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- 1. IGLOO VISION AND IMMERSIVE TRAINING ENVIRONMENTS AIKEN, F., BROWN, R., COLLIN, G., HARALAMBOUS V. A. B. & POLE, R.
- 2. SCENARIO GOALS Assess the benefits of group training (igloo) versus oculus rift training (isolated) in adults. In an immersive training environment, does a group environment affect learning of adults in organisations such as the military, critical occupations and essential services? Outline the impact of isolated experiences on training.
- 3. Dalgarno & Lee (2010)
- 4. IMMERSION Immersion is “a psychological state characterized by perceiving oneself to be enveloped by a virtual environment” Witmer & Singer, 1998
- 5. BENEFITS OF IMMERSION Increased peripheral awareness Increased spatial understanding Improved transfer of training
- 6. BENEFITS OF IMMERSION Higher levels of active learner participation Faster task completion speed and higher problem solving accuracy Effective prevention of errors Decrease of information clutter and increased understanding of the environment
- 7. MILITARY, CRITICAL OCCUPATION AND ESSENTIAL SERVICES TRAINING
- 8. TRANSFER OF TRAINING Effects on Transfer of Training • Practice and experience • Motivation • Self-Efficacy • Environment Fidelity • Muscle memory
- 9. TEAMWORK Teamwork improves team building communication decision making fatigue practical skills team performance
- 10. TRANSACTIVE MEMORY Teams trained in unison on a task relevant to their real-life performance, are less error prone and have better procedural memory Transactive Memory Decrease in errors Improved Procedural Memory Increased performance even if communication is not allowed . . .
- 12. THE IMPORTANCE OF FEEDBACK • Feedback improves training performance • Playback of training sessions post-training results in: • Stronger transactive memory • Higher team coordination
- 13. SUMMARY Benefits of using Igloo versus Oculus rift • Increased spatial awareness • Increased social interaction • Possibility of both verbal and non verbal communication • Higher fidelity • Possibility of playback and feedback
- 15. RECOMMENDATIONS Importance of feedback Use cross training method Theory of elements and special effects Learner centred approach to training
- 16. POSSIBLE OTHER USES FOR IGLOO Mild or severe age related memory impairments Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD)
- 17. REFERENCES • Alexander, A., Brunyé, T., Sidman, J. & Weil, S. A., 2005. From Gaming to Training: A Review of Studies on Fidelity, Immersion, Presence, and Buy-in and Their Effects on Transfer in PC-Based Simulations and Games. DARWARS Training Impact Group. Retrieved November 17 2014. Available at: http://www.aptima.com/publications/2005_Alexander_Brunye_Sidman_Weil.pdf. • Bandura, A., 1997. Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. New York: Freeman. • Bandura, A., 1986. Social foundation of thought and action: A social cognitive theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. • Bandura, A., 1977. Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change. Psychological Review, 84(2), 191-215. • Cannon-Bowers, J. A., Salas, E., Blickensderfer, B. & Bowers, C. A., 1998. The Impact of Cross-Training and Workload on Team Functioning: A Replication and Extension of Initial Findings. HUMAN FACTORS, 40 (1), pp. 92–101. • Cohen-Hatton, S. R., Haddon, J. E. & George D. N., 2013. Pavlovian-to-Instrumental Transfer: Paradoxical Effects of the Pavlovian Relationship Explained. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Behavior Processes, 39 (1), pp. 14 –23. • Dalgarno, B. & Lee M. J. W., 2010. What are the learning affordances of 3-D virtual environments? British Journal of Educational Technology, 41 (1), pp. 10–32. • Burke, C. S., Salas, E., Wilson-Donnelly, K. & Priest, H., 2004. How to turn a team of experts into an expert medical team: guidance from the aviation and military communities. Quality and Safety in Health Care, 13, pp. 96-104. • Grinberg, A. M., Careaga, J. S., Mehl, M. R. and O’Connor, M. F., 2014. Social engagement and user immersion in a socially based virtual world. Computers in Human Behavior, 36, pp. 479-486. • Nowak, K. L., and Rauh, C., 2005. The influence of the avatar on online perceptions of anthropomorphism, androgymy, credibility, homophily, and attraction. Journal of Computer Mediated Communication, 11(1), pp. 153-178. • Kuhn, D. & Dean, D., 2004. Metacognition: A Bridge Between Cognitive Psychology and Educational Practice. THEORY INTO PRACTICE, 43 (4), pp. 268-273. • Hollingshead, A. B., 1998. Retrieval Processes in Transactive Memory Systems. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74(3), pp. 659-671. • Leonard, M., Graham, S., & Bonacum, D., 2004. The human factor: the critical importance of effective teamwork and communication in providing safe care. Quality and Safety in Health Care, 13 (1), pp. i85-i90. • Minocha, S., and Reeves, A. J., 2010. Design of learning spaces in 3D virtual worlds, An empirical investigation of Second Life. Learning, Media and Technology, 35(2), pp.111–137.
- 18. REFERENCES • Volpe, C. E., Cannon-Bowers, J. A., Salas, E., & Spector, P., 1995. The impact of cross-training on team functioning. Human Factors, 38, pp. 87–100. • Wegner, D. M., 1987. Transactive Memory: A Contemporary Analysis of the Group Mind. In: Mullen, B. & Goethals, G. R. (Eds), Theories of Group Behavior (pp. 185-208). New York: Springer-Verlag. • Wegner, D. M., 1995. A Computer Network Model of Human Transactive Memory. Social Cognition, 13, pp. 319-339. • Witmer, B. G., and Singer, M. J., 1998. Measuring presence in virtual environments: A presence questionnaire. Presence: Teleoperators and Virtual Environments, 7(3), pp. 225–240.
Editor's Notes
- B: Hi, before we begin we would like to introduce the members of the group, I’m Beki, this is Rachal, Gemma, Fran and Vanessa. We will outline the scenario goals that were given to us by Igloo Vision Ltd in order to refresh your memory.
- B: Firstly, we will assess the benefits of group training (Igloo) versus Oculus Rift training (isolated) in adults. B: Secondly, we will see if in an immersive training environment affects learning of adults in organisations such as the military, critical occupations and essential services when they are trained as a group. B: And finally, we will outline the impact on training of isolated experiences.
- F: 3D virtual learning environments offer a superior experience compared to interactive multimedia. Igloo being a 360 degree cave system makes it ideal to train various group sizes within it whereas Oculus Rift isolates individual members of a group through its design, limiting the capacity for collective group memory. F: As you can see in your handout, we have selected this specific model to base our research evaluation upon. F: This type of model by Dalgarno and Lee (2010) is already used in the military and health care. V: The model is most effective in a group-training environment as it promotes spatial awareness and shared memories across group members. V: There are two main components within the model: representational fidelity and learner interaction, these arch into construction of identity, presence and co presence. V: Representational fidelity relates to how realistic or familiar the simulation is, compared to our environment. V: High fidelity simulation has applications in medical training, often used for medical procedure training. V: This fidelity facilitates spatial awareness so team members are more aware of each other’s positions, and in turn boosts understanding of the learning environment. B: As a further consideration, Alexander et al.’s (2005) Theory of elements raises awareness of the need to consider other senses apart from vision for immersive environment training systems. B: By incorporating senses such as heat and special effects such as smoke in a virtual training environment fidelity is increased, improving knowledge application through high transfer of training. B: This would only be realistically cost effective for Igloo users as opposed to who works closely with Nottinghamshire fire service, Oculus Rift since additional objects can be placed inside the dome to aid team training and can be used for more than one team at a time. This would need to be considered by the organisations themselves. G: Despite the majority of research evidencing a positive effect of fidelity on training, some studies find that higher simulation fidelity levels sometimes do not increase training success. However, these studies use an avatar virtual reality system, so they are not training in the first person, like it is possible within the Igloo. G: According to research done by Sabrina Cohen Hatton seeing an avatar and not a real co-worker devalues the end goal of the trainee so the response may not be as considered. Oculus Rift only allows the user to view others as avatars, thus increasing the sense of psychological distance. G: Learner interaction, the second main component of this model, relates to the capacity of a virtual environment to allow for verbal and non-verbal communication. This is true across different group members as well as individual members within the environment. R: Research shows that active learner participation by which the user can directly control the virtual environment and the object within it is less important in-group environments. Instead, significant importance is placed on social presence, as referred to later. R: Presence, a consequence of fidelity is used to explain the emerging feeling of individuals in virtual reality systems of “being there”. R: As an extension of presence, the term co presence was coined to describe the experience of “being there together”. R: This of course being the ideal outcome for training occupations such as the military, critical occupations and essential services and therefore special focus ought to be placed on the factors that lead to the creation of co presence. F: Screen image size is something that can potentially evoke presence. This is specific to large screens due to the faster movement within the pictured scene creating a better experience of physical movement. F: Relating this back to Igloo; its 360 degree wraparound screen would be especially effective in evoking presence due to its extraordinarily large size. F: Research also investigating effects of movement on presence, shows that attaching a stepping-sensor to the trainee’s footwear improves presence, making “free” movement in the virtual world possible. F: Having said this, Igloo already provides the sense of “free” movement. Being a CAVE system, that creates a natural horizon, stimulating a very realistic experience. V: Nevertheless, Oculus Rift creates presence through construction of identity. Depiction of self as an “avatar”, leads to an individual experience of presence. V: However, there is evidence within the literature to suggest that it is this very creation of the “new” identity that serves to take away from the real life experience, and the already familiar and invested identities of the team members themselves. V: Finally, the ability to acquire spatial awareness from a virtual environment, is affected by previous video gaming experience.
- B: Igloo’s realistic, practical and all inclusive design make a more cost effective training environment, eliminating the need of expensive equipment for each individual trainee. B: Although presence is a consequence of immersion, it is equally as important to consider each as separate concepts in regards to their effect on training. B: Immersion is termed as “a psychological state characterized by perceiving oneself to be enveloped by a virtual environment” (Witmer & Singer, 1998).
- B: Like with everything, there are both benefits and challenges to immersion. B: The benefits of immersive environments include; (a) increased peripheral awareness, (b) increased spatial understanding, (c) greater field of vision and (d) higher levels of active learner participation. G: Further, task completion speed and problem solving accuracy are better in immersive virtual environments compared to non-immersive virtual environments. G: Social engagement and fidelity relate to immersion creating better effects on training. G: Being a part of a cooperating social group is positively associated with immersion, meaning that to be immersed into a virtual environment a social component needs to be central. R: This relates to Igloo’s capacity to evoke high levels of presence due to its screen size, leading to increased co presence when training groups. R: In turn, co presence promotes shared in-group memories created through verbal and non-verbal communication across group members. This would consequently also lead to better transfer of training which will be explaining in more detail later on.
- R: Drawing on the original question, within critical occupations most errors made are due to poor communication, lack of awareness, and most crucially the inability to predict another member’s actions. F: Focusing on the realism of social interaction in a virtual environment is more important than focusing on the realism of the virtual environment itself. F: Trainees are interacting in the same way they would in a real working situation. They can use non-verbal communication with each other and so better judge and react to each other’s reactions. F: A highly realistic environment focusing on the real-world setting social interaction therefore creates higher levels of immersion. F: Igloo, as opposed to Oculus Rift, offers more opportunities for teams to train in a “real-world” environment. V: Finally, research looking into flight simulation shows that advantages of immersive simulator training decrease rapidly with experience of individual trainees. This means that we need to assess individuals’ level of experience before the training course begins.
- V: Apart from just senses needing to be considered as mentioned earlier, to make an immersive training environment realistic, specific characteristics and training needs of teams should also be addressed. V: Virtual reality training of the military is especially useful since apart from removing all morbidity risks related to combat training it addresses their needs of: (a) realistic decision making, (b) dynamic and continually changing conditions and (c) being prepared for any eventuality. B: The aforementioned need for transfer of training is crucial to the military, critical occupations and emergency services because the trainees need to transfer their acquired knowledge into real world settings.
- B: Different aspects that strengthen transfer of training are including but not limited to: practice and experience, motivation, self-efficacy and high fidelity. G: Research shows that through extensive practice and experience, less mental resources are required because complex behaviours become automated. These mental resources are then utilised to evaluate or monitor actions in a training environment. G: Training effectiveness is additionally affected by self-efficacy, “an individual's belief in his or her capacity to execute behaviours necessary to produce specific performance attainments” (Bandura, 1977, 1986, 1997). The effect of self-efficacy is evident in various training instances including military training programmes – especially in regards to computer or virtual reality systems self-efficacy. R: In addition situational cues and consequences, created through high virtual environment fidelity significantly predict transfer of training. R: Increasing the practicality of the training content also results in greater application and transfer of knowledge and skills in a real world context. F: Finally, special considerations need to be made for transfer of training. F: Transfer of training is enhanced by adding challenges during practice. However, it should be noted that this post training effect is not immediate. F: Repeated simulation is most effective as it promotes active learning and training. This also improves the mental performance of trainees.
- V: In addition to the aspects already mentioned, critical occupations need high levels of teamwork and coordination. This is due to the fact that teamwork leads to improvements in fatigue, team building, communications and decision making, whereas coordination enhances leadership. V: Teamwork improves knowledge, practical skills and team performance. B: The effectiveness of teamwork is facilitated by situational awareness, shared mental models, cultural diversity and metacognition. The literature suggests that these resources are more prominent in team training within the Igloo. B: Metacognition is termed as the “awareness and management of one’s own thought, or “thinking about thinking.”” (Kuhn & Dean, 2004). B: Peak effectiveness of teamwork is maintained by freeing up mental resources through implicit coordination and shared knowledge communicated efficiently across the team. G: Coordination, the management of interdependent activities across team members, also enhances team leadership which in turn has a bidirectional effect with immersion. G: It is important to note that visual information required for coordination is often supplied by non-verbal communication between team members. This can be in the form of facial expressions and other body language. Such non-verbal communication can in turn enhance presence. R: In tasks requiring high levels of coordination, group training is preferred to training alone. G: Non-verbal communication being difficult using headset virtual environments like Oculus Rift, Igloo allows for higher team coordination and presence. R: And finally, research shows that individuals in smaller teams outperform those in larger teams. V: This can possibly be attributed to more stressful experiences due to lower levels of individualised support, thus leading to a decrease in performance. V: More significantly, team performance is negatively affected by an increase in team size, especially if this happens at a later point of the project. V: Having said this, isolated training via Oculus Rift is well suited for training if it accurately reflects the trainee’s usual working environment. R: Since the military, critical occupations and essential services mostly work in teams of 2 or more, a group friendly training equipment such as Igloo would be more suitable since it better reflects their workplace reality. R: Literature shows that individuals from individualistic cultures incorporate and store information easier through isolated training, while the opposite is true for members of collectivistic cultures. F: Crucially, despite cultural background differences, training in environments familiar to the trainees’ workplace is more successful. F: While coordination is a set of intergroup responsibilities being managed appropriately – being in a group can also lead to the creation of shared mental information.
- F: A common term used in literature to widely describe shared mental information in teams is transactive memory. V: In teams characterised by joint decision making, shared experience and common language, transactive memory is highly likely to be developed. V: Transactive memory is especially strong in teams with speakers of one or more foreign languages because of increased intercultural effectiveness. G: As a result of transactive memory teams trained in unison, on a task relevant to their real-life performance, are less likely to make errors and have better memory of work related procedures. B: Additionally, transactive memory increases coordination, spoken about earlier, since one can anticipate rather than just react to team members. B: It is very important to note that transactive memory helps group performance even when communication is not allowed. B: This relates to the importance of non-verbal communication for the military during a reconnaissance mission for example. B: Again Igloo allows for the training of non-verbal communication, while this becomes more problematic regarding Oculus Rift.
- G: Nearing the end of this presentation, some final additional points need to be considered in our pursuit of deciding which product would be the best to use to train within the military, critical occupations and essential services.
- R: Feedback is one of these additional considerations. R: Feedback especially improves training performance if it is introduced at early stages of collaborative tasks. F: For instance video capturing exercises performed during training and playing them back post-training improves training effectiveness. F: Playing back recorded training sessions post-training also strengthens in-group transactive memory. The chance for team members to view the situation from another person’s perspective is crucial in terms of learning to anticipate their reactions and streamline the overall performance of a team. V: As a consequence, mental representations common between all team members establish themselves along with higher team coordination. V: This proves to be cost effective since new military, critical occupations or essential services trainees can be initially trained through evaluating the performance of their peers followed by their own training. This could potentially reduce the total training time needed. R: The times the recorded training sessions are played back to trainees directly relates to the strength of transactive memory within that group. B: Just before we move on to the summary and our recommendations, individual differences need to be considered during training. B: Evidence shows that novice trainees require direct instructional support to optimise training environments. At the same time, as expertise increases, instructional support should be reduced to avoid needless guidance. G: Regardless of strong evidential support for this novice and expert needs distinction, this is often not implemented and training systems are currently following minimally guided approaches. G: Using discovery learning, inquiry-based or problem-based learning is inferior to guided instructional training for the occupations considered in this inquiry.
- R: Overall, the benefits of using Igloo versus Oculus Rift include: R: Increased peripheral awareness (distance, direction, location) R: Increased social interaction and as a result Co-presence G: These link to training needs such as coordination, teamwork and transfer of training G: Possibility of verbal and non-verbal communication G: Higher fidelity to usual working environment B: Makes it possible to playback sessions following video recording Capacity for feedback and metacognition
- F: Through consulting all of the psychological literature we have decided on four recommendations to put to you, in order for you to gain the most from your equipment, and the companies you are working with can also gain the most out of their experience. F: The recommendations on the next slide are laid out in order of significance and cost effectiveness and are recommended to be prioritised in that order.
- F: 1. Providing Training feedback F: Training feedback at end of tasks strengthens trainee belief in their ability to transfer, thus improving transfer of training. F: In detail, training feedback not only improves training performance overall but also strengthens transactive memory. F: Because of transactive memory mental representations common between all team members establish themselves along with higher team coordination. F: The times the recorded training sessions are played back to trainees directly relate to the strength of transactive memory within that group. F: Finally, this recommendation is most effective if it is introduced at early stages of collaborative tasks. V: 2. Employing “cross-training” as a training method V: Same as feedback, “cross-training” allows active participation. V: Accuracy and speed is higher in teams that have employed a “cross-training” strategy. Additionally, coordination without the need for verbal interaction is fostered. V: First developed by Volpe et al (1995) and further developed by Cannon-Bowers in 1998, “cross-training” involves team members being trained in others’ roles as well as their own to acquire knowledge of their team members’ responsibilities and roles. V: This is especially true for high workload training tasks, which is very relative to the fire service and military. G: 3. Using Alexander’s (2005) Theory of elements and introducing Special effects: G: For fire fighters some interaction of heat and/or aspects of smoke must be accounted for in order to have a real life simulation. G: Similarly, taking a compass and/or a map into Igloo for training exercises could prove helpful for the military since it would improve spatial understanding, an essential characteristic of immersive environments directly linked to increased training performance. G: Fidelity facilitates spatial awareness so team members are more aware of each other’s positions, and in turn boosts understanding of the learning environment. G: Applying Alexander’s (2005) Theory of elements increases fidelity of training and improves knowledge application through high transfer of training acquired knowledge. B: 4. Learner centred approach to training (novice vs expert differences) B: Although most instructional strategies are novice focused, detailed guidance is unnecessary for experts. B: It is therefore recommended to optimise instructional strategy depending on learner level. B: The Learner centred approach to training considers individual differences across learners. G: As mentioned earlier, while novice trainees require direct instructional support to optimise training environments. At the same time, as expertise increases, instructional support should be reduced to avoid needless guidance. V: Corrective feedback is best applied in teams of experts since it also prompts self-reflection and material comprehension while training. Metacognitive prompting is the best choice of instructional strategy for complex military training contexts since it encourages evaluating on-going events. V: This is essential for that profession due to its need of preparedness for any eventuality in an ever changing hostile environment. V: Specifically, the term metacognitive prompting refers to “problem solving reflection which in turn promotes metacognitive monitoring - evaluating on-going events” (Kuhn & Dean, 2004).
- B: In addition to the recommendations to the critical occupations, we think there are other uses for the Igloo that arise from our literature searches. B: Firstly, using virtual environment CAVE systems, like Igloo, to assist patients with mild or severe age related memory impairments to evaluate their memories of life events and boost encoding of new memories. F: Secondly, using a combination of music therapy and virtual environments to assist children with Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD) to develop their communication and social interaction skills in a safe, judgement free environment. G: In the following slides we provide an indicative reading list, and we will now be taking questions.