicultural worldviews
and the salience of social justice as the domain of counseling. Equally important, environmental
irresponsibility disproportionately and devastatingly effects oppressed groups (Chokor, 2004;
Lipsitz, 2005) and hides how connection to nature reflects many global minority viewpoints (Chokor,
2004; Sue Sue, 2003). While more comprehensive sources of information on environmental
problems and conservation attempts are widely available (i.e. Oskamp, 2000; www.nature.org,
http://www.seafriends.org.nz/issues/threats.htm#humans), the intent of this article is to show how
environmental responsibility is an overlooked but vital to the themes and practice social justice
counseling. It is also a call to the profession to take notice and a stand to no longer neglect
and thereby unknowingly support the negative social and ecological effects of environmental
destruction.
Invisible Veil
Sue and Sue (2003) have discussed how an invisible veil hides unintentional racism, sexism,
and homophobia. They assert that these structural and personal variables “may ultimately be
the most insidious and dangerous” oppression and represent “perhaps the greatest obstacle to
a meaningful movement toward a multicultural society” (Sue Sue, 2003, p. 72) as the invisible
veil is propagated by pervasive social conditioning. The multicultural competencies fortunately now
challenge counselors to confront the invisible veil in order to raise awareness, understand diverse
worldviews, and offer culturally relevant prevention and intervention. I suggest that an invisible
veil functions to keep environmental issues and their additive effects to other diversity issues out
of awareness with similar implications for the practice of counseling. Equally as important, the
invisible veil undermines counselors’ attempts to be educators for their communities.
Counselors for Social Justice defines its mission as seeking “equity and an end to oppression
and injustice” through “challenging oppressive systems of power and privilege,” “implementing
social action strategies,” “disseminating social justice scholarship,” “maintaining an active support
network,” “providing lively professional development,” and “maintaining social justice advocacy
resources online” (http://www.counselorsforsocialjustice.org/mission.html). Among other excellent
sources, Kiselica and Robinson (2001) give a review of the development and issues involved in
social justice counseling. While social justice needs more integration into the training of counselors
to prevent supporting the oppressive status quo, it also needs to appreciate the fundamental role of
conservation in the development of justice. While social justice concerns have traditionally involved
the oppression of people based on race, gender, sexual orientation, religion, ability, age, and the
interaction of these and similar cultural attributes, the environmental irresponsibility of mainstream
culture as a central oppression has been left largely unexamined. Environmental responsibility is
vital to improving the lives of all people and oppressed groups in particular.
Howard (1993b, 2000), Winter (2000) and others have discussed how promoting certain
information while withholding other information obscures the reality of environmental situations.
News coverage is a classic example, where sensationalistic stories may distract viewers from
ongoing destructive patterns. For example, the devastating effects of Katrina were covered in


depth while ongoing contributors to poverty, racism, and climate change are rarely addressed
directly. Such obscured information leads to inadequate action. For instance, while many people
have nobly responded to help hurricane survivors, they are slower to make social justice and
environmental sustainability concerns a primary focus in their professional work, charitable giving
and personal lives. Similarly, Winter (2000) has shown how visual dependency, institutional
collusion, and neurological tendencies towards habituation promote obfuscation of information.
For example, since ozone deterioration and radioactive waste are out of sight, they stay out of
persons’ consciousness. Regarding institutional collusion, she offers the example of the U.S. Forest
Service explicitly creating areas along travel routes to create an attractive landscape and keep ugly
deforestation out of view. Habituation is seen when smog is not as perceivable to urban dwellers
since it is experienced every day as it is for rural inhabitants visiting the city.
Howard (2000) also discusses specific culturally dominant but ecologically inappropriate
beliefs which he terms “killer thoughts for a world with limits” (p. 515). These are the beliefs
that perpetuate the invisible veil covering environmental realities. For example, these include,
“Consumption will produce happiness” (retail therapy, shopping prevents job loss), the “future is to
be deeply discounted… (Buy now—make no payments until next year, a bird in the hand is worth
two in the bush),” “growth is good” (GDP must increase, more is better than less), and “paying
less (for something) is better than paying more” (keep prices low) (Howard, 2000, p. 515). These
assumptions structure reality to prevent environmental realities from being observed. Counselors
have an opportunity if not a duty to challenge themselves and their students to maintain awareness
and take action on environmental concerns. It is vital that counselors “conceptualize individuals in
context” in research, education and practice (ACA, 2004, p.1).
Likewise, the media consistently pulls attention away from the ecological reality, and
advertising drives the media. For example, nearly 100% of revenue from TV comes from advertising.
Advertising tends to focus American thought on the individual and one’s fantasies about how
products and services can make them happy. It downplays that society even exists and rarely
if ever deals with environmental concerns. (See “Advertising and the End of the World” (Jhally,
1997) for an excellent, accessible synopsis of these issues.) Underlying many of Howard’s “killer
thoughts” and the advertising industry is a dominant idea that unfortunately is also existent in each
of the first “three forces” of psychotherapy: people strive to maintain and enhance themselves
through hedonism (analytic), reinforcement (behavioral) or growth (humanistic). This individualistic
view may represent the “most basic unexamined assumption about human nature” hidden by
the invisible veil and a centerpiece to values that deny and/or denigrate environmental problems
(Howard, 2000, p. 511). O’Hara and Wood (1983) poignantly describe this as “one of our most
enduring myths—the myth of the individual,” arguing instead that we must be “attuned to collective
need” for the survival of life (p. 103-104).
Likewise, core counseling journals and books largely ignore environmental concerns.
For example, on February 2, 2006 the author conducted a PSYCINFO search of the Journal of
Counseling Development, the Journal of Multicultural Counseling and Development, Journal of
Humanistic Counseling, Education Development, and Counseling and Values using PSYCINFO’s
“suggested terms” related to conservation behavior “(DE “Conservation (Ecological Behavior)”)
or (DE “Environmental Education”) or (DE “Environmental Psychology”)” and found no citations.
A search of the indexes of Corey’s (2005) Theory and Practice of Counseling Psychotherapy
and Sue and Sue’s (2004) Counseling the Culturally Diverse, two of the most popular texts in
the field, found no reference to the natural environment or conservation. Counseling needs to


pay attention to the human developmental and contextual issues associated with environmental
realities. Counseling’s close cousin, counseling psychology, represented by the journals Counseling
Psychologist and The Journal of Counseling Psychology, yielded only a little more concern.
The Journal of Counseling Psychology had no references but Counseling Psychologist did one
special issue in 1993 on ecocounseling (Howard, 1993a), yielding six articles, most of which are
referenced in this paper. In contrast, the flagship journal of the American Psychological Association,
American Psychologist, showed 45 citations. Likewise, The Journal of Environmental Psychology,
the Journal of Environmental Education, and the Handbook of Environmental Psychology (Bechtel
Churchman, 2002) are excellent sources for information on eco-counseling practice with over a
thousand relevant articles/chapters. It may be important to note that a sub-field named conservation
psychology is more closely linked with environmental responsibility. Conservation psychology
has a specific purpose and value base—sustainability; environmental psychology is the study of
relationships between people and their natural and built environments (Clayton Brook, 2005).
The Major Social Issue of the 21st Century: Sustainability
Oskamp (2000) asserts that “the sustainability of human life on Earth in the future is in danger”
and describes how overpopulation and overconsumption contribute to “potentially cataclysmic,”
interconnected environmental problems, such as climate change, ozone depletion, toxic water and
air, toxic chemical exposure, deforestation, species extinction, and exhaustion of non-renewable
resources (p. 496). Climate change has now reached a degree of evidence well beyond the
threshold of statistical significance, and the preponderance of evidence suggests a likely increase
in the rate of warming during this century (Fomby Vogelsang, 2001). Even data backdating to
160,000 years ago show that the climate change of today is extreme and potentially catastrophic
in proportions. Ozone depletion has contributed to the greenhouse effect, skin cancer and damage
to plants and animals, most notably the plankton that represent the foundation of the ocean food
chain. International agreement in 1987 to ban ozone-destroying chemicals may resolve this
environmental problem by 2050 and represents a large-scale environmental intervention success
(Oskamp, 2000).
Still, nearly 80% of the world’s forests have been destroyed. Over 10000 species a year are
becoming extinct, a rate of 1,000-10,000 more than that which is projected to happen naturally
(Quinn, 2006). Though most biodiversity exists in rainforests and coral reefs, the United States
has the largest percentage of its plant species (29%) that are endangered of any country (Walter
Gillet, 1997). Biodiversity has great potential as a source for human food and medicine beyond
its intrinsic value. Nearly 70% of fish species have declined through overfishing and the world
reached its maximum are of grain-growing 25 years ago with decreases happening each year
since. Acid rain accounts for over a $30 billon of damage to the forests of Europe alone each year.
Over a quarter of the world’s population in developing countries do not have access to clean water
(Oskamp, 2000). Likewise, over 25 million people a year in China alone have to migrate due to
water shortages, resulting in psychological and career transitions. Air pollution is responsible for
3 million deaths per year (Fischiowitz-Roberts, 2002). Toxic chemical exposure appears to have
resulted in a 50% decrease in worldwide sperm during the last 50 years, contributing to infertility
counseling needs (Oskamp, 2000).
The important aspect of this sampling of facts is that there is a crisis that requires the attention
of everyone, including counselors. Most environmental concerns are caused by and contribute to
human development, psychopathology, and multicultural issues. Environmental responsibility can


help counselors and counselors-in-training more accurately conceptualize the stresses, losses,
and transitions in their clients’ lives. Counselors can help to prevent suffering through a more
active engagement in environmental education, activism and organizational change, especially in
advocating for environmental social justice.
Environmental Irresponsibility: A Core Issue of Social Justice
Oppression of Biodiversity is Worst Where Oppressed Groups Reside
Oppressed groups suffer the most from the dangerous relationship between mainstream
culture and the natural world. Neighborhoods of minority cultures, especially African-Americans,
function geographically as barrier islands for white neighborhoods as was seen by the urban/
suburban divide with regards to damage to the community of New Orleans. The government has
repeatedly left these areas unprepared either for primary or secondary prevention against natural
and industrial disasters. The bayou southeast of New Orleans, like much of coastal Bangladesh,
had been disappearing at rates visible to the human eye within the timeframe of only minutes. There
are many other examples where habitat fragility is most felt by people of color (e.g. the tsunami of
South Asia from Christmas of 2004, the deleterious effects of global warming on habitat destruction
and fish-borne toxins in the breast milk of Eskimo populations, agricultural production in much
of Africa, etc). Socio-political forces also collide with environmental degradation to exponentially
perpetuate suffering and death. For example, there are currently 18 countries that have active
exterminating genocides which are worsened through environmental problems, especially lack of
clean water (www.genocidewatch.org).
Lipsitz (2005), corroborated in part by Shah, Peck, and Murphy (2005), thoroughly discusses
how environmental abuse disproportionately hurt people of color. For instance, minority groups
appear to bear the brunt of the (mis)handling ofAmerican toxic waste as found in The Environmental
Protection Agency’s investigation of 1,177 toxic waste cases, which reported that polluters received
fines 500% higher in white neighborhoods than those with a majority of people of color. The Agency
for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry recorded in 1988 that nearly twice as many poor black
children (2/3) than poor white children (1/3) had excess lead in their blood. In Los Angeles, twice
as many blacks and Latinos as whites live in areas with the most polluted air. For example, 71%
of blacks in L.A. live in areas with the most polluted air. The living areas of Native Americans, like
African Americans, are among the most targeted areas for the locating of waste storage, especially
nuclear waste. So it is especially poignant to find that Navajo teenagers present with reproductive
cancers, known to be related to toxic exposure, at a rate 17 times higher than the average American
teenager (Lipsitz, 2005).
Not just the most toxic, but also, more common waste also gets “dumped” on minorities. For
example, in Houston, the multicultural “American” town, 100% of the public garbage dumps are
located in black neighborhoods. When looking at the US as a whole, more than 60% of blacks and
Latinos live in communities with insufficiently controlled toxic waste sites. When income, education
and employment are statistically controlled, race continues to be the most significant single factor
associated with the location of waste facilities. Race also predicts exposure to contaminated fish,
with Alaskan Natives being particularly hard hit given their reliance upon fishing as a way of life.
Environmental racism affects not only quality of life, but is responsible for many, many deaths
each year. As many as 75,000 fewer African Americans are estimated to die each year due to
these oppressors (Lipsitz, 2005). Polluted air alone is responsible for as many as 60,000 deaths
in the US each year (http://www.seafriends.org.nz/issues/threats.htm). There is also evidence that

10
negative poverty cycles are harder to resolve without improving the local natural environments
(Chokor, 2004; Shah et al., 2005). In a Canadian study, a community that transformed a dump to a
community garden saw a 30% drop in crime in one summer.
Another social justice impact of environmental responsibility is the externalization of costs,
whereby capitalists profit at the expense of native and minority peoples. Externalization is the
process by which a seller reduces the real cost of producing a good or service through irresponsible
means, causing the local and/or global community to bear the actual cost of production. For example,
the money by which this country was built came from the externalized costs of the land stolen from
Natives and the labor of Africans. Today, clothes that are manufactured by slaves (or near slaves)
in China and sold in the United States at Wal-Mart or other merchants to a majority of Americans
do not account for the immeasurable cost to the quality of life of slaves, the local economy, the
damaging effects of coal used to run machinery, among other examples. To offer actual economic
calculations of the injustice of externalization, “the true cost of a hamburger from cattle raised on
cleared rainforest is $200” (Winter, 2000, p. 518). Likewise,
[The] net present value lost from 1k2 of degraded reef in the Philippines
compared to productive reef over 25 years (at 10 percent discount rate) is $86,300
from sustainable fisheries, $193,000 of forgone coastal protection and $482,000
of lost tourism—compared to $15,000 [net gain] from blast fishing (Shah et al.,
2005, p. 5).
As Chokor (2004) has advocated, “Social justice and fairness to communities was established
to be critical to sustainable development in poor areas; resources must be harnessed such that
they contribute directly to community asset building to improve socio-economic activities and
protect the environment” (p. 305). There is a “general pattern of poverty, resource degradation and
socio-economic survival activities” that are inherently related (Chokor, 2004, p. 310). Therefore,
counseling as a profession and individual counselors can raise awareness of environmental issues
as part of a social justice concern regarding how unsustainable practices disproportionately harm
people of color through research agenda, education, and community measures.
Ecology Reflects Diverse Worldviews
Harrison, Wilson, Chan, Pine, and Buriel (1990) state that “individualism is incompatible with
the ancestral worldviews of ethnic minorities” (p. 353). Many non-white worldviews are inherently
ecological. Jackson Sears (1992) describe an Africentric worldview:
Thereisanassumptionthenthateverythingisinterrelatedandinterdependent.
Therefore, harmony with nature, group orientation and interpersonal relationships
are of prime importance and highly valued. … Individuals cannot exist alone, but
owe their existence to ancestors, those unborn, the entire community, and all of
nature. (p. 186)
Many Native Americans tribes see life as an interconnected web where persons are not
separate from biodiversity. Hazel and Mohatt (2001) write that many native worldviews have
an inherent spirituality that is an “interconnected, central component of culture that addresses
experiences and beliefs related to transcendence, [which] structures relationships with others and

11
the natural world and provides ways of finding meaning and achieving a sense of coherence”
(p. 542). Asian worldviews often emphasize “harmony is the core of existence” (Harrison et al.,
1990, p. 354). Similarly, Schultz, Uniban and Gamba (2000) write, “Latino environmentalism is
characterized by a human-in-nature view: Humans are seen as an integral part of nature, rather than
as its protectors or consumers” (p.22). Feminist perspectives also frequently value the relational,
interconnected, and ecological premises supportive of environmental responsibility (Wolleat, 1993).
Bronfenbrenner’s (1979) human ecological model offers an integrative multicultural worldview and
how everyone is embedded in multiple socio-cultural contexts.
At one level, environmental responsibility is a matter of respecting diverse worldviews. At
another level, it is pivotal to the growth and development of people holding or being influenced by
these worldviews. Most importantly, it is precisely the worldviews of people of color that the dominant
culture needs to survive. Counseling practice can “build upon strengths” of ethnic worldviews by
advocating for them (ACA, 2004, p. 1). All Americans need ecological multicultural worldviews to
survive the current environmental situation.
Ethnically diverse worldviews share a sense of interconnection pivotal to the survival of human
and biodiversity. Individuals are parts of a whole. The land, the animals, the plants, and people
don’t just co-exist but are symbiotic. One is meaningless and cannot sustain without the others.
Ways of life in native populations around the world sustained the ecology and biodiversity of life for
millions of years prior to the environmental threats of the last 100 years. Humans have used more
resources in the last century than in the entire history of people. To me this hints at the spiritual and
tragic reality that is lost in some contemporary counseling priorities (D’Andrea Daniels, 2006).
The soul of people as part of life, not separate from life, is missing when we do not practice with a
full embrace of ancestral worldviews.
Implications for Practice
The author has discussed how environmental responsibility is the largest and one of the most
hidden stories of our age yet is related to well being and a central social justice concern through
the disproportionate impact on minorities and disrespect for ethnic worldviews environmental
problems. Environmental responsibility presents many opportunities for practice. The American
Counseling Association’s (2004) Public awareness ideas and strategies for professional
counselors and Operationalizations of the Multicultural Competencies (Arredondo et al., 1996)
provide a wealth of applicable ideas (For these and additional useful resources, see http://www.
counseling.org/Resources/). Additionally, environmental responsibility requires intentional and
committed effort to see past the invisible veil. Hence, the most important practice implication of
environmental responsibility is building and maintaining integrative awareness. Another implication
is to infuse ecological and minority worldviews into everything that counselors do and become.
Counselors’ behaviors should convey respect for and understanding of the environmentally
oppressive experiences endured by minorities (Sue Sue, 2003) and build upon the ecological
strengths of ancestral worldviews. Third, counselors need to network across disciplines, advocate
politically, and engage in preventive efforts and other direct and indirect community level services
(Lewis, Lewis, Daniels, and D’Andrea, 2003). Even as it takes intentional commitment and active
attempts to maintain awareness and respect for, ecological realities, practicing from a community
counseling model is a transition requiring cooperative effort, training, and consultation. Fourth, when
conceptualizing and designing interventions in both individual and systemic situations, counselors
can incorporate the existential reality of the environmental situation and how environmental

12
sustainability fosters subjective and collective well being. For example, counselors can suggest
and facilitate field trips to nature preserves and development-fostering participation in conservation
organizations. Given the economic, educational, cross-cultural, interpersonal, and personal benefits
of environmental sustainability, counselors in industrial, school, and other organizational settings
are particularly well positioned to act responsibly towards the human-environment ecology and
show how environmental problems impact the quality and endurance of life and culture in their
areas. Finally, research and theory need to incorporate the salience of interconnection, diversity
issues, and current, unsustainable environmental practices into their designs and discussions.
As social justice movements have asserted, research and theory that exists in a vacuum of “the
individual” is outdated and at potentially unethical.
Conclusion
This paper has endeavored to present counselors with a rationale for prioritization of
environmental responsibility within the profession of counseling. The author discussed how
an invisible veil obscures the salience of sustainability, and also explained how environmental
sustainability is central to social justice through an understanding of the disproportionate impact
on and disrespect of worldviews’ of ethnic minorities and their environments that is witnessed in
environmental irresponsibility. Finally, the interdependence seen in ethnic minority worldviews and
research on well being and ecology offer a compelling basis for a theoretical integration with the
domain of social justice counseling. This article only offers a few poignant examples that hopefully
will encourage practicing, training, and researching counselors to put social justice conservation
very high among their priorities. It is counselors’ duty to “serve as educators for their communities”
(ACA, 2004, p. 1) about a variety of wellness and developmental concerns, including sustainability.
More discussion, research and advocacy must occur if the counseling profession is to prove as
systemically responsible as we aspire to be.

13
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17
Preparing Educators for Today’s Multicultural Schools:
Moving from Philosophy to Practice in a
School Psychology Training Program
Eleanor T. Robertson
Trinity University
Abstract
Universities and programs that prepare professional educators often
include philosophical statements that support a commitment to multiculturalism
and/or diversity as an idea to be supported in the education of their students.
Groups that accredit programs also utilize standards that address multiculturalism.
Incorporating these ideas in goals, objectives, and rubrics can be challenging.
This article describes a graduate program for school psychologists that utilizes
specific, observable goals and objectives within and across courses. The results
from these evaluations are collected, reviewed, and utilized as a guide for program
improvement.
In today’s educational environment, the terms “multiculturalism” and “diversity” refer to
the inclusion of a wide range of groups that have developed their own standards, outlooks, and
traditions. In support of this idea, Ortiz and Flanagan (2004) state that “…the most common definition
of culture revolves around the values, beliefs, and attitudes that are relatively unique to a given
group of individuals and expressed in communal ways” (p.339). In addition to ethnicity or race,
cultural identity could also be influenced by an individual’s sexual preference, age, gender, and/or
disability. Statistics that address only the more traditional indicators of cultural identity, ethnicity and
race, highlight the fact that the United States is becoming more multicultural in these areas each
year (U.S. Census Bureau, 2001). According to the 2000 U.S. Census, White/Caucasians make up
70.7% of the population, Hispanic/Latinos 12.5%, Black/African Americans 12.3%, Asian-American/
Pacific Islanders 3.6%, and American Indian/Alaskan Natives .9% (U.S. Census Bureau, 2001).
The border states of California, New Mexico, Arizona, and Texas may be even more influenced by
non-Anglo cultures since Hispanic populations are between 25% (Arizona) to 44% (New Mexico).
Many counties directly on the Texas-Mexico border have those who identify themselves as Hispanic
in the 90% range (U.S. Census Bureau, 2001).
Schoolsareimportanttransmittersofasociety’sattitudestowarddiversityanditsinherentvalue.
Education professionals hold positions of influence in this area. School psychologists as part of the
educational team especially concerned with mental health issues can be significant in the positive
adjustment of students from a variety of backgrounds. Programs that educate school psychologists
have an important task, especially since the ethnicity of these educational professionals does not
correspond to the national demographics. According to a 2004-2005 membership survey of the
National Association of School Psychologists (NASP) that had a 69% response rate, 92.55% of
the members were White/Caucasian, 2.9% Hispanic/Latino, 1.94% Black/African American, .94%
Asian-American/Pacific Islander, and .82% American Indian/Alaskan Native (Curtis et al, 2006).
Organizations that write policy for school psychologists have addressed this issue in both
position statements and publications. In the NASP Position Statement on Racism, Prejudice and
Discrimination, Role of the School Psychologist (2004), the school psychologist is viewed as

18
critical in “making schools culturally sensitive environments.” Programs that educate those entering
the field of school psychology are charged with making their students aware of diversity issues.
Indeed, the two major accrediting groups for school psychology programs, the National Council for
Accreditation of Teacher Education (NCATE) and NASP have specific standards that address these
areas. In the NASP Standards for School Psychology Training Programs (2000), the following over-
all program standard must be demonstrated for approval by this organization:
“1.2 A commitment to understanding and responding to human diversity is articulated in the
program’s philosophy/mission, goals, and objectives and practiced throughout all aspects of the
program, including admissions, faculty, coursework, practica, and internship experiences. Human
diversity is recognized as a strength that is valued and respected.” (p.13)
These ideas are eloquently articulated by documents authored by professional organizations
and university programs may agree in theory to the ideals represented; however, the dilemma
presented in making them behaviorally specific can be challenging. The process presented in this
article is an approach that provides a structure for addressing these areas in educating school
psychologists. Since this is described as a process, implementation could be applied to university
programs for other educators as well.
The Program
Located in the Education Department, the Trinity University School Psychology Program
faculty consists of a full-time director, an Education Department faculty member who teaches a
course on educational administration, and eleven part-time adjunct faculty members. The program
accepts fifteen students each year for a 60-hour, three year course of study that includes a one-
year, full-time internship. The program is accredited by NASP and the Education Department itself
is accredited by NCATE. In addition to the School Psychology Program, the Department includes
a five-year Master’s in Teaching Program and an Educational Administration Master’s degree
program.
The Department has articulated a commitment to promoting an environment for students that
focuses on teaching diverse learners. The over-all philosophy is described using six imperatives, or
“common denominators” that are described in detail and represent central values across programs.
Two that address the importance of a multicultural perspective are titled “The Multicultural Imperative”
and the “The Diversity Imperative” (Department of Education, 2004). As stated in its admission
policy (Trinity University Courses of Study, 2006-2007, 2006 Admission Policy, 2006), the university
itself is committed to attracting and supporting a diverse student body and has acted to further this
goal by establishing the Trinity Multicultural Network office.
The School Psychology Program also seeks to attract a diverse group of students and has
typically achieved this. Of the current students, the cultural/ethnic identities represented include
White/Anglo, Hispanic, Asian, African American, Indian, and Eastern European. Three of these
students entered first grade speaking a language other than English and one entered middle
school speaking another language. Ages vary from 23 to 45. One student has been diagnosed
with Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder and another with a Learning Disability. Socio-economic
levels are varied and span a wide range.

19
Courses
The School Psychology Program curriculum is composed of courses that cover educational
and psychological assessment, child development, psychological disorders, behavior management,
statistical measures, research design, individual and group counseling, family interventions,
professional and legal issues, educational administration, and consultation. Supervised practicum
and internship experiences are an integral part of this sequence.
Historically, the various courses within the program developed in a fairly independent manner.
Since the faculty has always been largely part-time, coordination was a challenge. Each instructor
was dedicated to his respective area and rarely interacted with other faculty members. The majority
of student evaluations were positive so the actual teaching of material has been a strength of the
over-all course of study. An important need for the program was unification by over-all standards
of content; an equally important specific area of need was making the university, department, and
program value of diversity a behaviorally defined objective to be implemented and assessed.
Goals/Objectives/Rubrics
The idea of having over-all course goals and objectives is not a new one for educators and the
school psychology program faculty was comfortable with this concept. Indeed, all syllabi contained
at least general goals, usually articulated on the first page. Rubrics provide a way to make course
objectives specific so that student attainment can actually be measured and assessed in a direct and
accurate manner. The case for rubrics has been made by many writers and researchers (Stevens
Levi, 2005) and especially as a way to “level the playing field” for minority first-generation students
entering college (Stevens Levis, 2005). As summarized by Stevens and Levi (2005), other equally
important reasons for using rubrics are: timely and detailed feedback for students, the promotion
of critical thinking, the facilitation of communication, and the refinement of teaching methods for
faculty. The reader is referred to the Stevens and Levi book Introduction to Rubrics (2005) for a
thorough discussion of the construction of rubrics.
In the Trinity School Psychology Program several faculty members had begun to utilize rubrics
for a few major assignments, but the practice was not consistent or related to an over-all plan.
Domains of Knowledge/Professional Work Characteristics
NASP provides university graduate programs with eleven Domains of Knowledge and six
Professional Work Characteristics that must be “addressed, assessed, and attained” (NASP, 2000)
by students within programs accredited by this organization. It is the responsibility of the university
program to demonstrate how this is accomplished and to document attainment by students.
Supporting documentation is required across all courses for both Domains and Characteristics. The
Domain and the Characteristic that address diversity issues are especially challenging; however,
as noted in the previous discussion, they are of great importance.
The first Professional Work Characteristic articulated by the NASP Standards for School
Psychology Training Programs (2000) is: “1.1 Respect for human diversity” (p.45). This disposition is
not described in any further detail. The Domain of Knowledge, “2.5 Student Diversity in Development
and Learning” does have a description as follows:
“School psychologists have knowledge of individual differences, abilities, and disabilities and
of the potential influence of biological, social, cultural, ethnic, experiential, socioeconomic, gender-
related, and linguistic factors in development and learning. School psychologists demonstrate the

20
sensitivity and skills needed to work with individuals of diverse characteristics and to implement
strategies selected and/or adapted based on individual characteristics, strengths and needs.” (p.
16)
These two standards provided by the accrediting professional organization for school
psychologists were composed by leaders in the field; therefore, after much deliberation, they were
also adopted as basic standards for the Trinity School Psychology Program. The next tasks were
first to make these operational and second to assure their use throughout the program.
The initial step in operationalizing the standards was to hold a meeting of the ProgramAdvisory
Committee and brainstorm “how this would look” if students were to demonstrate the Professional
Work Characteristics and Domains of Knowledge articulated in the NASP document. The Program
Advisory Committee is a group comprised of a practicing Licensed Specialist in School Psychology
(LSSP), a Special Education Director, a Special Education Supervisor, a school psychology
graduate student, the Education Department Chair, the Department Certification Officer, a school
psychology faculty member, and the School Psychology Program Director. This committee meets
annually to review program and student data and make recommendations for the program. The
same “how would this look” exercise for describing the Professional Work Characteristics and
Domains of Knowledge behaviorally was also conducted at a School Psychology Program faculty
meeting and at a departmental faculty meeting. The Program Director then wrote descriptors so
that these standards could become objectives and evaluated through specific tasks.
The first Professional Work Characteristic Standard objective was stated as follows: “Students
will demonstrate a respect for human diversity. In all professional interactions, they will attempt
to make families feel comfortable, using “people first” language. They will show knowledge of
the traditions and customs of their assigned school community” (School Psychology Program
Handbook, 2006, p. 39).
The Domain of Knowledge standard that addresses diversity was operationalized as
follows:
“Students will demonstrate knowledge and sensitivity to the many factors influencing student
learning throughout their training. These influences may include but not be limited to biological,
social, cultural, ethnic, experiential, socioeconomic, gender-related, and linguistic factors. Evidence
of this awareness should be apparent in assessments, interventions, and in all interactions with
students and staff members.”(School Psychology Program Handbook, 2006, p. 47)
Standards and Courses
Faculty members were first assigned the task of selecting at least one Domain of Knowledge
to address in each of their courses. These were then charted across courses. All faculty members
selected at least two and several instructors chose more. The second requirement was that all
courses should address all six of the Professional Work Characteristics through at least one
assignment.
Instructors determined which standards they would address and submitted their selection
with a related assignment. The objectives were then tied to specific courses. The Knowledge
Domain dealing with diversity issues was divided into two parts and these parts were linked to
the assignments from specific courses. The first part, “Students will demonstrate knowledge

21
and sensitivity to the many factors influencing student learning throughout their training” (School
Psychology Program Handbook, 2006, p. 47) was addressed in four courses. The two courses,
School Psychology Practice and Educational Administration and Organization taken during the first
semester of the student’s second year both address the Domain through specific assignments.
In School Psychology Practice, the instructor requires a review paper on the topic “Socio-cultural
diversity as it pertains to either: a) view of counseling/therapy, 2) view of education, or 3) view
of disabilities” (Dewlen, 2006). The course, Educational Administration and Organization has an
assignment that requires a school climate study, report, and improvement plan for a school. In
addition, a research paper and presentation is required that analyzes current issues and their
impact on the public educational system. The general topics and/or populations considered include
“English Language Learners,” “Overrepresentation of Minorities in Special Education,” and “Sexual
Orientation and Gender Identity” (Kelleher, 2006).
The second part of the objective for this Domain of Knowledge is, “These influences may
include but not be limited to biological, social, cultural, ethnic, experiential, socioeconomic, gender-
related, and linguistic factors. Evidence of this awareness should be apparent in assessments,
interventions, and in all interactions with students and staff members” (p.47, School Psychology
Program Handbook, 2004). The Practicum taken during the spring semester of the students’ second
year and the two semester, third year School Psychology Internship also address this Knowledge
Domain objective. Attainment is measured through several activities. The student Supervisor
Evaluation for these courses has three specific items inquiring about mastery of the objective. The
PRAXIS exam taken during the internship also addresses this objective. The assembly and review
of a student portfolio is another method for demonstrating attainment of the skills described in the
objective.
An example of the assessment of the Professional Work Characteristic objective is on
the Supervisor Evaluation conducted during both Practicum and Internship. Other projects
demonstrating attainment of Work Characteristics throughout all courses will be submitted during
the next academic year.

Rubrics Addressing Diversity
As the process of translating philosophy into practice is gradually formalized, more will be
required of the faculty. Identifying the standards addressed within their respective courses was the
first step; meeting specific objectives through assignments was the second. The final step to be
accomplished during the next academic year will be creating rubrics for each of the assignments.
Several instructors have already done this and a few have accomplished this task for all assignments
in their courses.
An example of rubrics that address attainment is included in the Supervisor Evaluation.
This evaluation is divided into segments that address each Professional Work Characteristic and
Domain of Knowledge. Since there are a total of 75 specific items to be scored on the entire
document, only six could be utilized to assess these two segments. The items for the Professional
Work Characteristic, 1.1 Respect for Human Diversity, are:
A. Uses “people first” language (e.g. “ a student with autism”, not “an autistic student”)
B. In all interactions, attempts to make families and students feel comfortable
C. Knows about the traditions and customs of the students at his/her school”
(Robertson, 2006, p. 1).

22
The items for the Domain of Knowledge, 2.5 are:
A. Is knowledgeable about the many factors that influence student learning and functioning
B. Conducts accurate and helpful assessments of students from diverse groups
C. Offers helpful recommendations for interventions for students from diverse groups” (2006,
Robertson, p. 5).
The ratings are from 1 to 5, with 1 being “Clearly below expected competency level-problem
area” and 5, “Exceptionally competent for level of training.”
Another source of evaluation during the internship year is the portfolio assembled by the
student from work collected both during internship and prior to this third year. Three pieces of work
that must be included are a student assessment, a consultation, and a counseling case. Each of
these is evaluated by at least two faculty or intern supervisors using criteria provided. The specific
Domain of Knowledge 2.5 is assessed through several items on the evaluation instrument that
apply to each piece of work.
The assessment is evaluated on this Domain through the following:
1. Appropriateness of recommendations
2. Appropriateness of placement
3. Appropriateness of the assessment instruments used for this student,
considering the referral question(s) addressed
4. Consideration of the student’s developmental level
5. Consideration of the student’s emotional/behavioral needs
6. Multi-factored approach to assessment utilized in all phases (e.g. consideration of student’s
physical, cultural, socio-economic background in eligibility recommendations, etc.)
7. Diagnosis and/or eligibility appropriate and supported by the data
8. Recommendations/interventions suggested appropriate and realistic for the student
9. Student’s family and background adequately considered in recommendations (School Psychology
Program Handbook, 2006)
The consultation case is evaluated on 2.5 through the following items:
1. Appropriateness of model
2. Consideration of student’s developmental level (if student consultation)
3. Consideration of student’s strengths and weaknesses (if student consultation)
4. Sensitivity to the many factors (e.g. physical, cultural, emotional) influencing student, teacher,
parent, and administrator
5. Knowledge of the biosocial bases of behavior (especially in crisis intervention)
6. Appropriateness of goals (School Psychology Program Handbook, 2006)
The counseling case is assessed in regard to the Domain through the following:
1. Appropriateness of goals and objectives
2. Activities planned appropriate to goals
3. Consideration of the many bio-social bases of student behavior and emotion in determining the
goals and processes of counseling (School Psychology Program Handbook, 2006)

23
The ratings on each of the items range from 1-5, with 1 being “Clearly below expected
competency level- problem area” to 5, “Exceptionally competent for level of training.”
The portfolio is assembled to demonstrate mastery of both the Domains of Knowledge and
the Professional Work Characteristics. A reflection must accompany each of the artifacts explaining
how the work demonstrates attainment of the objectives articulated under each of the eleven
standards. (See Portfolio Criteria for Evaluation of Standard 2.5, Appendix B)
School District Assessments
A final step in the evaluation of the school psychology student alumni is an employer rating
scale. Every three years, a feedback form is sent to all school districts that have employed graduates.
Several items specifically address their ability to work with diverse groups of students and families.
The supervisors are also asked to rate the individual using a 1-5 scale specifically on “Sensitivity
to student/family diversity.”
Accountability
As the results of the various evaluations have been provided to students and to their
professors, the data have continually guided learning and teaching. The final step in this process is
to aggregate ratings of all the assessments in order to make programmatic improvements. The task
has been made easier this past year through the adoption of a network based system for storing
and evaluating student work. Results from the supervisor evaluations, the work reviews, portfolio
reviews, and employer evaluations are collected in a central departmental location and a variety
of specific reports will be generated. Feedback on items that address the diversity standards will
be examined and brought back to both the faculty as a group and to the Advisory Committee. The
information gathered will also be submitted as a part of the program’s application for accreditation
by NASP and as part of the departmental NCATE review. It is anticipated that these results will
continually inform changes.
Summary
The concept of encouraging and supporting diversity and multiculturalism is a somewhat
abstract ideal and therefore may be viewed as unable to be assessed and measured in a systematic
manner, especially when the task must be accomplished by an institution. The system described in
this article is a beginning framework for this challenging endeavor. By operationalizing what the ideal
school psychologist’s behavior would “look like” and then creating learning tasks to promote these
behaviors, evaluating results, and examining aggregated data to inform course and programmatic
changes, the university aspires to prepare professionals for the educational world who are able to
excel in working with today’s diverse population.

24
References
Curtis, M.J., Lopez, A.D., Batsche, G.M., Smith, J.C. (2006). School Psychology 2005: A national
perspective. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the National Association of School
Psychologists, Anaheim, CA.
Department of Education, Trinity University. (2004). Conceptual Framework. San Antonio, TX:
Trinity University.
Dewlen, B. (2006). School Psychology Practice in Multicultural Settings. Course Syllabus.
Kelleher, P. (2006). Educational Administration and Organization. Course Syllabus.
National Association of School Psychologists (2000). Standards for School Psychology
Training Programs. Bethesda, MD: NASP Publications.
National Association of School Psychologists (2004). Position Statement on Racism, Prejudice,
and Discrimination, Role of the School Psychologist. Retrieved February 12, 2007, from
http://www.nasponline.org/about_nasp/pospaper_rpd.aspx
Ortiz, S. O., Flanagan, D.P. (2002). Best Practices in Working with Culturally Diverse Children
and Families. In A. Thomas, J.Grimes (Eds), Best Practices in School Psychology IV
(pp.337-351). Bethesda, MD: National Association of School Psychologists.
Robertson, E. (2006). Student Evaluation. San Antonio, TX: Trinity University
School Psychology Program Handbook. 2006. San Antonio, TX: Trinity University
Stevens, D. Levi, A. (2004). Introduction to Rubrics: An Assessment Tool to Save Time, Convey
Effective Feedback and Promote Student Learning. Sterling, VA: Stylus, 17-28.
Trinity University Courses of Study 2006-2007, Admission Policy, p.19. (2006). San Antonio, TX:
Trinity University
U.S. Census Bureau. (2001). U.S. Census 2000, Summary Files 1 and 2. Retrieved May 22, 2004,
from http://www.census.gov/main/www/cen2000.html

25

26
Portfolio Criteria for Evaluation of Standard 2.5 (1-3 points)
Standard 2.5
3
• An assessment, a consultation, and a counseling case each demonstrate sensitivity to at least
one of the following factors: biological, social, cultural, ethnic, linguistic, gender-related, experi-
ential, socioeconomic.
• Written expression is excellent.
• All artifacts are appropriate and meaningful.
• All reflections create clear, explicit connections between standards and artifacts that demon-
strate learning.
2
• From an assessment, a consultation, and a counseling case, two demonstrate sensitivity to at
least one of the following factors: biological, social, cultural, ethnic, linguistic, gender-related,
experiential, socioeconomic.
• Written expression is acceptable.
• Most artifacts are appropriate and meaningful.
• Most reflections create clear, explicit connections between standards and artifacts that demon-
strate learning.
1
• From an assessment, a consultation, and a counseling case, one demonstrates sensitivity to at
least one of the following factors: biological, social
• Written expression is somewhat below expectations for LSSP work.
• At least one artifact is appropriate and meaningful.
• At least one reflection describes direct, active participation in a learning experience.

27
The Trump Status: An Analysis of First-Semester Freshmen
Attitudes Towards Difference
Pati K. Hendrickson
Tarleton State University
Lori J. Anderson
Tarleton State University
Abstract
This research examined first-semester Tarleton State University freshmen
student attitudes towards differences relating to gender, age, race, and socio-
economic statuses. An open-ended survey of 253 incoming freshmen students
was evaluated for their attitudes among the four indicated dimensions on various
status positions, particularly to determine the trumping statuses and their attitudes
toward diversity. Results indicated where the focus of diversity education should
be, as well as providing a baseline for follow-up assessment in these students’
senior year that may help determine effects of embedded diversity education
throughout university curricula.
Introduction
The purpose of this research was to examine first time, beginning freshmen students’ attitudes
towards status differences by demographic characteristics in the fall semester of 2006 at a Texas
regional state university. At this university, now nationally known as having multi-cultural issues,
incoming freshmen come from a variety of backgrounds; yet, as a student body they are mostly
a homogeneous group of young, white, middle-class students. This exploratory and descriptive
research describes demographic differences among the population of these students derived from
sample data, while simultaneously assessing their attitudes towards differences in status positions-
-i.e., a variety of other people. These data provide a baseline for further research, when these same
students are seniors; however, the baseline findings contribute to current educational understanding
of this generation of students and their prejudicial attitudes as they exit high school and enter
college. The results have implications for diversity education at both levels of education.
Variables of Study
The two areas of interest in this research include the independent variables of student
demographic characteristics and the dependent variables of student attitudes. The demographics
include four different variables: gender, age, race, and social class, which were operationalzed in a
survey instrument constructed by the two leading researchers. The dependent variables evaluated
students’ attitudes toward different groups of status positions, which were categorized in five basic
dimensions. The gender dimension incorporated the attributes of boys, girls, men, and women.
Attributes on the age dimension included attitudes towards babies, young children, adolescents,
teenagers, young adults, middle-aged adults, older adults, and very old adults. Ethnicity was
measured by four prominent groupings that were found among this population--i.e., African-
Americans, Hispanics, Caucasians, and Middle-Easterners. The fourth dimension, social class, was
operationalzed as lower-class (actually presented to the students as poor people), middle-class,

28
and upper-class (presented as rich people). The last and fifth dimension of statuses comprised
intelligence, including the statuses of smart and stupid people.
Population of Study
This university is a regional, comprehensive university located in a small sized town of about
17,000 persons and this site constituted the population studied, because it is the only delivery site
for freshman courses. This university serves students, not only from Texas, but from 35 states and
20 different countries, and the administration has made diversity understanding a foremost goal
in recent years. First semester freshmen number 1,716--constituting 26% of the campus student
body.
The sample for this research was drawn from a variety of freshman level classes across
the campus. Classes selected were selected based on the likelihood of higher numbers of
enrolled first semester freshmen. These courses included discipline specific orientation classes
expressly intended for first time freshmen, as well as core requirements and electives, such as
English Composition, Fundamentals of Speech, Introduction to Sociology, Cultural Anthropology,
Introduction to Criminal Justice, and Foundations of Engineering. The researchers believe these
courses represent a cross-section of class offerings, thus providing a comprehensive sample,
representative of the population.
Significance of Research
The results of this research are significant in a variety of ways. First, diversity education is an
important goal at this university and others, as well. Moreover, across the country, high schools and
universities are striving to produce good citizens who appreciate all peoples; therefore, courses
are designed with “embedded” materials to enhance appreciation for diversity. This research will
produce a “baseline” of student attitudes about difference upon entrance to the university, thus
indicating where further emphasis on diversity education is necessary. Additionally, this study will
be replicated with a panel cohort in these same students’ senior year to determine what, if any,
changes in attitudes have occurred over the students’ education.
Review of Related Literature
Student Attitudes.
Respect for diversity has long been considered in curricula and teaching in higher education.
Vassar College President, Henry Noble MacCracken (1945:76), suggested that, “We cannot
attain the full values of the democratic way of life without intelligent and sensitive cooperation
among the diverse groups which compose the American population.” This type of ideology led to
the establishment of cultural education in universities. Moreover, we see an increased affirmation
of commitment to diversity education in university mission statements, academic programs, and
admissions policies (Umbach and Milam, 2002). Results concerning the implementation of diversity
education have indicated that when students are encouraged to discover their commonalities, they
can more easily bridge their differences (Smyth, 2005). Whatever view students hold of culturally
diverse populations, they find themselves in increased contact with people who are culturally
different (Ford and Moore, 2004). Thus, our university students should learn not only academics,
but social awareness, as well as appreciation for diversity.

29
Gender
Whether defined as male or female, the smallest unit of societal membership is the individual.
In all general categories, individual members of groups identify primarily with themselves or similar
others (Ford and Moore, 2004). College students are no different; however, as they progress
through their education, they become more egalitarian in their attitudes towards opposite genders
in respect to both occupational roles and distribution of responsibilities within marriage and family
relations. Research shows this transpires through involvement with peers, professors, and activities.
While this may be true, attitudinal studies on college students and gender reveal that students may
express socially desirable attitudes, but exhibit quite different behavior (McHale, 1994).
Views about women and men, including stereotypes about them, differ substantially. Women
are often perceived as emotional and warm; men are more commonly viewed as persistent and
assertive (Kite Wagner, 2002). Moreover, females are viewed more positively than males by both
genders, regardless of age (Laditka, Fischer, Laditka, and Segal, 2004). In opposition to these
findings, Steinberg (1999) suggested that, in Western cultures, stereotypically masculine traits are
more highly valued than feminine traits. In between these two extremes are other data that suggest
college students prefer same-sex over other-sex role models, and that women are more likely than
men to choose other-sex role models (Wohlford, Lochman, and Barry, 2004).
Age
Babies are “cute.” College students believe having a baby is fun and that babies are adorable
(Zangana, 2005). Both males and females have enthusiasm for entering parenthood. Yet, females
are more positive in their responses towards having a family. Most females want children within two
to three years after finishing their college education, preferably starting with the first child no later
than their late twenties (Chang, Kennedy, and Brown).
Butler (1969) states that Social Identity Theory is a useful conceptual framework from which
to consider age attitudes and stereotypes held towards people in different age strata. Social Identity
Theory further suggests that people are motivated to elevate their own group over others (Kite
Wagner, 2002). That is, we like those others who are similar in age to us, irrespective of our current
age. Kite and Johnson’s (1988) meta-analysis of 43 research projects examined attitudes toward
differing age groups and surmised that attitudes toward older people were more negative than
those toward younger adults in about 75 percent of the studies.
Other studies shed additional light on age issues. For example, young persons (ages 18–34)
have the highest levels of anxiety about their own aging (Speas Obenshain, 1995). Moreover,
student subjects report feelings of fear and anxiety towards older persons (Kanter, Agliata, and
Tantleff, 2001), and they have pessimistic perceptions of the typical bodily changes associated with
the aging process. While several researchers have examined college student’s attitudes toward
the elderly, few studies have focused on gender differences. Results show that both genders have
negative attitudes about characteristics associated with the biological maturation process, and
females report that physiological age related changes are more important to their attitudes about
aging. Additionally, Hawkins’ (1996) research of traditional college age students found that men
rated females in all age categories more negatively than did women. With both genders perceiving
aging as negative, and especially so as applied to women, Kite, Deaux, and Miele (1991) compared
the effect of age and gender, and concluded that age stereotypes are even more pronounced than
gender stereotypes.

30
Inspiteofnegativestereotypesandageism,present-daycollegestudentshavebeensocialized
in an era of political correctness with age discriminatory practices considered unacceptable, more
favorable media portrayals of older adults, and the proliferation of aging courses in universities.
Still, there is a clear reluctance to discard the youth-oriented emphasis in wider society (Kalavar,
2001), as the most frequently named positive traits among all the age groups are active, content,
friendly, happy, healthy, and wise; and the most frequently named negative traits among all age
groups are crabby and dead (Laditka, Fischer, Laditka, and Segal, 2004).
Race
Rokeach’s (1960) Belief Congruence Theory hypothesizes that the more similar a culture is to
American dominant culture, the more favorable American students will be towards persons of that
culture. In an era of racial equality and rapidly changing student demographics, research indicates
that more frequent interactions with different peoples results in increased positive attitudes towards
diversity (Umbach and Milam, 2002). Given these outcomes, it would appear that students are
becoming more pluralistic in their attitudes and behaviors towards ethnic diversity.
Despite this touted pluralism, few whites report substantial interaction with people of color prior
to attending college, whereas, black students report much higher rates of cross-racial interaction.
However, three-fourths of students indicate plans to get to know students from diverse backgrounds.
Moreover, women are more likely to have favorable racial attitudes (Tuch and Hughes, 2003) and
are more likely to engage in multicultural activities (Umbach and Milam, 2002). Still, involvement
with different others varies by race, with only one-third of whites planning to engage in culturally
diverse activities, as opposed to almost all black students. Thus, students of color are more likely
to engage in activities to bridge social difference (Umbach and Milam, 2002).
Other research belies this positive depiction of blossoming ethnic harmony.American students
do not actively discriminate, but are in fact, prejudiced. They realize they ought not to appear
racist; however, they still hold racist attitudes. Thus, discrimination is a poor indicator of actual
prejudice. Although it is disheartening to think American students still hold prejudicial attitudes, it
is encouraging that students seem unwilling to translate their attitudes into behavior (Mehta, Ruby,
and Letts, 1996).
Socio-economic status (Social Class)
Little research has been done on the relationship of socio-economic status as it relates to
gender, age, and race among university students. Still, it is widely known that many minority students
in higher education are recruited on scholarship or other forms of subsidy for their education.
As with race, the percentage of enrolled low-socioeconomic students is a significant factor for
performance in school (Capps, 2004). Students who do not “fit in” do not engage in academic or
social endeavors as do those students who constitute the majority.
Attitudinally, students from low-socio-economic areas have high resistance to notions of
welfare and other poverty related variables. Females are more sympathetic than males, but most
students believe people should work. By and large, college students see the poor as not lazy, but
in circumstances beyond their control (Egan, 2000).
Summary
This section has presented academic information related to the variables, dimensions, and
attributes of this study. We know that previous research reveals that in an era of increasing student

31
diversity in educational settings, effective multicultural education is crucial (Ford and Moore, 2004).
Moreover, simply recognizing or tolerating diversity is not enough. Understanding and respecting
different cultural values and ethnicities is essential. Respect and appreciation must also happen
through diversity education designed to bring about a transformation so that students from both
genders, of any age, ethnic group, or socio-economic status will have an equal chance to experience
school success. Finally, we must document current perceptions to see if and how these need to be
altered via higher education pathways.
Methodology
The Sample
The four primary demographic variables document a representative sample of the population
of first time, beginning freshmen. Compared to the university, however, there exist larger percentages
of minorities among freshmen--with more females and Hispanics evidenced. In specific comparison
with the entire university population of first time, beginning freshmen, this sample is quite accurate
with 54.5% of them being female, compared to 53.3% of the population. Equally significant is the
variable of ethnicity, with 83% being Caucasian, and 12.3% being Hispanic, which compares with
84.7% of the population being Caucasian, 9.9% being Hispanic, and 3.6% being African-American.
As well, age characteristics of this sample correspond to the population, with 81% being 18 years
old compared to the population demographic of 81.3%. Clearly, this random sample constitutes
14.7% (253) of first-time beginning freshmen in this university, and well represents the overall
freshmen student body, allowing generalization to the population. (See Figure 1, which compares
the Sample and Population.)
Regarding class, it is important to note that this constitutes self-reporting, and sociologists
have long been aware that most people see themselves as “middle-class.” Further examination of
the nature of the population finds 71% percent are meeting scholastic needs through financial aid
and are being subsidized at an average total financial aid package of $8,000 per student. Hence,
these students are most likely leaning toward the working or lower class, even though having self-
reported a middle-class status.
The Instrument
A factor analysis demonstrates that the status positions cohered in the five main survey
categories anticipated, namely: 1) gender, 2) age, 3) ethnicity, 4) social class, and 5) intelligence
statuses. Spearman rank-order correlations of all statuses verify the internal validity of the
questionnaire. For example, how subjects viewed boys was positively correlated with their views
of girls (rs = .26), as well as with their views of men (rs = .32)—all of which are gender categories.
Moreover, similar findings occurred in each of the status dimensions, with status correlations
ranging from .20 to .39.
Trump Statuses
The primary purpose of this research was the documentation of statuses that “trump” others
for first time beginning freshmen at a regional Texas state university. In most instances, these
students rank highest people perceived to be like themselves--e.g., middle-class, women, men, and
Caucasians. Table 1, at the end of the paper, shows a rank ordering of all statuses and, therefore,
specifies preferred or trumping statuses. For this assessment, the qualitative responses (e.g., babies
are cute) were coded using the ordinal measurement dimensions of extremely positive, positive,

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