1. Running head: CURRENT RESEARCH ON MATE SELECTION IN HUMANS 1
Current Research on Mate Selection in Humans
Brittany Wellman
Ferris State University

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Current Research on Mate Selection in Humans
Since the time before Helen Bradford Thompson Woolley, psychologists have been
arguing over sex differences. Evolutionary theory, as proposed by Darwinian thinking, is no
different. There have been numerous studies related to finding sex differences in mating
processes in humans and animals, specifically chimpanzees. However, the studies that have been
conducted so far have not taken into account same sex relationships and male power as an
environmental factor dominating mating patterns (Silverstein, 1998 and Radtke, 2013).
Evolutionary psychology is being used as a framework for explaining complex social
behaviors, such as mating. The idea of natural selection often overemphasizes biological factors
and undermines environmental ones (Silverstein, 1998). While some traits can be biologically
adaptive, it is the environment that allows such traits to be expressed. Natural selection has
always favored flexibility over fixity, an idea that is not often expressed in evolutionary
psychology. Most research conducted has focused on heterosexual reproductive relationships
through an examination of chimpanzees. Bonobos, on the other hand, have been left out of
research despite their biological closeness to humans (Radtke, 2013). These primates are in the
same class as chimpanzees, but have features that are slimmer and live in different environments.
Because bonobos exhibit vastly different environments than do chimpanzees, they exhibit
different mating rituals and social structures (Silverstein, 1998). Their female-female
relationships have also been left out of much research conducted on mate selection.
All of the data left out of evolutionary psychology research helps to emphasize the status
quo. By avoiding bonobos and female centered research, evolutionary psychologists privilege
heterosexual relationships and traditional family structures (Silverstein, 1998). Feminists argue
females should be at the center of more evolutionary research, along with more research on

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lesbian mate selection. A large body of research suggests mate selection is different for each
gender. Males invest less in children and therefore are able to seek out multiple partners.
Because of their lack of investment, they often seek out physical characteristics specific to
reproductive potential, such as bigger hips for childbearing or any inclination of genetic fitness.
Their genetic fitness is served by impregnating multiple females with good genes who can
successfully have their children. Females, on the other hand, invest a lot of time and energy into
child rearing. This, as suggested by most evolutionary psychologists, is why they seek out
partners with resources to help them successfully take care of a child. However, this idea has
many flaws that feminists want to utilize to expand research.
First, this idea has not been a good predictor of male involvement with infants in many
primate species (Silverstein, 1998). The theory ignores social variables, such as access to
economic resources and political power, and instead focuses on biology based principles.
Second, this idea does not hold up when examining primate species. Females should be
interested in mate quality instead of quantity. However, in certain parts of their reproductive
cycle, female chimpanzees will mate with almost every male in her group. This idea is even
more distinct in bonobo females, who have been witnessed mating over 100 times with different
males over the course of a week. Male adult chimpanzees are often very discriminating in their
choice of partner, something not explained by evolutionary psychology. When Jane Goodall did
research with chimpanzees, she found many patterns that are not explained through typical
evolutionary theory. She found females who mated with a large number of males, monogamous
relationships between adult male and females, and differing patterns depending on the abundance
of food, the number of females in the reproductive stage of their sexual cycle, and the number of
males and total number of chimpanzees in the group. This idea helps demonstrate how

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evolutionary theory cannot leave out environmental factors, as they change how behavior occurs.
Overall, it is better to predict chimpanzee and possibly human mating behavior through
biological sex, the availability of resources, age, social contexts, and reproductive cycles.
The availability of resources is another factor that affects mating preferences. For
example, chimpanzees share their environment with gorillas, whereas bonobos do not. The
competition for resources may help shape chimpanzee cultures into one where males dominate,
whereas the abundancy of resources in bonobo societies may help with the egalitarian
relationship the sexes maintain. Just like in bonobo culture, Tahiti has a prevalence of resources
and tends to be less male dominated and have fewer gender differences. Women in the United
States, however, still keep a majority of lower paying jobs, get paid less for the same work, and
overall have fewer resources to achieve economic security. While men do not necessarily have
economic security, they have more direct access to resources than do women. If women were not
dependent on men for economic security, they may be more likely to exhibit a more ‘male’
pattern of sexual behaviors, with multiple partners and casual sex.
Finally, evolutionary theory is missing the idea of male power in society (Silverstein,
1998). When looking at sex differences, a number of studies have claimed males prefer casual
sex and mate with more partners than females. It has been noted that when men have the
opportunity for sex with little or no cost, they are likely to engage in it with many different
partners. However, it is difficult to use this same idea in regards to females, since there are no
areas where females would have little to no cost for casual sex. Indeed, most if not all human
cultures are patriarchal, where men have power over women. One of the characteristics of these
cultures is a male control over female sexuality, which can be institutionalized. Given women’s
costs for sexual encounters, it is no surprise that they favor monogamy.

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This idea is expressed in bonobo culture. Bonobos are unique because males and females
are co-dominant (Silverstein, 1998). Many times, females band together in groups and attack
males who abuse their power. This system of checks and balances keeps one group from gaining
too much control in their culture. The sexual behaviors they exhibit are also more diverse than
those of chimpanzees, including female-female clitoral stimulation (GG rubbing), male-male
rubbing, and three or more partners in a single sexual interaction. Sex is used for purposes other
than reproduction, such as for making friends, getting food, calming an individual, or
forgiveness.
Bonobos are especially distinctive in their same-sex behavior and can help explore the
area in evolutionary psychology. Often, female same-sex behavior is examined in direct
comparison to male same-sex behavior, if studied at all (Radtke, 2013). Many of the theories
about why same-sex behavior exists through an evolutionary perspective have been focused on
males. Homosexuality is especially problematic in evolutionary psychology because of
reproduction; homosexual individuals cannot reproduce. In evolutionary theories, male
homosexual behavior is often attributed to genes. Female same-sex behavior is more likely to be
attributed to a defective environment, such as abuse by a male or lack of males. These arguments
are very rarely used in discussing male same-sex behavior.
There has been recent consideration for research on gender fluidity as a potentially
adaptive trait for females, which is vastly different than the ideas set forth about male same-sex
behavior (Radtke, 2013). Gender fluidity is the idea of flexible sexuality, where depending on
the situation, one can be attracted to men or women, regardless of their overall sexual
orientation. It has been argued that sexual fluidity is an adaptive trait women express when the
environment triggers it, but possess even before being expressed. It could be adaptive from the

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usefulness in forming strong pair bonds between women to increase survival, like the bonobos
do with GG rubbing to form female coalitions. This claim has been backed up by some genital
response patterns measured when examining female and male participants being shown an erotic
film. Females tend to get aroused by both female and male sexual stimuli, according to genital
recordings, but only report arousal to the sex they prefer. Men, on the other hand, tend to be
more physiologically aroused by the gender they report to prefer.
The idea of gender fluidity can be adaptive in cases of allomothering (Radtke, 2013).
Allomothering is when someone other than the biological mother helps in taking care of
offspring, whether related or unrelated to the mother. When females use same-sex behavior to
form closer bonds, such as in the bonobo societies, allomothering may occur and help the
offspring’s chance of survival. This adaptive reasoning can be theorized to account for the
sexual fluidity in females.
The traditional views of evolutionary psychology are dangerous for creating the
impression that the status quo is justified (Silverstein, 1998). The ideas presented keep oppressed
groups oppressed while providing reasons for privileged groups to maintain power. These
theories present the idea that behavior is fixed and innate, not something acted on by the
environment and therefore inevitable. Also, disregarding female same-sex relationships is
hurting evolutionary psychology in terms of whose behavior they can predict. Avoiding a group
of people all together shows that their theories have not yet been substantiated to predict lesbian
behavior. Using more female-centered approaches, examining the bonobo species in comparative
studies to chimpanzees, and focusing on female sexuality under the influence of patriarchal ideas
can help bring a more feminist perspective to evolutionary psychology.

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References
Radtke, S. (2013). Sexual fluidity in women: How feminist research influenced evolutionary
studies of same-sex behavior.Journal of Social, Evolutionary, and Cultural
Psychology, 7(4), 336-343. doi:10.1037/h0099185
Silverstein, L. B. (1998, August). New directions for evolutionary psychology. Feminism and
Psychology, 8(3), 375-382. doi:10.1177/0959353598083009