DePauwThesis

The Effects of Ovulatory Status 1
Running head: THE EFFECTS OF OVULATORY STATUS
The Effects of Ovulatory Status, Threat Type,
and Rival Facial Attractiveness on Distress in Women
Sabrina Long and Whitney Woods
DePauw University

Abstract
Research has shown that women report higher levels of distress in response to potential rivals
during the ovulatory phase of their menstrual cycle, and to emotional infidelity rather than sexual
infidelity. However, these effects are altered by hormonal birth control. The current study
examined the relations between ovulatory status, threat type, and rival attractiveness and notes
the effect of hormonal birth control on these relationships. Women viewed photographs of rivals
and rated their distress. We found that women reported higher levels of distress during ovulation
than during the luteal phase, to threats of emotional infidelity rather than sexual infidelity, to
more attractive rivals than unattractive rivals, and normally cycling women and birth control
users differed in patterns of distress ratings.

The Effects of Ovulatory Status, Threat Type,
and Rival Facial Attractiveness on Distress in Women
The current study explores the relations between ovulatory status, threat type, rival facial
attractiveness, and jealousy in women. For our purposes, jealousy can be defined as a form of
distress in response to a romantic or sexual partner or to a rival. Many factors seem to influence
the intensity of women’s distress including hormonal birth control use (Geary, DeSoto, Hoard,
Sheldon, & Cooper, 2001), ovulatory status, type of threat (i.e., sexual versus emotional
infidelity threat), and attractiveness of a potential rival (Buss, Larsen, Westen, & Semmelroth,
1992).
In mammals, ovulation occurs in a variety of ways. In every case, ovulation involves the
release of an ovum and hormones. In many species, ovulation induces detectable changes in
behavior, receptivity and appearance. In other species, the changes are less detectable. Scientists
have long believed that female human fertility is virtually concealed due to the lack of changes in
appearance or behaviors. However, many recent studies have provided evidence that human
ovulation is not concealed, but that it is detectable by males and females alike. Specifically,
recent studies have suggested that during ovulation, women are rated as more attractive (Roberts,
et al., 2004) and initiate copulation more often (Gangestad, Thornhill, & Garver, 2002). Women
also respond more strongly to cues of genetic quality in men during ovulation, such as facial
symmetry (Sheib, Gangestand, & Thornhill, 1999) and vocal pitch (Puts, 2005). The enhanced
responsiveness to cues like facial symmetry and vocal pitch have been explained by noting that
they are important indicators of genetic fitness (e.g., Grammer & Thornhill, 1994; Puts, 2005).
Further, recent studies have shown that women are less likely to engage in sexually risky

behaviors (Broder & Hohmann, 2003; Chavanne & Gallup, 1998) and that they are more likely
to derogate same-sex competitors (Buss & Dedden, 1990) during ovulation.
The use of hormonal birth control affects women’s hormonal shifts. Birth control users
do not experience the same cyclical hormonal changes as normally cycling women. Because
hormonal birth control uses synthetic forms of female hormones which are derived from
testosterone, they can sometimes have an androgenic effect on women (Geary et al., 2001). For
example, many studies have shown that women using birth control do not exhibit the same
behavioral trends as normally cycling women (e.g., Fisher, 2004; Grammer & Thornhill, 1994;
Miller, Tybur, & Jordan, 2007). As hormonal birth control use is relatively new, it might have
other side effects that have not manifested themselves in research to date. We assessed birth
control use when selecting participants in the current study due to its importance in this field of
research.
This report will first review the mechanisms of ovulatory systems and how evolution has
equipped mammals with the means to take advantage of women’s small fertility windows.
Specifically, this review addresses human ovulation and its effects on male and female sexual
attraction, mating behavior and jealousy. This report concludes with a report of our research.
This study investigates how ovulatory status, hormonal birth control use, relationship threat type,
and rival facial attractiveness affect distress patterns in women.
Ovulation Overview
Ovulation is the release of an ovum from the follicle within the ovary, triggered by a
surge in the levels of luteinizing hormone (LH), follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), and an
increase of the hormone progesterone. These hormone levels rise in response to an increase in

estrogen during the periovulatory phase of the menstrual cycle or the proestrus phase of the
estrous cycle (McCarthy & Becker, 2002).
Some mammals experience an induced ovulation in which ovulation is a result of some
outside stimulation such as sexual activity. This is the system found in cats, for example (Banks
& Stabenfeldt, 1982). However, many mammals, including humans, experience an ovulatory
cycle in which fertility is based on predictable hormonal shifts. Because of the predictable
changes in hormone levels in human females, researchers have been able to confidently calculate
estimates of women’s ovulatory phase based on the onset of menstruation using count-forward
and reverse-cycle methods (Haselton & Gangestad, 2006).
The primary difference between menstrual cycles and estrous cycles is that in menstrual
cycles, the uterine lining is shed, whereas in the estrous cycle the lining is reabsorbed into the
animal’s bloodstream (McCarthy & Becker, 2002). Within an estrous cycle, there are three
distinct phases in which the animal undergoes different shifts in hormone levels. In the metestrus
or diestrus I followed by diestrus II phases, the female’s steroid hormone levels are low. It is
during this phase that the uterine lining is reabsorbed into the bloodstream. During the proestrus
phase of the estrous cycle, the animal experiences a rapid increase in estrogens including
estradiol, causing an LH surge that subsequently leads to ovulation. Finally, the estrus phase of
the estrous cycle is characterized by evident sexual receptivity. It is during this phase that female
animals are most fertile and likely to copulate (McCarthy & Becker). It is important to note the
similarities and differences between the estrous and menstrual cycles and how ovulation
manifests itself in each cycle.
Not unlike the estrous cycle, the human menstrual cycle is marked by four distinct
phases. Each phase is comparable to the phases within the estrous cycle, characterized by shifts

in hormone levels. In the menstrual phase of the menstrual cycle, female hormone levels are very
low which triggers the degeneration of the corpora luteum (i.e., uterine lining). This phase
typically lasts four to six days. The next phase of the cycle is the follicular phase. During this
time, the ovum matures and prepares for its release. The periovulatory phase of the menstrual
cycle is characterized by an increase in estrogens, which triggers the LH surge. Approximately
24 hr after the LH surge, the ovum is released from the follicle into the fallopian tube. Finally,
during the luteal phase of the menstrual cycle, the endocrine gland produces large amounts of
progesterone. It is during this phase that the human body prepares for menstruation (McCarthy &
Becker, 2002). While McCarthy and Becker describe the menstrual cycle in terms of four phases,
some researchers combine the periovulatory and follicular phases, resulting in three phases of the
menstrual cycle. According to this classification, female ovulation occurs during the follicular
phase.
In most non-human mammals, ovulation is observable, marked by obvious physical
changes such as swelling of the genitals and release of pheromones (McCarthy & Becker, 2002).
Further, many male and female animals change their outward behavior in response to signs of
fertility. For example, female rats increase behaviors such as wiggling their ears or hopping in
the presence of males to draw attention to their fertility. However, in human females, ovulation is
less physically overt, which has led many scientists to believe it is fully concealed. However,
evidence of shifts in sexual behaviors in women and men during female fertility suggests that
human ovulation may not be as concealed as previously assumed. For example, Roberts et al.
(2004) studied men’s attractiveness ratings of the same women during different phases of their
menstrual cycle. Roberts et al. found that men rated facial photographs of women as significantly
more attractive during the follicular phase than during the luteal phase. This suggests that men

can unconsciously detect a shift in a woman’s fertility. While non-human mammals and humans
have differing ovarian cycles, the obviousness of fertility may be more similar than previously
believed. In fact, there is evidence that human females have a cryptic rather than concealed
ovulatory phase of the menstrual cycle. In comparison to a concealed ovulatory phase, a cryptic
ovulation implies that the fertility cues are subtle yet discernible.
Effects of ovulation on women
Sexual Motivation. Past research provides evidence that women experience an increase in
sex drive and initiative when they are fertile (Regan, 1996). Other researchers have suggested
that women benefit from extra-pair copulation when primary mates are relatively low in genetic
fitness. Evidence for this comes from studies that show that fertile women rate the scents of
symmetrical men as significantly more attractive than do women in the luteal phase of their
menstrual cycle (Gangestad & Thornhill, 1998). Further, studies have shown that women prefer
more masculine facial features and vocal pitch when they are ovulating as compared to when
they are not ovulating (Hromatko, Tadinac & Prizmic, 2006; Puts, 2005). However, there is
evidence that outside of ovulation, women decrease the value placed on signals of genetic fitness
in their social partners, rather they prefer investment (Gangestad et al., 2002). This pattern of
findings suggests that ovulating women initiate copulation with genetically fit males but
maintain a social relationship with their primary partners throughout the rest of their menstrual
cycles. Because women may have evolved to seek extra-pair mates during ovulation, it would be
highly beneficial for men to have evolved to become more vigilant during women’s follicular
phase of the menstrual cycle.
Considering these findings, Gangestad et al. (2002) hypothesized that during ovulation,
women would report more extra-pair fantasies. Also, they hypothesized that women would report

initiating copulation significantly more during ovulation. Further, the researchers hypothesized
that women would report that their partners engage in more mate-retention tactics during
ovulation as compared to the luteal phase of the menstrual cycle.
To test their hypotheses, Gangestad et al. (2002) followed 51 college-aged women’s
menstrual cycles using over-the-counter LH surge detection kits. The researchers used three
sessions of testing to ensure every woman would be tested during the follicular phase (i.e.,
fertility) and the luteal phase of her cycle. None of the participants were using hormonal birth
control nor were any pregnant. The researchers defined the high-fertility days of the cycle as 1-2
days before the anticipated LH-surge. Low-fertility days were defined as the whole week
following the LH surge. Each participant attended a high-fertility and low-fertility session in
which they completed two questionnaires. The first questionnaire contained questions regarding
the participants’ sexual thoughts, fantasies, flirtation, attraction to their partners, and attraction to
extra-pair men. The second questionnaire asked questions regarding mate-guarding tactics by the
participants’ primary partners such as expressed dependency, intrasexual derogation, and
spoiling.
With respect to the researchers’ first hypothesis regarding sexual fantasies about extra-
pair mates, Gangestad et al. (2002) found that women are significantly more sexually attracted to
other men during ovulation than outside of ovulation. However, the researchers found no
evidence that women experience greater sexual attraction to their primary partners during
ovulation. These findings suggest that while fertile women have increased sexual desires, these
desires are not focused on their primary partner. However, women did report initiating sex
significantly more during ovulation than during other phases of the menstrual cycle. While the
participants did not report higher sexual desire for their partners during ovulation, they did claim

to initiate copulation more often, suggesting an evolved hormonal mechanism to increase the
likelihood of conception. Finally, the researchers’ last hypothesis regarding mate-guarding was
supported.
In an extension of this research, Gangestad, Thornhill, and Garver-Apgar (2005a)
conducted a very similar study using participants who were in romantic relationships with one
another. The extension research was intended to discover if the symmetry of a woman’s mate
had an effect on the amount of extra-pair copulation fantasies a woman experienced. The
researchers hypothesized that women with symmetrical exclusive partners (i.e., genetically fit)
would initiate extra-pair copulation less than women with asymmetrical exclusive partners.
Evolutionarily, it is beneficial for women to mate with genetically fit partners during ovulation.
Thus, if a woman has a genetically fit partner, the researchers hypothesized that she would not
leave her partner as often as women paired with a less genetically fit man.
To test this hypothesis, Gangestad et al. (2005a) administered the same questionnaires
and followed the same procedure as Gangestad et al. (2002). The specific female participants
were tested twice: once during high-fertility days and once during low-fertility days. Further, the
researchers measured the symmetry of the participants’ partners’ faces. As found in the
Gangestad et al. study, women reported significantly higher amounts of extra-pair fantasies and
fewer to their primary partners when ovulating. However, in this extension study, the researchers
found that the symmetry of the participants’ mate moderated these effects. That is, fertile women
with asymmetrical mates were less attracted to their mates and more attracted to extra-pair men.
However, this trend did not prevail across the menstrual cycle. This finding suggests that women
have evolved to recognize and be attracted to signs of genetic fitness when they are fertile and

discount those signs when they are infertile. This provides evidence for a non-concealed fertility
window.
Ornamentation. Previous research has investigated cyclical changes in female behavior
and appearance over the menstrual cycle, which may serve as cues for when females are
ovulating. Research suggests that female attractiveness is rated more highly and female sexual
desire is increased during ovulation compared to other phases of the menstrual cycle (Roberts et
al., 2004; Gangestad, Thornhill, & Garver, 2002). Several studies suggest that during ovulation,
women tend to focus their attention and energy toward activites that put them in close proximity
with males (e.g., attending clubs and parties) (Fessler, 2003). Research also indicates that female
preference for masculine facial features increases during ovulation (Gangestad, Thornhill, &
Garver-Apgar, 2005b), and that women rate other female faces as less attractive during ovulation
than other phases of the menstrual cycle (Fisher, 2004), suggesting that intrasexual competition
is heightened during ovulation.
Haselton, Mortezaie, Pillsworth, Bleske-Rechek, and Frederick (2007) examined the
changes in female ornamentation across the menstrual cycle. They hypothesized that women’s
goals are evidenced by changes in self-ornamentation, through personal grooming and clothing
choices. They predicted that women would self-ornament more meticulously during the late
follicular phase of the menstrual cycle so as to draw attention to themselves from a potential
mate. Thirty college-aged women posed for two full-length pictures. One picture was taken
during the follicular phase and one during the luteal phase. Taking urine samples and testing for
luteinizing hormone levels identified the window of ovulation. The photographs were evaluated
by an independent panel of college-aged men and women.

Haselton et al. (2007) found that women who were photographed closer to the onset of
ovulation were perceived as trying to look more physically attractive. The results supported the
hypothesis that women closer to ovulation engage in more self-ornamenting behaviors. Possible
explanations include a woman’s perception of her own increase in attractiveness near ovulation
and therefore desires to display it to others through self-ornamentation. Another explanation is
that women self-ornament specifically to find a mate, even if the mate is not their primary
partner.
Perceptions of attractiveness of men. Previous research implies that during the follicular
phase, women’s preference for masculine features such as facial masculinity, vocal masculinity,
symmetry and body odor indicating symmetry increases. Researchers believe the increased
likelihood of conception during the follicular phase leads women to be attracted to mates
carrying good genes. Past studies also indicate that attractive females tend to report higher
relationship satisfaction, resulting in lower attractiveness scores assigned to males other than
their partners (Hromatko et al., 2006). A possible explanation is that attractive women are able to
obtain more masculine men, meaning they have more fit partners, and therefore show little
attraction to males other than their primary partner.
The first aim of Hromatko et al.’s (2006) research was to determine if a difference existed
between male facial attractiveness scores given by single women and women in a relationship.
The second issue Hromatko et al. addressed was whether satisfaction in a relationship was
subject to change due to hormonal status during the menstrual cycle. The researchers
hypothesized that hormones potentially influence a woman’s relational satisfaction and attraction
to other men during the menstrual cycle as a possible reproductive strategy. Sixty-four young
women who were naturally cycling and 28 who used oral contraceptives participated in this

study. These women were tested during different phases of the menstrual cycles. The participants
viewed 40 pictures and women rated their self-perceived attractiveness, whether they were in a
relationship, and also their level of satisfaction in that relationship.
Hromatko et al. (2006) found that women in a relationship rated male and symmetrical
faces significantly higher in attractiveness during the late follicular and midluteal phases when
their estrogen and progesterone levels are high. Single women, on the other hand, rated male
faces as more attractive during the early follicular phase when estrogen and progesterone levels
are low. This indicates a clear hormonal difference between women in relationships and single
women. Women using oral contraceptives showed a similar shift in attractiveness ratings
between phases of the menstrual cycle as women in a relationship. The results indicate that
women in both groups gave higher attractiveness scores during the late follicular phase when
estrogen and progesterone levels are high. Women with higher self-perceived attractiveness were
more satisfied in their relationships than women with lower attractiveness. Even though women
high in mate value were more satisfied in their relationships, they were less satisfied during the
late follicular phase when estrogen and progesterone levels are high.
The results support the hypothesis that ovulatory hormones influence female-perceived
attractiveness of males. Both normally cycling women and women using oral contraceptives,
regardless of relationship status, rated male faces higher in attractiveness during phases where
estrogen and progesterone levels are higher. A likely explanation is that a woman is fertile during
this phase and therefore more receptive to potential mates with good genes. This hormonal shift
would increase her chances of ultimately reproducing.
While female hormones influence women’s perceptions of male attractiveness, other
indicators such as facial averageness seem to impact these perceptions as well. There is

substantial evidence that facial averageness is a display of heterozygosity, which implies within-
organism genetic diversity (Folstad & Karter, 1992; Wedekind, 1992). Within-organism genetic
diversity is an important attribute in humans and animals because it offers a higher probability of
immunocompetence because of the genetic distribution of positive heritable traits. The parasite
theory of mate selection holds that men and women find faces most attractive when they show
signs of parasite resistance (i.e., health) because these people are more likely to produce healthy
offspring and be readily available to rear and support offspring.
However, studies have shown ovulating women to be more attracted to dominant, large
features on men’s faces (e.g., wide jaw) than average features (Johnston, Hagel, Franklin, Fink,
& Grammer, 2001; Penton-Voak et al., 1999). This is likely due to the higher amount of
testosterone needed to induce larger secondary sexual traits (i.e., certain facial features develop
fully at puberty), which imply high immunocompetence.
Just as facial averageness has been correlated with superior health, so too has facial
symmetry in both males and females (Grammer & Thornhill, 1994). Maintaining facial bilateral
symmetry implies resistance to developmental problems. Further, symmetry of secondary sexual
traits seems to display superior health due to the higher amount of sex hormones needed to
produce and perfect the traits. Thus, Grammer and Thornhill predicted that a) men will prefer
average and symmetrical women’s faces, b) women will prefer average and symmetrical men’s
faces, and c) women will prefer dominant secondary sexual traits on men’s faces.
To test their hypotheses, Grammer and Thornhill (1994) had female and male college
students rate the photographs of faces on attractiveness, dominance, sexiness, and health. The
researchers used normal and averaged photographs. To create averaged faces, the researchers
combined two or more faces into one photograph. Male normal pictures were rated as

significantly healthier, sexier and more dominant than the composite male pictures. Further,
women’s ratings of attractiveness, sexiness and healthiness significantly correlated with male
symmetry. Women rated averaged male faces as significantly less sexy, attractive, and dominant.
Both sexes seemed to value symmetry in the opposite sex. However, because the females
preferred the normal photographs to the composite photographs, it seems that females value
other traits more than they value averageness. Further, male averageness was negatively
correlated to attractiveness implying that women prefer dominant features likely due to the
display of high levels of testosterone. As women find displays of high testosterone attractive in
men, men rate women with prominent cheekbones attractive likely because cheekbones could be
a display of high estrogen levels.
Although Grammer and Thornhill (1994) argue that women attend to other traits (e.g.,
masculinity) in addition to symmetry when choosing a mate, symmetry still plays a key role in
mate selection. General past findings indicate that females perceive males with higher symmetry
as more fit mates compared to asymmetrical males. Symmetry is believed to indicate
developmental stability. In similar studies, researchers found that females prefer the scent of
males with different major histocompatibility (MHC) genes than their own (Thornhill et al.,
2003). This is believed to provide a reproductive advantage because differing MHC genes allow
an individual to be more resistant to numerous illnesses.
Gangestad and Thornhill (1998) addressed women’s responses to male symmetry over
the menstrual cycle, particularly in the ovulatory phase. Gangestad and Thornhill hypothesized
that fertile women’s ratings would correlate with men’s symmetry more than less fertile
women’s ratings. The male participants in the study were measured to determine symmetry, and

then wore t-shirts to bed for 2 nights in a row. Females smelled a sequence of 10 shirts at a time,
and rated each shirt on pleasantness, sexiness, and intensity.
Gangestad and Thornhill (1998) found that male symmetry was significantly positively
correlated to attractiveness scores assigned by ovulating women. Non-ovulating women and
women using oral contraceptives showed no preference for symmetrical or asymmetrical men.
Women, indeed, prefer the scent of symmetrical men during the fertile phase of their
menstrual cycle. This can be explained by an evolutionary advantage for women to be vigilant
when searching for fit mates so as to produce the healthiest offspring possible. An explanation
for scores not changing across the menstrual cycle for women using oral contraceptives is that
these changes take place in relation to normal ovulation, not with menstruation itself. These
results support the intuitive hypothesis that women would be more responsive and receptive
towards symmetrical men during ovulation because it is likely they carry good genes that will
pass on to future generations of offspring.
Attractiveness rating of women by women and derogation of rivals. One primary group of
strategies used to attract mates that has evolved is intrasexual competition. Intrasexual
competition is important for obtaining and maintaining mates as well as resources. Because
women have evolved to be generally more selective of their mates than have men, women must
compete for those men who are fit to provide resources and father children. Previous research
has shown that men prefer to mate with physically attractive women, thus one might predict that
one female intrasexual competitive strategy would be to derogate rivals to deter men away from
other women. Further, many studies have shown women’s faces to be rated as more attractive
than men’s faces, suggesting facial attractiveness has evolved to be more important in obtaining
a mate for females compared to males (Bernstein, Lin, & McClellan, 1982). Derogation is

defined as an attempt to devalue a potential rival (Fisher, 2004). By devaluing another woman, a
woman makes it less likely that her potential mate will become attracted to the other woman.
Thus, Fisher hypothesized that fertile women will rate female faces significantly less attractive
than non-fertile women will rate the same faces. The participants were shown 65 photographs
and instructed to rate the attractiveness of each model. As found in previous studies, female faces
were rated significantly more attractive than male faces. As predicted, fertile women rated
female faces significantly less attractive than non-fertile women rated the same faces. Also,
during ovulation, women viewed female faces for a shorter time than non-fertile women.
This study illustrates the evolved trait of intrasexual competition between females. As
predicted, ovulating women rate other female faces as less attractive than women who are not
ovulating. This suggests that fertile women are derogating other women by means of devaluing
others’ attractiveness during a time when reproduction is most likely. Interestingly, fertile
women spent less time than non-fertile women viewing the female faces. This suggests that there
was less contemplation about the true attractiveness of the women and a more quick derogation
conclusion. Unfortunately, this study did not assess relationship status, which could have had an
impact on women’s ratings of other women. Research has shown that relationships have an
impact on the intrasexual competition between females. Our research proposal will incorporate
relationship status so as to further this study’s findings.
Effects of ovulation on men
As evidenced by the previous studies, ovulation has numerous effects on women.
However, ovulation has marked effects on men as well. For example, Pillsworth and Haselton
(2005) found that males exhibit significantly more mate guarding behaviors during their
partner’s ovulatory phase. These tactics are theorized to benefit men by preventing cuckoldry.

Additional evidence suggests that females produce signals of fertility near ovulation such
as having more symmetrical breasts and ears, and having lighter and clearer skin (Manning,
Scutt, Whitehouse, Leinster, & Walton, 1996; Van den Barghe & Frost, 1986). Research also
suggests that female facial attractiveness increases in a cyclical manner according to the
menstrual cycle. Roberts et al. (2004) tested female facial attractiveness across the menstrual
cycle by instructing men to assign attractiveness ratings to pictures of the same women during
their ovulatory and luteal phases. They found that men rated pictures of the same woman as
significantly more attractive when she was ovulating than when she was not ovulating.
A broader effect ovulation appears to have on men was examined by a study which uses a
more quantifiable measure. Miller et al. (2007) recruited lap dancers and instructed them to daily
report their menstrual status, hours of work and tip earnings. They found that normally cycling
women earned significantly higher tips during ovulation, regardless of hours worked. However,
dancers using hormonal birth control did not yield these results. By using a monetary measure,
the researchers were able to provide quantitative evidence for ovulation effects.
In addition to appearing more physically attractive, there is evidence that women emit a
more pleasant odor during ovulation. Singh and Bronstad (2001) conducted a study in which
they instructed male participants to smell and rate the sexiness, pleasantness, and intensity of
shirts worn by ovulating and non-ovulating females. They found that men rated the odor of
ovulating women as more attractive than the odor of non-ovulating women.
As previously discussed, there is considerable evidence that facial averageness is a
display of heterozygosity that implies beneficial within-organism genetic diversity. Grammer
and Thornhill (1994) discuss that while women are attracted to signs of masculinity in male faces

(i.e., prominent jaw, large nose), men should be most attracted to average and symmetrical
female faces. The averageness implies good health and resistance to developmental problems.
Grammer and Thornhill (1994) tested their hypothesis by presenting regular, unaltered
photographs and computer-generated average faces to a group of 44 men and 52 women. The
participants were asked to rate the faces on a scale of 1 to 11 of how attractive, dominant, sexy,
and healthy these faces appeared. As predicted, the researchers found that men rated average
female faces as significantly sexier and more attractive than regular female faces. This finding
suggests that men have evolved to want to mate with healthy women, which is beneficial for
ensuring the passing of their genes. Further, Grammer and Thornhill found that there was only a
partial correlation between female facial asymmetry and men’s ratings of attractiveness. This
non-significant result suggests that facial averageness is a more accurate indicator of female
health rather than facial symmetry.
Miscellaneous Effects of Ovulation
Within the field of ovulation research, few studies explore the effect that hormonal birth
control has on men and women alike. However, Alvergne and Lummaa (2009) were interested in
determining whether contraceptive pill use causes a change in mate preferences in both males
and females, ultimately leading to changes in mate choice and reproductive success. They
wanted to see what effect pill use had on women’s abilities to attract male partners.
Research described earlier in this report found increased female preference for masculine
features (e.g., facial structure, voice) and facial symmetry during the follicular phase of naturally
menstruating women. Women also prefer men who demonstrate dominant and intrasexual
competitive behavior when fertile compared to lower fertility phases (Fisher, 2004). Normally
cycling women prefer men with dissimilar MHC genes, which are an indicator of immune

sustainability (Thornhill et al., 2003). However, women using hormonal contraceptives tend to
show a reverse preference for men with similar MHC genes which can lead to less fit offspring
(Wedekind, Seebeck, Bettens, & Paepke, 1995). Women appear more attractive to men during
ovulation than any other time during the menstrual cycle, but women taking the pill show no
cyclical change in attractiveness (Miller et al., 2007). Contraceptive-using women show no
preference for men with facial and vocal masculinity or symmetrical men (Puts, 2005). The lack
of these preferences could potentially lead to decreased offspring fitness. Alvergne and Lummaa
(2009) predicted that using the pill when choosing a partner could have negative health and
reproductive effects on offspring, as well as contribute to relationship instability and
dissatisfaction.
Self-esteem. There have been many studies that have demonstrated the significance of the
menstrual cycle in women’s perceptions of their own bodies. Specifically, most studies have
found women to be most harsh judges of their own bodies during the pre-menstrual and
menstruation phases of their cycles. However, these studies typically used methods such as
altering light and shadow angles, which confounded the data due to an unreliable independent
variable. Jappe and Gardner (2009) measured women’s physiological and psychological changes
in their perceptions of their own bodies throughout the menstrual cycle using more sound
methods. Jappe and Gardner hypothesized that participants would display and report the highest
body dissatisfaction during the premenstrual phase of their menstrual cycles.
Thirty college students of average weight participated in this study. The participants were
all heterosexual women with normal menstrual cycles and without a history of eating disorders.
The researchers utilized a computer program designed by Gardner and Boice (2004) to examine
body dissatisfaction. The program used photographs of each participant and distorted the image

to be too wide or too thin. The participants were tested once during each of the 3 phases of their
menstrual cycle using this computer program. At each session, the participant had her picture
taken to be used for that day. The image was shown as normal or distorted for many sessions.
The participants were able to manipulate the image using the computer to their perceived ideal
body size. Also, participants were asked to judge whether each image was too wide or too thin.
While there were differences in body perceptions throughout the menstrual cycle, overall
Jappe and Gardner (2009) found no significant results in this study. The researchers found that if
they combined averages from the premenstrual and menstrual phases of the cycle to create a
perimenstrual (i.e., non-ovulatory) phase, women in the ovulatory phase reported significantly
more body satisfaction than during the non-ovulatory phase. Because the women in this study
demonstrated a consistent accuracy in body size judgment, it seems that body disturbance in
women is less a perceptual distortion and involves more of a cognitive or affective component.
The primary importance of this study was to provide evidence that women’s body
perception is not necessarily hormonally based. Rather, the general cognitive and behavioral
changes might mediate the relationship between the hormonal fluctuation and changes in body
perceptions.
Jealousy
Jealousy can be defined as a form of distress or resentment, usually in response to a rival
(e.g., Fisher, 2004; Moore, Heumann, Fransted, Smith, & Prajapati, 2005). Jealousy may have
evolved as a mechanism to prevent infidelity, thus sustaining paternity for men or assuring
resources for women (Buss et al., 1992). Likely due to its importance in maintaining relationship
status, jealousy is a salient emotion that has endured evolution because of its utility.

Buss, Shackelford, Choe, Buunk, and Dijkstra (2000) hypothesized that men and women
would both show high amounts of distress to threats from rivals who surpass them on sex-linked
qualities of a mate. Thus, they predicted that males would be threatened by rivals that exceeded
them in financial prospects, future job prospects, status and prestige, and physical strength. Buss
et al. predicted that females would be threatened by rivals that exceeded them in facial and body
attractiveness. They also compared cultural differences in reactions to rivals by comparing
American, Korean, and Dutch men and women. College-aged participants were given a scenario
in which their past, present, or desired romantic partner became romantically interested in
someone who surpassed them on 11 characteristics. Participants were then instructed to rate how
distressing each scenario was.
Buss et al. (2000) found that all men were significantly more distressed than women
when a rival exceeded them in financial prospects, future job prospects and physical strength. All
women were more distressed than men when a rival exceeded them in facial and body
attractiveness. The results of the Buss et al. (2000) study supported the hypothesis that men and
women would report more distress to rivals that surpass them on relevant sex-linked
characteristics. The results also support an evolutionary response to rivals with higher mate
values so as to deter one’s mate from partaking in extra-pair copulations.
As previously discussed, there have been many studies that suggest humans have adapted
jealousy as a tactic to prevent infidelity in a partner, and therefore are sensitive to a potential
rival’s mate value. One measure of female mate value is fertility, and one indicator of fertility is
waist-to-hip (WHR) ratio. A WHR close to 0.70 is correlated with general reproductive
capability and overall health status in women (Singh, 1993). One dimension of male mate value
is physical strength, of which shoulder-to-hip ratio is one measure. Men with a higher shoulder-

to-hip ratio are perceived as healthier and more dominant when compared to a low ratio (Franzoi
& Herzog, 1987).
Dijkstra and Buunk (2001) hypothesized that women would be more distressed than men
by a rival with a lower waist-to-hip ratio, and men more than women would be distressed by a
rival with a higher shoulder-to-hip ratio. They also examined the body part each sex paid most
attention to when evaluating rivals. Participants consisted of 185 college students (94 males and
91 females). Each participant completed a questionnaire with drawings of people of the same sex
with varying WHRs. For each figure, they were asked to rate their level of distress if that
individual was romantically attracted to their partner. Participants then indicated each figure’s
level of social dominance based on six items. Participants also indicated which body parts they
focused most attention on when rating each rival.
Both sexes showed more distress in response to rivals with low WHRs than rivals with
high WHRs (for men, a “low” WHR is 0.9). Females, however, displayed much more distress
than men when a rival had a low waist-to-hip ratio than if the rival had a high waist-to-hip ratio.
Although a high shoulder-to-hip ratio evoked more jealousy in both sexes than a low shoulder-
to-hip ratio, the level of jealousy was much higher and more pronounced amongst male
participants than female participants. Dijkstra and Buunk (2001) also found that when evaluating
rivals, women reported attending to women’s waist, hips, and legs, whereas men attended to
men’s shoulders, chest and stomach. The results from this study are consistent with the idea that
human beings have adapted an ability to gauge and judge a potential rival’s mate value. This is
adaptive as it helps to monitor a partner’s fidelity by becoming aware of the body regions their
partner would attend to.

A great deal of research suggests that humans have evolved sensitivities to cues for
reproductive ability and health. Because males have an overall lower investment in offspring,
their sensitivity is usually to cues of their partners’ fertility and signals of sexual infidelity to
reduce the risk of cuckoldry. Conversely, females have a high investment in their offspring and
benefit from a mate who reliably helps provide for her children. Thus, women may have evolved
to be more sensitive to emotional infidelity which might jeopardize paternal investment (Buss et
al., 1992). It is possible that these differences are related to hormonal differences between males
and females.
Women using hormonal birth control alter their hormonal balance, and may not show the
same patterns of sexual behavior and mate preferences as women not using birth control. Thus it
has been theorized that the use of hormonal birth control alters women’s psychological and
social behavior (Gangestad & Thornhill, 1998). Evidence for this is seen in studies that find that
women not using hormonal birth control are more likely to partake in extra-pair copulation
during ovulation than women who are using hormonal birth control (Gangestad et al., 2005a).
This may be because women have evolved mechanisms that make them more likely to reproduce
with fit males during fertility, but only during fertility, so as to maintain a social relationship
with their long-term partners. However, there is evidence that this shift in behaviors and
preferences may not be due to phases within the cycle; rather, the shifts may be a result of a
change in estradiol levels, an estrogen hormone (Geary et al., 2001).
With regards to this research (e.g., Buss et al., 1992), Geary et al. (2001) hypothesized
that men demonstrate more jealousy for sexual infidelity while women display more jealousy for
emotional infidelity. Also, hormonal birth control uses synthetic hormones (derived from
testosterone) which could influence women using birth control to show more male-like

tendencies. Participants were sexually active college-aged students. Geary et al. (2001) assessed
jealousy by asking all participants to rate their distress in response to two scenarios: one
emotional threat, one sexual threat. Women reported whether or not they were currently using
hormonal birth control.
Geary et al. (2001) found that men were significantly more distressed than women in
response to a sexual threat, while women were more distressed than men in response to an
emotional threat. The researchers also found that people in more serious relationships reported
significantly more intense feelings of hurt, anger, and jealousy in response to emotional and
sexual infidelity scenarios than did people in less serious relationships.
The Effect of Ovulation on Jealousy
Previous studies provide evidence that ovulation may alter jealousy patterns in women.
Krug, Finn, Pietrowsky, Fehm, and Born (1996) examined whether women were more jealous
during the ovulatory phase than in other phases of the menstrual cycle. To investigate this
further, Krug et al. recruited 16 regularly menstruating women between the ages of 21 and 32
years who did not use hormonal contraceptives. They used a within-groups comparison to
measure the results of three separate testing sessions, each during a different phase of the
menstrual cycle. During the study, women either listened to three stories or imagined three
scenarios, all of which induced different emotions. One story induced sexual jealousy by telling
the participants or having the participants imagine their partner having sexual intercourse with
another woman. Another story induced nonsexual jealousy by telling participants or having
participants imagine their partner falling in love with and forming emotional attachments to
another woman. Still another story did not induce any feelings of jealousy by telling participants
or having participants imagine a conversation with a person that lacked emotion.

The results of the listening task indicated that women as a whole were significantly more
jealous when listening to the tape-recorded stories than when imagining the situation. Women
tested near ovulation were significantly more jealous than women during the other two phases of
the menstrual cycle when listening to the nonsexual jealousy scenario. Ovulating women’s
jealousy levels were comparable for the nonsexual jealousy and the sexual jealousy stories;
however, jealousy was higher when listening to the nonsexual jealousy story. Women in the
ovulatory phase showed higher autonomic arousal during relaxation periods between stories,
indicating an inability to relax or forget the hypothetical situation presented to them. The results
indicate an increase in jealousy during the ovulatory phase of the menstrual cycle. Krug et al.
(1996) reasoned that perhaps increased jealousy promotes effective mate retention tactics that
ensure a partner will not stray while a female is fertile, which would ultimately decrease a
female’s likelihood of reproducing. The results also support a biological explanation for change
in behavior during the follicular phase of the menstrual cycle.
Similar to these findings, Moore et al. (2005) studied the effects of ovulation on distress
related to a rival’s WHR and body weight. In their study, Moore et al. presented female
participants with 12 different silhouettes representing three different body weights (underweight,
normal, overweight) and 4 WHRs (.7, .8, .9, 1.0). According to past research (Singh, 1993; Singh
& Young, 1995), the most attractive WHR for women was 0.7. As the WHR approaches 1.0,
women are judged as less attractive by men and women (Furnham, Tan, McManus, 1997;
Tassinary & Hansen, 1998). Building on this research, Moore et al. hypothesized that women
would report higher levels of distress to silhouettes of normal body weight and low WHR.
Moore et al. (2005) found that overall, female participants gave higher distress ratings to
rivals with lower WHRs and lower body weight. Interestingly, the researchers found that during

ovulation, participants reported significantly higher distress to overweight rivals with high WHR
as compared to participants who were not ovulating. These findings indicate a reduced threshold
for distress. That is, during ovulation, women reported distress to rivals that did not cause
distress for women who were not ovulating. This was especially the case for sexual relationship
threats.
Current Study
Upon reviewing numerous studies, evidence suggests human ovulation is non-concealed.
Research implies that the shift in estrogen and progesterone during ovulation causes numerous
changes in female appearance as well as behavior. These changes are not limited to females, as
several studies have found that males are also affected by the hormonal shifts in normally
cycling females during ovulation. These effects are evidenced to be hindered by the use of
hormonal birth control, as it alters the hormone levels characteristic of the menstrual cycle.
Further, jealousy seems to play a key role in ovulation and human mating behaviors.
Specifically, evidence suggests that male mate guarding and female rival derogation tactics
increase significantly during female fertility. By deterring extra-pair copulation, these tactics
increase the likelihood of procreation. Further, during ovulation, women seem to experience a
significant increase in jealousy, which serves as an effective mate-retention tactic. The effects of
jealousy during ovulation are typically exacerbated by high rival attractiveness. However, the
cited effects are not significant in women using hormonal birth control.
The current research further investigates how ovulatory status, rival facial attractiveness,
and type of relationship threat affect distress in women. According to previous research in this
field, ovulation induces changes in women’s preferences for mates as well as response to rivals.
Specifically, research suggests that women experience significantly more distress to sexual

infidelity when they are ovulating as compared to when they are in the luteal phase of the
menstrual cycle (Moore et al., 2005; Krug et al., 1996). Based on other research (e.g., Buss et al.,
1992), we hypothesize that women will report higher levels of distress to rivals perceived as an
emotional threat than sexual rivals overall. However, we propose that ovulating women will
report significantly higher levels of distress to rivals who pose as a sexual threat than women in
the luteal phase of the menstrual cycle. Thirdly, we hypothesize that during fertility, women will
report significantly higher distress to rivals than they did during the non-ovulatory phase. We
hypothesize that women using hormonal birth control will not show an interaction between the
point in their cycle and response to infidelity type. Finally, we expect to find higher distress
ratings in response to rivals with higher facial attractiveness.
Method
Participants
Twenty-two normally cycling women and 35 women using hormonal birth control
participated in this research. The participants were college-aged women from DePauw
University. We used only women 18 or older, who were normally cycling, not using medication
for a psychiatric condition, and had not stopped using hormonal birth control in the last 3
months. The participants were recruited through the psychology department participant pool
using mandatory participant credit and extra credit as motivation. Prior to testing, participants
read an informed consent form (see Appendix A) and an initial debriefing form (see Appendix
B).
Materials
Participants completed a paper copy of a demographic questionnaire (see Appendix C)
that screened for general information, regular cycling, cycle length, birth control use, age, sexual

orientation, current relationship status, self-perceived attractiveness, and other characteristics.
We used the information provided to screen out participants taking psychiatric medications,
those whose cycles were irregular, and those who had used hormonal birth control recently but
had stopped. We used frontal photographs of 19 faces of women taken from the Radboud Faces
Databases (http://www.rafd.nl/; see also Langner et al., in press). These faces had previously
been rated for attractiveness. The current study used a computer program written in Superlab 4.0
to present relationship threat scenarios (one sexual and one emotional, see Appendix D) along
with faces, and to record participant rating of distress to the combination of face and relationship
threat.
Procedure
Participants first completed a questionnaire with demographic items as well as items
concerning use of hormonal birth control, menstrual cycle, relationship and sexual history (see
Appendix C). We used the questionnaire results to screen out participants who were not cycling
regularly, women whose cycle was shorter than 26 or longer than 30 days, those using
psychiatric medications, and those who had stopped using hormonal birth control recently. Using
the information about the participants’ menstrual cycle, we scheduled two additional
appointments for each participant: one during the ovulatory phase (or what would be during
ovulation for women using hormonal birth control), and one during the luteal phase of the
menstrual cycle. The phases were calculated using the reverse-cycle method. Using the date of
onset of a participant’s most recent menstruation and her cycle length, we estimated the date of
onset of the next menstruation (M). Because ovulation normally occurs 14 days before the onset
of menstruation, we defined that ovulation normally occurs 14 days before the onset of
menstruation or M-14. Because the specific day of ovulation varies somewhat, we defined the

ovulatory period from M-17 to M-13. So for example, for a woman with a 28-day cycle, we
defined ovulation as days 11-15 after menstruation onset. The luteal phase is similarly defined as
days M-9 to M-4. For a woman with a 28-day cycle, this phase of testing occurred between days
19-24 after menstruation.
During the two subsequent appointments, participants viewed 19 photographs of potential
rivals’ faces. These faces were taken from the Radboud Faces Database (http://www.rafd.nl/; see
also Langner et al., in press) and had previously been rated for attractiveness. Each photograph
was accompanied by one of two scenarios: one involving sexual relationship threat and one
involving emotional relationship threat (see Appendix D for sample screen presentations). While
considering the scenario and viewing each photograph, the participant rated her level of distress
on a Likert scale of 1 – 7 (1=low distress, 7=very high distress). Appendix D shows a sample
(with a photo not used in the study) screenshot of a scenario, face, and response scale.
Participants responded to all 19 rival faces while responding to one scenario, and then the other
scenario; the order of scenarios was counterbalanced across participants. The face presentation
order was also randomized within each scenario for each participant.
Results
To analyze our main hypotheses, we used a 2 x 2 x 2 Multivariate Analysis of Variance
(MANOVA). We used a mixed design MANOVA with 1 between-subjects factor (birth control:
hormonal birth control vs. normally cycling) and 2 within-subjects factors (ovulatory status:
ovulatory phase vs. non-ovulatory phase; and infidelity type: sexual vs. emotional). The analysis
revealed no main effect of birth control, F(1,55) < 1. However, there was a significant main
effect of ovulatory status, F(1, 55) = 4.652, p = .035, eta squared = 0.078. This finding reveals
that distress ratings were significantly higher during the ovulatory phase (M = 4.749, SE = .230)

than during the non-ovulatory phase (M = 4.398, SE = .238) . There was also a significant main
effect of infidelity type. Participants gave higher distress ratings to emotional infidelity (M =
4.76, SE = .228) than sexual infidelity (M = 4.386, SE = .219), F(1,55) = 18.195, p < .001. The
effect size for this finding was quite large as shown by eta squared = .249.
There was a significant interaction between birth control and ovulatory status, F(1, 55) =
7.261, p = .009, eta squared = .117. This reveals that normally cycling women reported higher
levels of distress during ovulation (M = 4.889, SE = .360) than outside of ovulation (M = 4.099,
SE = .373). However, women using hormonal birth control reported similar levels of distress
during the ovulatory phase (M = 4.608, SE = .286) and the luteal phase (M = 4.696, SE = .296).
A separate MANOVA revealed that the more attractive a rival, the higher the distress rating
reported by the participant, especially during sexual infidelity, F(1, 36) = 15.501, p < .001, eta
squared = .237. There was a non-significant but suggestive interaction between ovulatory status
and infidelity type, F(1, 55) = 3.258, p = .077, eta squared = .056. This finding might suggest
that regardless of birth control use, ovulating women displayed a larger discrepancy in distress
ratings to sexual infidelity than distress ratings to emotional infidelity. There was another non-
significant (p = .12) yet suggestive interaction between ovulatory status, infidelity type, and birth
control use. This could possibly suggest that normally cycling women become more responsive
to sexual threats, while women using birth control do not.
Discussion
This study investigated the relations between ovulatory status, infidelity type, rival facial
attractiveness, and birth control use. As predicted by our first hypothesis, we found that overall
women indicated significantly higher levels of distress to rivals perceived as an emotional threat
than they did rivals perceived as a sexual threat. We also found a main effect of ovulatory status

such that during ovulation, participants rated their levels of distress significantly higher than they
did during their luteal phase. There was a significant 2-way interaction between ovulatory status
and birth control use. This means that normal cycling women reported significantly higher levels
of distress during ovulation than during the luteal phase, whereas birth control users maintained
similar distress ratings throughout their cycles. This is likely responsible for the main effect of
ovulatory status. In addition, we found that rival attractiveness positively correlated with distress
ratings, particularly when viewing rivals presented as a sexual threat. Although not significant,
we found a suggestive interaction between birth control use, ovulatory status, and infidelity type,
which suggests that normal cycling women might show different patterns of distress ratings to
both infidelity types than do birth control users.
In reference to the first hypothesis regarding the main effect of infidelity type, this
finding supports numerous past findings that in general women are significantly more distressed
by an emotional infidelity than a sexual infidelity (Buss et al., 1992; Geary et al., 2001). In
contrast, men have been found to be significantly more distressed in response to a sexual threat
than an emotional infidelity. Like other authors, we would explain this pattern with the argument
that selection has favored the development of cognitive and affective systems in women to
experience heightened distress in response to a loss of resources. While this was a statistically
significant finding, these results have been well established in previous literature and thus need
no further discussion here.
As we expected, participants reported significantly more distress during ovulation than
during the luteal phase. We also found a significant interaction between ovulatory status and
birth control use, such that distress ratings to rivals were higher during ovulation for normally
cycling women, but not for those on birth control. As discussed in the introduction, women

experience hormonal changes across the menstrual cycle (McCarthy & Becker, 2002). These
fluctuations seem to elicit changes in behavior and attractiveness in women, suggesting a subtle
signal of fertility to men (e.g., Fisher, 2004; Moore et al., 2005). The significant increase in
distress levels from the non-ovulatory phase to the ovulatory phase implies an increase in
alertness during fertility. Alertness is useful in deterring cuckoldry, which subsequently acts as a
mate-retention tactic and lowers the probability of cheating. Another possible explanation for
this significant difference in distress ratings between the 2 phases of the cycle is that women are
simply more focused on sex during ovulation. It seems that during fertility, sex is a primary
subject of interest in general so it is natural that a woman would project her sexual preoccupation
onto her partner. Perhaps this finding does not suggest an evolutionary motivation for an increase
in distress during ovulation, but rather is a byproduct of an evolved increase in sexual motivation
and ideation during ovulation.
We attribute the interaction between ovulatory status and birth control use to the effects
of birth control which inhibit the hormonal fluctuations throughout the menstrual cycle. Thus,
hormonal birth control prevents ovulation, which explains why birth control users do not exhibit
a significant increase in distress ratings during what would be their ovulatory phase. This finding
is in accord with previous research that has found that hormonal birth control users tend not to
elicit similar results to normal cycling women in many different domains (e.g., Miller et al.,
2007; Geary et al., 2001). On the contrary, normal cycling women display a significant increase
in distress ratings during ovulation, which suggests a fundamental hormonal component. Since
birth control users do not ovulate, we can confidently attribute the rise in distress within the
normal cycling group to ovulation.

As expected, there was a positive correlation between rival attractiveness and distress
ratings, in that the more attractive the rival, the more distress our participants reported. However,
the correlation was highest when participants were presented with sexual infidelity scenarios. We
believe that the correlation was highest for sexual threats because women are more inclined to be
concerned with the physical appearance of their potential rival when the threat is a physical
relationship. However, when the threat is an emotional relationship, it is likely that other factors
such as personality hold more weight in distress ratings than does physical appearance.
While not significant, there was a suggestive interaction between ovulatory status,
infidelity type, and birth control use. This “finding” might imply that normally cycling women
report higher levels of distress during ovulation than during the luteal phase to sexual infidelities
while they report similar levels of distress to emotional threats throughout their cycles. However,
birth control users did not exhibit this trend -- they reported similar patterns in distress ratings to
both infidelity types throughout their cycles. This interaction (if significant) would suggest that
not only is birth control inhibiting hormonal fluctuations so that birth control users do not display
differences in rating patterns, but it also suggests that ovulation elicits more sexual distress. We
believe that if we would have had more participants in both groups, this finding would have
likely been a significant interaction rather than only a suggestive one. However, the pattern of
results in this interaction was in the direction we had expected and thus is encouraging for future
research.
While many of our hypotheses were supported, our study is not without its limitations.
First and foremost, we would have benefited from more participants overall, but especially
within the normally cycling group. Due to a limited available pool of participants as well as our
rigorous screening process, we had a relatively small sample. As described earlier, we eliminated

women with an irregular menstrual cycle, with a recent cessation of birth control use, and who
used psychiatric medications. Unfortunately, with these strict standards, many willing women
were not eligible for participation. With more participants, specifically in the normally cycling
group, we are confident that we would have found more powerful and significant results
regarding our hypotheses.
Pertaining to our method, a weakness in our design was the lack of the representation of
ethnic diversity. The Radboud Faces Database (Langner et al., in press) of the rival faces only
contained Caucasian models while our participants were comprised of multiple races. Viewing
rivals of a different ethnicity may have influenced distress ratings in an unpredictable way. This
confounding variable may have skewed our results one way or the other. By some standards,
Western European facial features may be coveted and therefore inflated the average distress
ratings by participants. However, by other standards, Caucasian features may be unfavorable and
subsequently decreased the average distress ratings. Because we did not assess ethnicity on our
demographic questionnaire, we have no way of examining or statistically controlling for the
effects of race.
Another issue was the small range of facial attractiveness in our rival model photographs.
The models we presented as rivals had been rated for attractiveness by multiple judges of both
sexes, and had very high inter-rater reliability. However, because the researchers who created the
database were concerned with maintaining high reliability and validity within the ratings of
attractiveness (and other characteristics), there was a small range of attractiveness within the
models. Subsequently, we can be confident that the attractiveness ratings are accurate, but we are
left with less variability in attractiveness. In fact, the range of attractiveness was 1.5 to 3.4 on a
scale of 5 (Langner et al., in press). In future research, it would be beneficial for researchers to

utilize models with a wider range of facial attractiveness to elicit more variability within the
participants’ distress ratings.
Finally, we used the reverse-cycle method of estimation to identify a range within which
ovulation was likely to occur in our participants. While this method is widely accepted and
convenient, it lacks precise identification of ovulation. Although luteinizing hormone kits are
costly and difficult to administer, they ensure exact detection of when ovulation has occurred.
Further, by using LH-kits, researchers could be more confident in their findings because they
would be undoubtedly testing participants during their ovulation rather than close to the time of
their ovulation. Although this technique of ovulation detection would have been preferred,
because of time and monetary constraints, limited researchers, the reliance on participants to test
themselves daily, we opted to estimate an ovulation range.
In conclusion, this study provided strong evidence that ovulatory status, birth control use,
rival attractiveness and infidelity type affect women’s distress in various ways. While not all of
our original hypotheses yielded significant results, all of the findings followed the predicted
pattern. Our primary hypotheses were supported: a main effect for infidelity type, a main effect
for ovulatory status, an interaction between birth control use and ovulatory status, and a
correlation between rival attractiveness and distress ratings. Because our primary hypotheses
were supported despite the study’s shortcomings, this suggests that the relationships and
interactions found in this study are enduring.

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Appendix A
INFORMED CONSENT FORM
The study in which you are about to participate examines aspects of personal relationships. The study will ask you to
answer questions about your personal history, your feelings about aspects of romantic relationships, and some
general questions about health and sexual behavior. This research is being conducted by students (Sabrina Long and
Whitney Woods) and a faculty member (Kevin Moore) at DePauw University, and is connected with the Psychology
Department’s senior thesis program. You may be asked to schedule two additional appointments that will each take
about 30 minutes. In each of these appointments, you will be asked to respond to relationship scenarios and then
view and respond to photographs.
The procedure for today is very simple. First, you will receive instructions and then fill out a brief questionnaire.
The instructions should take less than 5 minutes, and it should take less than 10 minutes to fill out the
questionnaires.
As a volunteer for this experiment, you should be aware that the following rights and conditions apply.
1. Your participation is entirely voluntary, and you may withdraw at any time without penalty.
2. Following the second scheduled session, you will be asked whether you want to receive a fuller description of the
study and its purposes. If you decide to take this option we will email you a document after we have completed the
study that contains a fuller description of the nature, purpose, and results of this research. In addition, after May 10,
2010 you may always contact the researchers with any questions. We will give you a sheet with the student and
faculty contact information to take with you.
3. The results of the experiment will be kept confidential. Your data will not be reported in any manner that could
ever reveal individual identity. After the second scheduled session, we will remove the link between your name and
your data. After that, no one will be able to link your name to your individual results.
4. There are no foreseeable risks associated with participation in this study. Some of the questions in the study are,
however, of a personal nature.
5. At the conclusion of the experimental session, the experimenters will provide you with their contact information.
This is to enable you to contact someone with questions or concerns, and to ask about the results and purpose of the
study.
6. This research has been approved by the DePauw Institutional Review Board to insure that the study conforms to
ethical principles in the conduct of research with human subjects.
As a volunteer for this experiment, I have read and understood the conditions and rights listed above. I also
acknowledge that I am 18 years of age or older.
NAME (PRINT):_____________________________________
DATE:_____________________________________________
SIGNATURE:________________________________________
If you are in a course that offers extra credit for research participation, please list your professor's last name and the
course number (so that you can receive credit for participation if applicable):

Appendix B
Initial Debriefing Sheet
Thank you for participating in the study. We appreciate your time and effort, and your
cooperation will help us complete research that may shed light on some of the factors that
influence human emotional and sexual behavior.
We are still in the process of gathering data for the study, and it is important that future
participants not know about the details of our study. We would greatly appreciate it if you would
not talk about what occurred in the study with prospective participants (that is, other students) for
the next month. Of course if you have concerns or complaints, feel free to contact the researchers
as soon as you wish.
After May 10th
, please feel free to contact the researchers to receive a full description of the
study—we would be happy to go over the rationale and background for the research, and to share
our results with you.
The names of the student and faculty conducting the research are listed below. You are free to
take this sheet with you and contact us at the email addresses below.
Student Researchers:
Sabrina Long sabrinalong_2010@depauw.edu
Whitney Woods whitneywoods_2010@depauw.edu
Faculty Researcher:
Dr. Kevin E. Moore kemoore@depauw.edu
125 Harrison Hall x4568
[Participants invited back to participate will have also have the information on their sheet]
As a reminder, you are scheduled to come back for two more research sessions.
Session 1: [date, time, location]
Session 2: [date, time, location]
We will send a follow-up reminder as well a few days before your sessions. If you need to
reschedule, please contact Whitney Woods (whitneywoods_2010@depauw.edu) or Sabrina Long
(sabrinalong_2010@depauw.edu).

Appendix C
Questionnaire
Instructions: Please fill out the following questionnaire as honestly as possible. Check yes or no and fill
in answers where appropriate. Thank you for your participation.
1. What is your current age? 18__ 19__ 20__ 21__ 22__ 23 or over__
Note: If you are under the age of 18, please stop now
2. Are you currently using a hormone-based birth control method? Yes___ No___
(pills, injections, morning after pill, implants, etc…)
3. Have you used a hormone-based birth control in the past three months?
Yes___ No___
4. Have you been pregnant in the last 3 months or are you pregnant now?
Yes___ No___
5. Have your menstrual cycles been regular for the past three months?
Yes___ No___
6. When was the day that your last period started? Month____________ Day____
7. How long is your usual cycle? ______ days
8. On a scale of 1 to 7 (1 being very unattractive and 7 being very attractive) how would you rate
your own attractiveness? Please circle the number that applies:
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
unattractive very attractive
9. Are you currently, or have you been in the last three months, taken prescribed antidepressant,
anti-anxiety, or antipsychotic medications? Yes___ No___
9. What is your primary sexual orientation? Same sex ___ Other sex ___ Both sexes ___

10. Have you ever been in a committed romantic relationship? Yes___ No___
11. Are you in a committed romantic relationship now? Yes___ No___
12. Have you ever been in a sexual relationship? Yes___ No___
(Sexual relations meaning any activity leading to orgasm for one or both people.)
13. Are you currently in a sexual relationship? Yes___ No___
14. Have you ever been in a relationship where your partner has been emotionally
unfaithful (i.e., he/she has fallen in love with someone else)? Yes___ No___
15. Have you ever been in a relationship where your partner has been sexually
unfaithful (i.e., he/she has had sexual relations with someone else)?
Yes___ No___

Appendix D

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