Term paper

1. Introduction
Occupational health is concerned with the control of occupational health hazards that arise
as a result of or during work activities. Occupational health or industrial hygiene has been
defined as that “science and art devoted to the anticipation, recognition, evaluation and
control of those environmental factors or stresses arising in or from the work place, which
may cause sickness, impaired health and well-being, or significant discomfort among
workers or among the citizens of the community”. It encompass the study of chronic as
well as acute conditions emanating from hazards posed by physical agents, chemical
agents, biological agents and stress in the occupational environment and the outdoors
environment.
Evaluation of the magnitude of the environmental factors and stresses arising in or from
the work place is performed by the industrial hygienist, aided by training, experience and
quantitative measurement of the chemical, physical, ergonomic, or biological stresses. He
can thus give an expert opinion as to the degree of risk posed by the environmental factor
or job stresses.
Occupational health or industrial hygiene includes the development of corrective measures
in order to control health hazards by either reducing or eliminating exposures.
In this text therefore, industrial hygienist or occupational health worker is used
interchangeably although the level of qualification and responsibility in some aspect
differs. The objective in any case for both qualification is the protection of the worker from
adverse health impairment and ill health.
Definition
As defined by the World Health Organization (WHO) "occupational health deals with all
aspects of health and safety in the workplace and has a strong focus on primary prevention
of hazards."[7]
Health has been defined as "a state of complete physical, mental and social
well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity."[8]
Occupational health is a
multidisciplinary field of healthcare concerned with enabling an individual to undertake

2. their occupation, in the way that causes least harm to their health. It aligns with the
promotion of health and safety at work, which is concerned with preventing harm from
hazards in the workplace.
Since 1950, the International Labour Organization (ILO) and the WHO have shared a
common definition of occupational health. It was adopted by the Joint ILO/WHO
Committee on Occupational Health at its first session in 1950 and revised at its twelfth
session in 1995. The definition reads:
"The main focus in occupational health is on three different objectives: (i) the maintenance
and promotion of workers' health and working capacity; (ii) the improvement of working
environment and work to become conducive to safety and health and (iii) development of
work organizations and working cultures in a direction which supports health and safety at
work and in doing so also promotes a positive social climate and smooth operation and
may enhance productivity of the undertakings. The concept of working culture is intended
in this context to mean a reflection of the essential value systems adopted by the
undertaking concerned. Such a culture is reflected in practice in the managerial systems,
personnel policy, principles for participation, training policies and quality management of
the undertaking."
— Joint ILO/WHO Committee on Occupational Health[9]
Those in the field of occupational health come from a wide range of disciplines and
professions including medicine, psychology, epidemiology, physiotherapy and
rehabilitation, occupational therapy, occupational medicine, human factors and
ergonomics, and many others. Professionals advise on a broad range of occupational health
matters. These include how to avoid particular pre-existing conditions causing a problem
in the occupation, correct posture for the work, frequency of rest breaks, preventive action
that can be undertaken, and so forth. The quality of occupational safety is characterized by
(1) the indicators reflecting the level of industrial injuries, (2) the average number of days

3. of incapacity for work per employer, (3) employees' satisfaction with their work conditions
and (4) employees' motivation to work safely.
Definitions
Environmental health was defined in a 1989 document by the World Health Organization
(WHO) as: Those aspects of the human health and disease that are determined by factors
in the environment. It also refers to the theory and practice of assessing and controlling
factors in the environment that can potentially affect health.
Environmental health as used by the WHO Regional Office for Europe, includes
both the direct pathological effects of chemicals, radiation and some biological
agents, and the effects (often indirect) on health and well being of the broad
physical, psychological, social and cultural environment, which includes housing,
urban development, land use and transport.[1]
As of 2016 the WHO website on environmental health states "Environmental health
addresses all the physical, chemical, and biological factors external to a person, and all the
related factors impacting behaviours. It encompasses the assessment and control of those
environmental factors that can potentially affect health. It is targeted towards preventing
disease and creating health-supportive environments. This definition excludes behaviour
not related to environment, as well as behaviour related to the social and cultural
environment, as well as genetics."[2]
The WHO has also defined environmental health services as "those services which
implement environmental health policies through monitoring and control activities. They
also carry out that role by promoting the improvement of environmental parameters and by
encouraging the use of environmentally friendly and healthy technologies and behaviors.
They also have a leading role in developing and suggesting new policy areas."[3][4]

4. The term environmental medicine may be seen as a medical specialty, or branch of the
broader field of environmental health.[5][6]
Terminology is not fully established, and in
many European countries they are used interchangeably.[7]
Children's environmental health is the academic discipline that studies how environmental
exposures in early life—chemical, nutritional, and social—influence health and
development in childhood and across the entire human life span.
DIFFEREBCES OF Environmental and Occupational Health
Environmental and Occupational health (“EOH”) refers to the role of environment and
occupation on human health.
What is “Environment” in Environmental Health?
Note that occupational health is a special case of environmental health and refers to health
issues associated with jobs occupations, professions, and in the context of work. This is
why here we will discuss occupational and environmental health together as
“Environmental Health”.
When we study environmental health, our aim is to understand the role of environment in
shaping our health and what can we do about it. For example, if we know that exposure to
air pollution leads to respiratory diseases such as asthma, then, in order to prevent asthma,
we will need to improve air quality. If we know that if the quality of our drinking water is
poor and leads to diarrhoeal diseases, then, we must improve our drinking water standards
and take steps to prevent such illnesses. Therefore, in the discussion of environmental
health, environment refers to an element we can modify to improve public health.
What do we mean by “environment” in Environmental Health?
Hence, we mean by “environment” that is both:

5. (1) External to humans and
(2) Results from human activities.
For example, environmental tobacco smoke is an environmental health issue. Smoke from
cigarettes results in air pollution; inhaled smoke also leads to different illnesses. Smoke
from burning cigarettes drifts in air and reaches our air passages. Smoke results from
human activities (smoking); smoke is external to us; and, smoking harms our health. Hence
smoking is an environmental health problem.
In contrast, health effects that result from earthquake cannot be labelled as an
environmental health problem even though severe physical and mental health issues result
in people who suffer consequences of earthquakes. The reason health effects of earthquake
cannot be described as environmental health is that there is no reason to believe that
earthquakes are results of human activities, and consequently there is nothing we can do to
prevent earthquakes.
Because earthquake is a natural disaster, not a human engendered event, hence heart
disease resulting from being exposed to earthquake is considered as a response to a natural
disaster, rather than an “environmental health” problem. The decision here is driven by
whether something is “human engendered” or not. The idea being, if you were to be certain
that something is “human engendered”, then you can think of mitigating or preventive
action to address the resulting health effects. This is important for prevention and has public
health consequences.
It may seem that the distinctions are not obvious. For example, natural disasters such as
storms and hurricanes result in significant health effects such as infectious diseases and
people getting injured, yet we will label health impacts from hurricanes and storms as
health effects from natural disasters rather than environmental health issues. But we also
know that increased frequency of storms and natural disasters are results of global
warming, and global warming is human-engendered or “anthropogenic” (e.g. “What is the

6. link between hurricanes and global warming?”). From this viewpoint, we can argue that
health effects resulting from people being exposed to storms and natural disasters are
“environmental health” problems, and that if we can reduce global warming, this will affect
the frequency of “storms and hurricanes” and in turn will have implications for human
health issues resulting from “natural disaster induced health problems”.
Another point of distinction is that, for a health problem to be labelled as environmental,
the trigger should always be external to humans, they cannot come from internally or inside
of humans. This implies that pathological effects resulting from gene mutations or changes
in the “internal milieu” are not considered “environmental”. For example, a gene mutation
results in several chains of transformations leading to breast cancer. The mutation or the
gene is inside the body and not external to the body. We can argue that certain food or
exposure to toxins result in this mutation and therefore this mutation should be
environmental as in altering the cell environment, but this is beyond the scope of
“environmental health”.
Other than these two specifications, you can interpret environment in many ways. For
example, physical environment (air quality and pressure, pressure changes such as sea
diving or flying, or being exposed to radiation), chemical environment (working in factory
floor with toxic fumes, air pollution, or drinking polluted water), psychosocial
environment (workplaces where rude employers, or work conditions with very little control
of how much work you can do but a lot of responsibility or job demand) and so on. So,
while the scope of environment being defined is quite broad, it is important to keep in mind
the narrowness of the scope of defining that, it has to do with how humans are responsible
for the environmental factors to arise and that it is always external to the person concerned.
Reasons for Linking Environmental and Occupational Health
The main link between the workplace and the general environment is that the source of the
hazard is usually the same, whether it is an agricultural activity or an industrial activity. In

7. order to control the health hazard, a common approach may work effectively in both
settings. This is particularly so when it comes to the choice of chemical technologies for
production. If an acceptable result or product can be produced with a less toxic chemical,
the choice of such a chemical can reduce or even eliminate the health risk. One example is
the use of safer water-based paints instead of paints made with toxic organic solvents.
Another example is the choice of non-chemical pest-control methods whenever this is
possible. In fact, in many cases, particularly in the developing world, there is no separation
between the home and the workplace; thus the setting is truly the same.
In summary, occupational and environmental health are strongly linked by:
 the very fact that the source of the health threat is usually the same
 common methodologies, particularly in health assessment and exposure control
 the contribution that occupational epidemiology makes to knowledge of the effects
of environmental exposure
 the effects that occupational disease has on well-being in the home and the
community, and conversely the effect of environmental pathology on worker
productivity
 the scientific need to consider total exposures in order to determine dose-response
relationships
 the efficiency in human resource development and utilization gained by such a
linkage
 improvements in exposure control decisions stemming from the broader view
 greater consistency in standard setting facilitated by the link

8.  the fact that linking environmental and occupational health enhances the incentive
for rectification of hazards to both the workforce and the community.
History
The research and regulation of occupational safety and health are a relatively recent
phenomenon. As labor movements arose in response to worker concerns in the wake of the
industrial revolution, worker's health entered consideration as a labor-related issue.
In 1700, De Morbis Artificum Diatriba, outlined the health hazards of chemicals, dust,
metals, repetitive or violent motions, odd postures, and other disease-causative agents
encountered by workers in more than fifty occupations. In the United Kingdom, the Factory
Acts of the early nineteenth century (from 1802 onwards) arose out of concerns about the
poor health of children working in cotton mills: the Act of 1833 created a dedicated
professional Factory Inspectorate.[12] :41
The initial remit of the Inspectorate was to police
restrictions on the working hours in the textile industry of children and young persons
(introduced to prevent chronic overwork, identified as leading directly to ill-health and
deformation, and indirectly to a high accident rate). However, on the urging of the Factory
Inspectorate, a further Act in 1844 giving similar restrictions on working hours for women
in the textile industry introduced a requirement for machinery guarding (but only in the
textile industry, and only in areas that might be accessed by women or children).[12] :85
In 1840 a Royal Commission published its findings on the state of conditions for the
workers of the mining industry that documented the appallingly dangerous environment
that they had to work in and the high frequency of accidents. The commission sparked
public outrage which resulted in the Mines Act of 1842. The act set up an inspectorate for
mines and collieries which resulted in many prosecutions and safety improvements, and by
1850, inspectors were able to enter and inspect premises at their discretion.[13]

9. Otto von Bismarck inaugurated the first social insurance legislation in 1883 and the first
worker's compensation law in 1884 – the first of their kind in the Western world. Similar
acts followed in other countries, partly in response to labor unrest.
Principles
The Principles guide ethical decision making and inspire occupational therapy personnel
to act in accordance with the highest ideals. These Principles are not hierarchically
organized. At times, conflicts between competing principles must be considered in order
to make ethical decisions. These Principles may need to be carefully balanced and weighed
according to professional values, individual and cultural beliefs, and organizational
policies.
Principle 1. Beneficence
Occupational therapy personnel shall demonstrate a concern for the well-being and safety
of persons.
The Principle of Beneficence includes all forms of action intended to benefit other persons.
The term beneficence has historically indicated acts of mercy, kindness, and charity
(Beauchamp & Childress, 2019). Beneficence requires taking action to benefit others—in
other words, to promote good, to prevent harm, and to remove harm (Doherty & Purtilo,
2016). Examples of Beneficence include protecting and defending the rights of others,
preventing harm from occurring to others, removing conditions that will cause harm to
others, offering services that benefit persons with disabilities, and acting to protect and
remove persons from dangerous situations (Beauchamp & Childress, 2019).
Principle 2. Nonmaleficence
Occupational therapy personnel shall refrain from actions that cause harm.

10. The Principle of Nonmaleficence indicates that occupational therapy personnel must refrain
from causing harm, injury, or wrongdoing to recipients of service. Whereas Beneficence
requires taking action to incur benefit, Nonmaleficence requires avoiding actions that cause
harm (Beauchamp & Childress, 2019). The Principle of Nonmaleficence also includes an
obligation not to impose risks of harm even if the potential risk is without malicious or
harmful intent. This Principle is often examined in the context of due care, which requires
that the benefits of care outweigh and justify the risks undertaken to achieve the goals of
care (Beauchamp & Childress, 2019). For example, an occupational therapy intervention
might require the service recipient to invest a great deal of time and perhaps even
discomfort; however, the time and discomfort are justified by potential long-term,
evidence-based benefits of the treatment.
Principle 3. Autonomy
Occupational therapy personnel shall respect the right of the person to self-determination,
privacy, confidentiality, and consent.
The Principle of Autonomy expresses the concept that occupational therapy personnel have
a duty to treat the client or service recipient according to their desires, within the bounds
of accepted standards of care, and to protect their confidential information. Often, respect
for Autonomy is referred to as the self-determination principle. Respecting the Autonomy
of service recipients acknowledges their agency, including their right to their own views
and opinions and their right to make choices in regard to their own care and based on their
own values and beliefs (Beauchamp & Childress, 2019). For example, persons have the
right to make a determination regarding care decisions that directly affect their lives. In the
event that a person lacks decision-making capacity, their Autonomy should be respected
through the involvement of an authorized agent or surrogate decision maker.
Principle 4. Justice

11. Occupational therapy personnel shall promote equity, inclusion, and objectivity in the
provision of occupational therapy services.
The Principle of Justice relates to the fair, equitable, and appropriate treatment of persons
(Beauchamp & Childress, 2019). Occupational therapy personnel demonstrate attitudes
and actions of respect, inclusion, and impartiality toward persons, groups, and populations
with whom they interact, regardless of age, gender identity, sexual orientation, race,
religion, origin, socioeconomic status, degree of ability, or any other status or attributes.
Occupational therapy personnel also respect the applicable laws and standards related to
their area of practice. Justice requires the impartial consideration and consistent observance
of policies to generate unbiased decisions. For example, occupational therapy personnel
work to create and uphold a society in which all persons have equitable opportunity for full
inclusion in meaningful occupational engagement as an essential component of their lives.
Principle 5. Veracity
Occupational therapy personnel shall provide comprehensive, accurate, and objective
information when representing the profession.
The Principle of Veracity refers to comprehensive, accurate, and objective transmission of
information and includes fostering understanding of such information. Veracity is based
on the virtues of truthfulness, candor, honesty, and respect owed to others (Beauchamp &
Childress, 2019). In communicating with others, occupational therapy personnel implicitly
promise to be truthful and not deceptive. For example, when entering into a therapeutic or
research relationship, the service recipient or research participant has a right to accurate
information. In addition, transmission of information must include means to ensure that the
recipient or participant understands the information provided.
Principle 6. Fidelity

12. Occupational therapy personnel shall treat clients (persons, groups, or populations),
colleagues, and other professionals with respect, fairness, discretion, and integrity.
The Principle of Fidelity refers to the duty one has to keep a commitment once it is made
(Veatch et al., 2015). This commitment refers to promises made between a provider and a
client, as well as maintenance of respectful collegial and organizational relationships
(Doherty & Purtilo, 2016). Professional relationships are greatly influenced by the
complexity of the environment in which occupational therapy personnel work. For
example, occupational therapy personnel should consistently balance their duties to service
recipients, students, research participants, and other professionals, as well as to
organizations that may influence decision making and professional practice.
LEGGES’S APHORISM
Many years ago workers were at the mercy of the hazards in their workplaces. The area of
focus then was on work output and little or no attention to the morbidity and mortality
associated with such work. However, over the years there has been an increasing awareness
of the hazards workers are exposed to in the workplace. This is largely due to contributions
of people like Georgius Agricola, Philippus Paracelsus, Hippocrates, Bernadino
Ramazzini, Charles Turner Thackrah, Lord Anthony Ashley Cooper, Sir Thomas Morrison
Legge and several others. Sir Thomas Morrison Legge (1863 – 1932) in three of his five
aphorisms stated the following -
First aphorism - “Unless and until the employer has done everything and everything means
a good deal - the workman can do next to nothing to protect himself; although he is
naturally willing enough to do his share” [1].
Fourth Aphorism – “All workmen should be told something of the danger of the material
with which they come into contact and not be left to find it out for themselves - sometimes
at the cost of their lives” [1].

13. Fifth aphorism – “Examples of influence - useful to a point, but not completely effective -
which are not external, but depend on the will or the whim of the workers to use them, are
respirators, gloves, goggles washing conveniences and waterproof sand paper” [1].
By above aphorisms he emphasized the need for employers to do everything to protect the
employee. Basically in the order of priority for workplace hazard control the employer
should think of: elimination by substitution of agent or process, engineering control,
administrative controls, good work practices and provision and use of personal protective
measures. Personal protective equipments (PPEs) are placed last because the employers of
labour should concentrate on the other control measures and use the PPEs as
complimentary control measure. Personal Protective Equipment (PPEs) or Personal
Protective Devices (PPDs) are designed to protect employees from serious workplace
injuries or illnesses resulting from contact with chemical, radiological, physical, electrical,
mechanical, or other workplace hazards. They include face shields, safety glasses/goggles,
hats/safety helmets, safety shoes, coveralls, gloves, ear protection (ear plugs and muffs),
vests, respirators, etc [2]. Often, more than one of these PPEs are worn at same time in
workplace depending on the work exposure e.g. a farmer is expected to wear safety boots,
facemasks/respirator (if he is using pesticide spray) and gloves.
The need for these PPEs has increased over the years with increasing awareness of
workplace hazards, and the difficulties associated with overdependence on other control
measures which for some agents cannot be totally eliminated or even monitored. Most large
scale companies have therefore established policies on PPE [3-7]. While in some work
environments, the non-compliance to PPE policy may not result in significant health
problems, for some other occupations failure to comply with PPEs could determine the
difference between life and disability or even death e.g. in nuclear power plants.
EMPLOYEMENT EXAMINATION

14. Pre-Employment Tests Defined
Pre-employment tests are an objective, standardized way of gathering data on candidates
during the hiring process. All professionally developed, well-validated pre-employment
tests have one thing in common: they are an efficient and reliable means of gaining insights
into the capabilities and traits of prospective employees. Depending on the type of test
being used, pre-employment assessments can provide relevant information on a job
applicant's ability to perform in the workplace.
Types of Pre-Employment Tests
There are many different types of pre-employment tests. In this eBook, we will discuss five
of the major types of assessments: Aptitude, Personality, Emotional Intelligence, Risk, and
Skills tests.
Aptitude Tests
Aptitude tests measure critical thinking, problem solving, and the ability to learn, digest
and apply new information. In essence, cognitive aptitude tests seek to assess an applicant's
general intelligence or brainpower. According to one study, 70% of employers looked for
candidates with problem-solving skills, and 63% looked for candidates with analytical
skills. These abilities are difficult to assess based solely on resumes and interviews, and
that is where aptitude tests can help. Aptitude tests can be used in almost any occupational
context, but they are especially useful for mid- and higher-level jobs. Because they test the
abilities that are most essential to job performance in a wide variety of fields, it's no surprise
that aptitude is the single most accurate predictor of job performance.

15. Personality Tests
Personality tests are becoming increasingly popular among HR professionals, yet there are
still quite a few misconceptions about what personality tests are and how they should be
used.
Personality tests seek to answer the questions: Will the candidate be comfortable in this
role? Does the candidate have the behavioral traits that are linked to success in this
position? Unlike with aptitude tests, there are no right or wrong answers on personality
tests. Instead, these tests measure the extent to which people possess relatively permanent
behavioral traits. Measuring these traits can help employers predict job fit by determining
if a candidate's behavioral tendencies are a good match for both the position and the
company culture.
Personality tests can measure many different traits, but the most prominent personality test
framework uses what is called the "Big Five" or "Five Factor Model." These are the five
dimensions of personality that consistently emerge in empirical research: Agreeableness,
Conscientiousness, Extroversion, Openness (to Experience), and Stress Tolerance. The
concept of personality "traits" is now fairly widely accepted, and is superseding an older
paradigm of personality "types" that originated with Carl Jung and relied on a view of
personality that categorized people into one of two distinct types, such as introvert or
extrovert, thinker or feeler, Type A or Type B. The traits model is gaining credence in
personality research because of growing evidence suggesting that a strict dichotomy
between two distinct types does not sufficiently describe the nuances of human personality.
Emotional Intelligence Tests
Emotional intelligence tests are a newly emerging category of assessments. The concept of
emotional intelligence, or EI, is relatively new, first popularized in the 1990s. Over time,
the concept of emotional intelligence has become particularly important in the context of
the workplace.

16. Research has shown that emotional intelligence is associated with important work
outcomes such as interpersonal effectiveness, collaboration and teamwork, motivation, and
decision-making. Strong emotional intelligence has also been associated with good
leadership and strong management skills. As a result, organizations are increasingly
interested in assessing EI in the hiring process.
Emotional intelligence as a construct is less well-established when compared to cognitive
aptitude or even personality. However, research has suggested that emotional intelligence
can be viewed as an ability akin to cognitive ability. This makes it possible to assess EI
using an ability-based assessment. Emotify, for example, is an ability-based assessment of
emotional intelligence that measures a person’s ability to accurately perceive and
understand emotions.
In terms of when to use an emotional intelligence test in the hiring process, Criteria
recommends administering it for roles that require a great deal of interpersonal interaction.
Examples include management or leadership roles, sales or customer services, human
resources, and more.
Risk Tests
Risk tests essentially help organizations reduce risk. Risk can take a wide variety of forms,
and different assessments measure different types of risk. The main benefit of a risk
assessment is that it helps organizations reduce the risk that employees may engage in
unsafe or counterproductive work behaviors.
One common type of risk assessment is what is called an Integrity or Honesty test. These
assessments help employers manage risk by assessing the likelihood that an applicant will
be a reliable employee who will follow the rules. Most integrity tests focus on an applicant's
tendencies and attitudes relating to rule adherence. These tests can be used to predict

17. behavior with respect to a wide variety of counterproductive work behaviors (CWBs) that
employers want to avoid, including tardiness, absenteeism, time-wasting, theft, fraud, drug
use, and safety violations. Integrity tests are most widely used and are most effective for
entry-level positions for which overall reliability and rule-following is particularly
important. Integrity tests are most commonly used:
 To reduce risk of employee theft in retail sales
 In positions where employees will be working in customers' homes, such as home
health care aides and field service technicians
 In manufacturing settings to assess risk for rule violations
In all of these cases, integrity tests serve as a risk management measure by determining
which applicants represent a higher risk of engaging in these behaviors based on their
responses and personality profiles. Employers often use background checks during the
hiring process to mitigate risk, but background checks can be expensive and only target
people who have a past record of committing crimes. Integrity tests, on the other hand, will
help reduce risk with regard to a host of unproductive behaviors that, while not necessarily
as serious as felonies, are generally undesirable. By using integrity tests early in the hiring
process, employers can save time and costs while still minimizing risk by screening out
applicants that might exhibit workplace behaviors that can damage their organizations.
Another type of risk assessment is a safety assessment. Safety assessments measure a
candidate’s attitudes towards safety and the likelihood that they will engage in risk-taking
behavior. These types of assessments can help organizations reduce safety incidents and
the high costs associated with them. Safety assessments also help to promote a strong
“safety culture” where individuals contribute positively to a safe workplace.
Safety assessments are used across a wide range of industries, such as construction,
manufacturing, mining, oil and gas, and transportation and logistics. Scientifically
validated assessments help organizations significantly reduce the number of workplace

18. incidents and injuries that occur, leading to cost savings from property damage and
compensation claims.
Skills Tests
Skills tests measure job-related competencies; broad ones like verbal, math, and
communication skills, or narrow ones like typing and computer skills. These are skills that
candidates have picked up through their education and career histories – these skills do not
necessarily reflect basic aptitude but instead reflect acquired knowledge – what the
applicant already knows how to do based on previous experience.
General skills tests (for example, the Criteria Basic Skills Test) that measure overall job
readiness skills such as literacy, numeracy, and attention to detail, can be effective
predictors of job performance for a wide variety of entry-level positions. Many skills tests,
however, measure more specific acquired competencies such as typing speed or knowledge
of specific software applications. It is important to realize that such "micro-skills" tests are
not designed to predict long-term job performance, as most aptitude and personality tests
are; rather, they are intended only as an indicator of a person's current skill level in key
job-related competencies.
To maximize the effectiveness of pre-employment testing, one useful strategy is to use
more than one type of test. For example, it's very common to test aptitude and personality,
or skills and personality. Using more than one test for each candidate allows employers to
assess more than one relevant aspect of an applicant, providing more objective, reliable
data to streamline the hiring process and make more informed decisions.
Workers' compensation
Workers' compensation or workers' comp is a form of insurance providing wage
replacement and medical benefits to employees injured in the course of employment in

19. exchange for mandatory relinquishment of the employee's right to sue his or her employer
for the tort of negligence. The trade-off between assured, limited coverage and lack of
recourse outside the worker compensation system is known as "the compensation bargain".
One of the problems that the compensation bargain solved is the problem of employers
becoming insolvent as a result of high damage awards. The system of collective liability
was created to prevent that, and thus to ensure security of compensation to the workers.
While plans differ among jurisdictions, provision can be made for weekly payments in
place of wages (functioning in this case as a form of disability insurance), compensation
for economic loss (past and future), reimbursement or payment of medical and like
expenses (functioning in this case as a form of health insurance), and benefits payable to
the dependents of workers killed during employment.
General damage for pain and suffering, and punitive damages for employer negligence, are
generally not available in workers' compensation plans, and negligence is generally not an
issue in the case.
HAZARD IDENTIFICATION
Occupational hazards include all those work activities and processes involving the worker,
raw materials, and processing activities such as operating machineries and handling
chemicals.
Workers whether they are farmers, students, secretaries, teachers, industrial workers or
soldiers are exposed to some sort of hazards that may result from the nature of their day to
day occupation.
The identification of occupational health safety and hygiene hazards has often come from
observations of adverse health effect among workers. Unquestionably it is in the workplace
that the impact of industrial exposures is best understood.
Identification of health and safety problems includes the following:
� Observe workplace
� Investigate complaints from workers

20. � Examine accident and near-miss records
� Examine sickness figures
� Use simple surveys to ask your co-workers about their health and safety concerns;
� Use check-lists to help you inspect your workplace;
� Learn the results of inspections that are done by the employer, the union or anyone else;
� Read reports or other information about your workplace
3. Classifications of occupational health, safety and hygiene hazards
The various hazards which gives rise to occupational diseases or adversely affect health
through work may be classified as: -
3.1 Physical Hazards
3.2 Mechanical Hazards
3.3 Chemical Hazards
3.4 Biological Hazards
3.5 Ergonomic Hazards
3.6 Psychosocial Hazards
3.1 Physical Hazards
Physical hazard has possible cumulative or immediate effects on the health of employees.
Therefore, employers and inspectors should be alert to protect the workers from adverse
physical hazards.
Physical hazard include:
a. Extremes of temperature
b. Ionizing radiation
c. Non ionizing radiation
d. Excessive noise
a. Extremes of Temperature
The work environment is either comfortable or extremely cold or hot and uncomfortable.
The common physical hazard in most industries is heat. Extreme hot temperature prevails
on those who are working in foundries, or in those industries where they use open fire for

21. energy. Examples of these includes soap factories in large industries and in the informal
sectors who use extreme heat to mold iron or process other materials.
b. Ionizing Radiation
Radiation is a form of energy. Any electromagnetic or particulate radiation capable of
producing ions is referred to as ionizing radiation. Radioactive materials emit energy that
can damage living tissues.
Different kinds of radioactivity presenting different kinds of radiation safety problems.
The types of ionizing radiation with which we will be concerned are:
Electromagnetic
� X-ray
� Gamma ray Particles
� Neutron, electron, protons
� Alpha radiation
� Beta-rays
Radioactive materials can be hazardous in two ways:
1. Those materials that could be hazardous even when they are located some distance away
from the body (external)
2. Others that are hazardous only when they get inside the body by through breathing,
eating or through broken skin (internal)
C. Non-Ionizing Radiation
This is a form of It is electromagnetic radiation with varying effects on the exposed body
depending largely on the particular wavelength of the radiation involved.
It includes:-
� Radio transmitters
� TV
� Power line
� Powerful radio aerials
� Microwaves

22. � Lasers etc
d. Excessive Noise
Noise is defined as unwanted sound. Sound is any pressure variation or a stimulus that
produces a sensory response in the brain. The compression and expansion of air created
when an object vibrates.
3.2 Mechanical Hazards
The mechanical hazards in industries are contributed from machinery, protruding and
moving parts. About 10% of accidents in industry are said to be due to mechanical causes.
Examples of vibrating and rotating tools are those used in drilling holes to burry dynamite
in road construction and grinding metals.
These activities can cause vibration disorders such as " dead hand" which is usually
temporary and seldom leads to permanent damage.
In industries repetitive movements of the hands and forearms are common, the tendon
sheaths and musculo-cutaneous junctions become inflamed.
Workers who use hand tools such as picks, hammers, shovels, or who habitually kneel at
their work may suffer from " beat" condition of the hand, knee or elbow. Beat hand is
subcutaneous cellulites, which occurs among miners and stoker caused by infection of
tissues devitalized by constant bruising.
3.3 Chemical Hazards
There is hardly any industry, which does not make use of chemicals. The chemical hazards
are on increase with the introduction of newer and complex chemicals.
Chemical hazards form the most important group and comprise over 12000 toxic materials.
Such materials may endanger life, affect health adversely, or cause severe discomfort due
to their acute effect.
Moreover, they may produce long-term disease such as cancer and pneumoconiosis by
their chronic effects.
Naturally occurring materials such as lead and mercury have been recognized as source of
occupational disease for hundreds of years. With rapid industrial development other
minerals like asbestos, radioactive ores, and oil, which are also sources of occupational

23. disease, have been taken from the earth. Growing range of manmade materials such as
plastics, synthetic fibers, solvents, fertilizers, and pharmaceutical products all of which
may be hazardous to those who make or use them. Plastics of all kinds are now widely used
in Ethiopian urban centers and rural communities or villages and their effects are being felt
in some areas already. The physical state of a chemical compound is important in
determining its toxicity to man and the environment.
The effects of chemical agents are as follows:
1. Asphyxiation
2. Systemic intoxication
3. Pneumoconiosis
4. Carcinogens
5. Irritation
Among all chemical agents in work place the most notorious and most in contact with the
skin or respiratory system that deserve attention is
Solvent
In most occupational settings or industries a potential threat to the health, productivity and
efficiency of workers is their exposure to organic solvents. Exposure to solvents occurs
through out life.
Example, organic solvent vapor inhaled by a mother could reach the fetus.
Classification of Solvents
The term solvent means materials used to dissolve another material and it includes aqueous
or non-aqueous system. Aqueous system includes those based in water.
Example:
� Aqueous solution of acids
� Aqueous solution of alkalis
� Aqueous solution of detergents
Aqueous system has low vapor pressure thus the potential hazard by inhalation and
subsequent systemic toxicity is not great.
Examples of non-aqueous systems

24. � Aliphatic hydrocarbons.
� Aromatic hydrocarbons.
� Halogenated hydrocarbons.
� Cyclic hydrocarbons.
The solvent we are concerned in occupational health and safety will include any organic
liquid commonly used to dissolve other organic material.
These are:
� Naphtha
� Mineral spirits
� Alcohol
Effects of Solvents
The severity of a hazard in the use of solvents and other chemicals depends on the following
factors.
1. How the chemical is used.
2. Type of job operation, which determines how the workers are exposed.
3. Work pattern.
4. Duration of exposure.
5. Operating temperature.
6. Exposed body surface.
7. Ventilation rates.
8. Pattern of airflow.
9. Concentrations of vapors in workroom air.
10. House keeping
1 Health Effect
The effect of solvents varies considerably with the number and type of halogen atoms
(fluorine and chlorine) present in the molecules. Carbon tetrachloride, which is a highly
toxic solvent act acutely on the kidney, the liver, gastro intestinal tract (GIT). Chronic
exposure to carbon tetrachloride also, damages and cause liver cancer. This solvent should

25. never be used for open cleaning processes where there is skin contact or where the
concentration in the breathing zone may exceed recommended level.
2. Fire and explosion
Using non-flammable solvents can minimize the potential for this or solvents with flash
point greater than 60 degree Celsius or 140 degree Fahrenheit. However the non-flammable
halogenated hydrocarbons decompose when subjected to high temperature and give off
toxic and corrosive decomposition products. If flammable solvents with Flash point less
than this are used precaution must be taken to:
� Eliminate source of ignition such as flames, sparks, high temperature smoking etc.
� Properly insulate electrical equipment when pollutants are released outdoors.
Solvent hydrocarbons are important compounds in the formation of photochemical smog.
In the presence of sunlight they react with oxygen and ozone to produce Aldehyde, acids,
nitrates, and other irritant and noxious compounds. The great portion of Hydrocarbons
contributing to air pollution originates from automobiles and industries.
3.4 Biological Hazards
Knowing the biohazards and their classification based on severity of exposure problem is
very important. It has to be understood that:
1. Any involvement with biohazards material may end up with infection.
2. When dealing with biological agents of which its etiology is not known it must be
assured that it is it is a bio-hazard.
Exposure to biological hazards in workplace results in a significant amount of
occupationally associated diseases.
Biological hazards include viruses, bacteria, fungus, parasites, or any living organism that
can cause disease to human beings.
Biological hazards can be transmitted to a person through:
a. Inhalation
b. Injection
c. Ingestion
d. Contact with the skin

26. The contract of biohazard depends on:
a. The combination of the number of organisms in the environment.
b. The virulence of these organisms
c. The resistance of the individual
d. Concomitant physical/chemical stresses in the environment.
Classification of Biohazard Agents
Knowing the biohazard and their groupings is important for us to decide on what to do to
safeguard the workers from the hazards. There are two points that are important to
remember. These are:
1. Any accident involving biohazard material can result in infection.
2. When working with biological agents or materials for which
Epidemiology and etiology is not known or not completely understood, it must be assumed
that the materials present a biological hazard Occupational Exposure to Biohazards
Most obvious work place in which employees are subjected to hazards as a result that the
work requires handling and manipulation of biological agents include: surgery, autopsy,
contaminated discharges, and blood, pipettes, laboratory specimens etc.
1. Laboratory Research
Health personnel such as Laboratory technicians and scientists working on biological
specimens are at risk with biological hazards in the laboratory. Specimen such as blood,
pus, stool and other tissue samples may expose the workers to hazards such as HIV,
Hepatitis, etc.
2. Hospitals
Many potential biological agents exist in hospital environment. These are bacterial
infection and viral agents. Those working in laundry, housekeeping, laboratory, central
supply, nursing station and dietary are highly exposed to biohazard from the patient they
handle, from the specimen they collect and from the cloth, needle and pans they handle and
from their general day to day activities.
3.5 Ergonomic Hazards

27. The term ergonomics began to be used by a group of physical, biological, and
psychological scientists and engineers to describe interdisciplinary activities that were
designed to solve problems created by wartime technology. The term is derived from the
Greek roots ERGON, which is related to work and strength, the NOMOS, indicating law
or rule. It also means Human engineering or ”Fitting the job to the worker.”
The study of human characteristics for the appropriate design of scientific principles,
method and data drawn from a variety of disciplines to the development of engineering
systems in which people play a significant role are:
a. Human capabilities,
b. Human limitations,
c. Human motivations, and
d. Human desires
Ergonomics is the application of human biological science in conjunction with the
engineering science in order to achieve optimum mutual adjustment of man and his work.
It includes considerations of the total physiological demands of the job upon the worker
even beyond productivity, health and safety
In general Ergonomics deals with the interaction between humans and such additional
environmental elements such as heat, light, sound, atmospheric contaminants and all tools
and equipment pertaining to the work place.
The goal of "ERGONOMICS" or human factors ranges from making work safe to humans,
and increasing human efficiency and wellbeing. To ensure a continuous high level
performance work system must be tailored to human capacities and limitations measured
by anthropometry and biomechanics.
3.6 Psychosocial hazards
The term " stress" means the strain imposed on the worker by psychosocial influences
associated with urbanization and works, which cause stress, which may affect health, well
being, and productivity.

28. Within the work environment itself, emotional stress may arise from a variety of
psychosocial factors, which the worker finds unsatisfactory, frustrating, or demoralizing.
For example:
� A peasant who migrates from the rural areas to a city will face entirely different
environment if he start to work in an industry. In his rural life he used to work at his own
speed but in the factory he may have to work continuously at speeds imposed by the needs
of production.
� Workers may be working in shifts that will expose them to unusual hours. They may
upset their family’s life as a result of their work conditions.
� Workers may be working with a person who is paid more but who is incapable of
working.
� Financial incentives are too low etc.
These and other stresses will have adverse psychosocial problems on workers. Reduction
of occupational stresses depends not only on helping individuals to cope with their
problems but also on: � Improved vocational guidance,
� Arrangement of working hours,
� Job design, and work methods;
� Good management.
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH SAFETY
OHS, or Occupational Health and Safety, is a multidisciplinary practice dealing with all
aspects of health and safety in the workplace, with a strong focus on preventing workplace
hazards.
The enjoyment of these standards is a basic human right that should be afforded to each
and every worker, regardless of the nature of their work. With OHS standards in place,
workers are able to carry out their responsibilities in a safe and secure working
environment, free from hazards.

29. Scope of occupational health safety and hygiene
The scope of occupational health safety and hygiene includes prevention and control of
hazards, curative and rehabilitative programs.
These are: -
1. Establishment of sound sanitary condition within the work place such as Water supply,
waste disposal, canteen, cloak room, shower and hand washing facilities, sanitary and safe
storage of chemicals.
2. Organization of health services including first aid
3. Health promotion in the work environment
4. Rehabilitation of those that have been injured
5. Prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of occupational related diseases and accidents.
Occupational Health and Safety Tips
Workplace safety is an important part of any job and requires that everyone in the company
adhere to the safety guidelines and policies in place. Carefully following appropriate safety
guidelines can go a long way toward preventing workplace injuries. Here are some ways
you can work to stay safe on the job.
Be Aware
Always be alert to what’s happening in your surroundings; remember that your safety is
your responsibility. Understand the particular hazards related to your job or workplace, and
keep clear of potentially hazardous areas or situations. Be awake and attentive on the job,
and be particularly aware of machinery. Avoid going to work under the influence of alcohol
or drugs, which can compromise your concentration, coordination, judgment, motor
control and alertness.
Maintain Correct Posture
Use correct posture to protect your back while at work. If you sit at a desk, keep your
shoulders and hips in line and avoid hunching over. Use correct form when lifting objects

30. and avoid twisting and stooping. The following tips provide information about lifting
correctly:
 Use both hands to lift or carry a heavy object.
 Adopt a proper lifting stance by putting the strain on your legs, keeping your back
straight and not bending at the waist.
 Wear a back brace for heavy work.
 Test the weight before picking up the item.
 Lift items smoothly and slowly.
 Move your feet instead of your back when traveling or turning with a heavy object.
 Hold the load close to your body.
 Ask for help to move loads that are too heavy for you.
Take Breaks Regularly
Feeling tired and burned out makes you less likely to be aware of your surroundings and is
a common cause of workplace injuries. Regular breaks help you stay fresh and alert on the
job. It is particularly important to take short breaks when you have a task that requires
repetitive movements over a long period of time.
Use Equipment Properly
Always take the proper precautions when operating machinery or using tools. Taking
shortcuts is a leading cause of workplace injuries. Use the appropriate tool for the job, and
use it in the right way. When using tools and machinery, put safety first with the following
tips:
 Only use machinery you are trained and authorized to use.
 Keep tools clean and in good working order.
 Organize tools and always return them to their proper place.

31.  Make sure the machine operator sees you, don’t approach from a blind spot or from
behind.
 Only perform tasks you have been properly trained to perform.
 Never leave machinery unattended while it is running.
 Always obey operating instructions.
 Never remove or tamper with safety guards.
 If something seems wrong, immediately stop the machine and get assistance.
 Communicate with those around you.
 Never walk in front of heavy equipment.
 Read and follow all labels and instructions.
 Don’t tamper with hazardous items, including cords, switches and electric controls.
 Wear appropriate and compact clothing; loose, billowing clothing and accessories
can easily get caught in moving parts.
 Never place fingers or other objects into moving machinery.
 Turn off equipment before moving, cleaning, adjusting, oiling or un-jamming.
Locate Emergency Exits
Always know where emergency exits are located and keep the path to them clear. You
should also have clear access to emergency shutoffs on machinery.
Report Safety Concerns
If you notice a potential safety hazard or risk, report it to your supervisor immediately so
they can address the situation. Keep communication lines open and work as a team to create
a safe working environment.
Practice Effective Housekeeping
Maintain a clean and organized workplace environment. Make housekeeping an ongoing
project that everyone is involved in and keep these tips in mind:

32.  Prevent trips, slips and falls by keeping all floors clean and dry.
 Eliminate fire hazards by removing combustible materials and storing flammable
materials away from sources of ignition.
 Control dust accumulation.
 Avoid tracking materials and cross contamination by keeping mats clean and having
separate cleaning protocols for different areas.
 Use appropriate procedures to prevent falling objects.
 Keep the workplace clutter free.
 Store all materials and equipment properly.
 Regularly inspect tools and personal protective equipment to make sure they are in
good working order.
Make Use of Mechanical Aids
Take the extra time to obtain a wheelbarrow, crank, conveyor belt, forklift or other
mechanical aid to assist you in lifting heavy objects. Attempting to lift something that is
too heavy can cause injuries that could have been avoided.
Reduce Workplace Stress
Stress can contribute to difficulty concentrating and depression, which make it hard to be
alert at work. There are many causes of stress at work including conflicts with others, heavy
workloads, long hours and job insecurity. If you are experiencing workplace stress, talk to
your supervisor about ways to address your concerns.
Use Appropriate Safety Equipment
It is important to use the proper safety equipment for a task to help protect yourself from
injury:
 Wear appropriate clothing and shoes for your job.

33.  Know the location of fire extinguishers and first aid kits.
 Use a hard hat if there is a risk of falling objects.
 Wear gloves when handling toxic substances or sharp objects.
 Wear goggles when there is a hazard to your eyes.
 Use safety harnesses if there is a danger of falling.
 Wear non-skid shoes when working on slippery surfaces or lifting heavy objects.
 Wear a breathing mask.
 Use all protective equipment intended for your task including seat belts, protective
headgear or clothing and safety glasses.
Creating an environment that is safe is the responsibility of everyone; do your part by
following safety guidelines and policies. If you are injured on the job, notify your
supervisor immediately and get assistance. Avoid taking risks when it comes to safety, be
aware and do your part to maintain a safe workplace environment. If you’ve been injured
on the job, call to schedule an appointment to see how our team of specialists can help to
get you feeling better and back to work!
AEROMEDICINE AND AVIATION SAFETY
Aerospace medicine: The fields of medicine concerned with the maintenance of health,
safety, and performance of those in aviation and space travel. Aerospace medicine is the
sum of aviation medicine and space medicine -- health in flight both inside and outside the
Earth's atmosphere.
Aviation medicine is the study of the biological and psychological effects of aviation.
Medically significant aspects of aviation travel include exposure to changing temperatures,
large inertial forces, oxygen deprivation, and air sickness, as well as pilot fatigue. Aviation
medicine is concerned, for instance, with the spread of disease by air travel and the adverse
effects of noise and air pollution.

34. Space medicine is the study of the biological and psychological effects of space travel.
Medically significant aspects of space travel include weightlessness, strong inertial forces
during liftoff and reentry, radiation exposure, absence of the day and night, and existence
in a closed environment. Space medicine is concerned, for instance, with osteoporosis
caused by weightlessness and the resultant increased risk of fractures.
Aviation safety is the study and practice of managing risks in aviation. This includes
preventing aviation accidents and incidents through research, educating air travel
personnel, passengers and the general public, as well as the design of aircraft and aviation
infrastructure. The aviation industry is subject to significant regulation and oversight.
Aviation safety hazards
They include:
 3.1 Foreign object debris
 3.2 Misleading information and lack of information
 3.3 Lightning
 3.4 Ice and snow
 3.5 Wind shear or microburst
 3.6 Engine failure
 3.7 Structural failure of the aircraft
 3.8 Stalling
 3.9 Fire
 3.10 Bird strike
 3.11 Human factors
 3.12 Ground damage
 3.13 Volcanic ash
 3.14 Runway safety
 3.15 Terrorism

35.  3.16 Military action
Foreign object debris
Main article: Foreign object debris
Foreign object debris (FOD) includes items left in the aircraft structure during
manufacture/repairs, debris on the runway and solids encountered in flight (e.g. hail and
dust). Such items can damage engines and other parts of the aircraft. Air France Flight
4590 crashed after hitting a part that had fallen from another aircraft.
Misleading information and lack of information
A pilot misinformed by a printed document (manual, map, etc.), reacting to a faulty
instrument or indicator (in the cockpit or on the ground),[26][27]
or following inaccurate
instructions or information from flight or ground control can lose spatial orientation, or
make another mistake, and consequently lead to accidents or near misses.[28][29][30][31]
The
crash of Air New Zealand Flight 901 was a result of receiving and interpreting incorrect
coordinates, which caused the pilots to inadvertently fly into a mountain.
Lightning
Boeing studies showed that airliners are struck by lightning twice per year on average;
aircraft withstand typical lightning strikes without damage.
The dangers of more powerful positive lightning were not understood until the destruction
of a glider in 1999.[32]
It has since been suggested that positive lightning might have caused
the crash of Pan Am Flight 214 in 1963. At that time, aircraft were not designed to
withstand such strikes because their existence was unknown. The 1985 standard in force
in the US at the time of the glider crash, Advisory Circular AC 20-53A,[32]
was replaced
by Advisory Circular AC 20-53B in 2006.[33]
However, it is unclear whether adequate
protection against positive lightning was incorporated.[34][35]

36. The effects of typical lightning on traditional metal-covered aircraft are well understood
and serious damage from a lightning strike on an airplane is rare. The Boeing 787
Dreamliner of which the exterior is carbon-fiber-reinforced polymer received no damage
from a lightning strike during testing.
Engine failure
Further information: Turbine engine failure and ETOPS
An engine may fail to function because of fuel starvation (e.g. British Airways Flight 38),
fuel exhaustion (e.g. Air Canada Flight 143), foreign object damage (e.g. US Airways
Flight 1549), mechanical failure due to metal fatigue (e.g. Kegworth air disaster, El Al
Flight 1862, China Airlines Flight 358), mechanical failure due to improper maintenance
(e.g. American Airlines Flight 191), mechanical failure caused by an original
manufacturing defect in the engine (e.g. Qantas Flight 32, United Airlines Flight 232, Delta
Air Lines Flight 1288), and pilot error (e.g. Pinnacle Airlines Flight 3701).
In a multi-engine aircraft, failure of a single engine usually results in a precautionary
landing being performed, for example landing at a diversion airport instead of continuing
to the intended destination. Failure of a second engine (e.g. US Airways Flight 1549) or
damage to other aircraft systems caused by an uncontained engine failure (e.g. United
Airlines Flight 232) may, if an emergency landing is not possible, result in the aircraft
crashing.
Fire
Safety regulations control aircraft materials and the requirements for automated fire safety
systems. Usually these requirements take the form of required tests. The tests measure
flammability of materials and toxicity of smoke. When the tests fail, it is on a prototype in
an engineering laboratory rather than in an aircraft.

37. Fire and its toxic smoke have been the cause of accidents. An electrical fire on Air Canada
Flight 797 in 1983 caused the deaths of 23 of the 46 passengers, resulting in the
introduction of floor level lighting to assist people to evacuate a smoke-filled aircraft. In
1985, a fire on the runway caused the loss of 55 lives, 48 from the effects of incapacitating
and subsequently lethal toxic gas and smoke in the British Airtours Flight 28M accident
which raised serious concerns relating to survivability – something that had not been
studied in such detail. The swift incursion of the fire into the fuselage and the layout of the
aircraft impaired passengers' ability to evacuate, with areas such as the forward galley area
becoming a bottle-neck for escaping passengers, with some dying very close to the exits.
Much research into evacuation and cabin and seating layouts was carried out at Cranfield
Institute to try to measure what makes a good evacuation route, which led to the seat layout
by Overwing exits being changed by mandate and the examination of evacuation
requirements relating to the design of galley areas. The use of smoke hoods or misting
systems were also examined although both were rejected.
Human FACTORS
Human factors, including pilot error, are another potential set of factors, and currently the
factor most commonly found in aviation accidents.[citation needed]
Much progress in applying
human factors analysis to improving aviation safety was made around the time of World
War II by such pioneers as Paul Fitts and Alphonse Chapanis. However, there has been
progress in safety throughout the history of aviation, such as the development of the pilot's
checklist in 1937.[43]
CRM, or Crew Resource Management, is a technique that makes use
of the experience and knowledge of the complete flight crew to avoid dependence on just
one crew member.
Pilot error and improper communication are often factors in the collision of aircraft. This
can take place in the air (1978 Pacific Southwest Airlines Flight 182) (TCAS) or on the
ground (1977 Tenerife disaster) (RAAS). The barriers to effective communication have
internal and external factors.[44]
The ability of the flight crew to maintain situation

38. awareness is a critical human factor in air safety. Human factors training is available to
general aviation pilots and called single pilot resource management training.
Failure of the pilots to properly monitor the flight instruments caused the crash of Eastern
Air Lines Flight 401 in 1972. Controlled flight into terrain (CFIT), and error during take-
off and landing can have catastrophic consequences, for example causing the crash of
Prinair Flight 191 on landing, also in 1972.
Pilot fatigue
Main article: Pilot fatigue
The International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) defines fatigue as "A physiological
state of reduced mental or physical performance capability resulting from sleep loss or
extended wakefulness, circadian phase, or workload."[45]
The phenomenon places great risk
on the crew and passengers of an airplane because it significantly increases the chance of
pilot error.[46]
Fatigue is particularly prevalent among pilots because of "unpredictable
work hours, long duty periods, circadian disruption, and insufficient sleep".[47]
These
factors can occur together to produce a combination of sleep deprivation, circadian rhythm
effects, and 'time-on task' fatigue.[47]
Regulators attempt to mitigate fatigue by limiting the
number of hours pilots are allowed to fly over varying periods of time. Experts in aviation
fatigue[who?]
often find that these methods fall short of their goals.
Piloting while intoxicated
Rarely, flight crew members are arrested or subject to disciplinary action for being
intoxicated on the job. In 1990, three Northwest Airlines crew members were sentenced to
jail for flying while drunk. In 2001, Northwest fired a pilot who failed a breathalyzer test
after a flight. In July 2002, both pilots of America West Airlines Flight 556 were arrested
just before they were scheduled to fly because they had been drinking alcohol. The pilots
were fired and the FAA revoked their pilot licenses.[48]
At least one fatal airliner accident

39. involving drunk pilots occurred when Aero Flight 311 crashed at Koivulahti, Finland,
killing all 25 on board in 1961.
OCCUPATION HEALTH SERVICES AND FUNCTIONS
Aims and functions of occupational health services
The primary concerns of occupational health services remain those specified by the
ILO/WHO in 1950, although work-related diseases are now considered as well as purely
occupational diseases. The actual services offered are essentially preventive in nature and
are summarized below.
Job placement
People with certain preexisting medical conditions may be at a disadvantage in some jobs.
A preemployment health questionnaire or medical examination can be of great value in
such cases by determining job unsuitability before training time and expense have been
incurred. Job suitability may also need to be regularly monitored in order to assure
employee health and ability. Airline pilots, for example, undergo regular medical checkups
because a pilot with failing vision or one who suffers from an undetected heart condition
that can lead to a heart attack could endanger many lives. The health service can also give
valuable advice with regard to alternative employment when a worker is found to be unfit
for a particular job.
Safety training
An occupational health service has a responsibility to keep all employees informed about
hazards in the workplace. The measures taken to protect employee health should be
thoroughly explained so that workers understand the necessity of complying with such
irksome or unpleasant restrictions as the wearing of protective clothing and face masks.
First aid facilities should be organized and employees instructed about first aid procedures
in case of accidental injuries or other emergencies.

40. Supervision of high-risk groups
Exposure levels considered safe for a young male worker may be hazardous for a pregnant
woman (the fetus, especially during the first three months of development, is particularly
sensitive to environmental toxic agents). Pregnant women, as well as such other vulnerable
groups as the very young, the elderly, and the disabled, therefore require appropriate
medical surveillance and advice about specific precautionary measures they can take.
Control of recognized hazards
A complex system of environmental and biological monitoring has been developed for the
control of known hazards at work. Occupational health practice is concerned with
monitoring the concentration of toxic substances in the environment, determining safe
exposure levels, suggesting procedures to limit worker exposure, and monitoring workers
for signs of overexposure. Occupational health specialists can also contribute to the
prevention of health risks by assisting in the planning and design of new equipment and
factories.
Identification of unrecognized hazards
Occupational health services can play a major role in the detection of new health hazards
of all types. Clinical observation and study may reveal a causal relationship between
patterns of sickness or mortality in groups of workers and their occupational exposure.
Examples of hazards identified in this manner include lung and nasal cancer among nickel
workers, lung cancer in asbestos workers, and coronary heart disease among workers
exposed to carbon disulfide (used in the manufacture of rayon).
Treatment
Quick, on-site treatment of work injuries and poisonings can prevent complications and aid
recovery. Such treatment can also be economically beneficial by saving traveling and

41. waiting time. Furthermore, physicians and nurses who are unfamiliar with their patients’
working conditions may keep workers with minor injuries away from work longer than
necessary. An occupational treatment service offers opportunities for specialized
counseling and health education.
General health education and surveillance
Occupational health services may have to provide general medical care for workers and
their families in developing countries with inadequate community health services. Even
when general health care is provided elsewhere, an occupational health service can offer
an effective and often economically advantageous program of health education and
counseling. By advising employees on such topics as smoking, alcohol or drug abuse,
exercise, and diet, the occupational health service can improve worker health and
efficiency and reduce illness and absenteeism. The health service is also in a position to
organize employee health surveillance programs for the early diagnosis of disease.
POLLUTION AND ENVIRONMENT
- Pollution, also called environmental pollution, the addition of any substance (solid,
liquid, or gas) or any form of energy (such as heat, sound, or radioactivity) to the
environment at a rate faster than it can be dispersed, diluted, decomposed, recycled, or
stored in some harmless form. The major kinds of pollution, usually classified by
environment, are air pollution, water pollution, and land pollution. Modern society is
also concerned about specific types of pollutants, such as noise pollution, light
pollution, and plastic pollution. Pollution of all kinds can have negative effects on the
environment and wildlife and often impacts human health and well-being.
- Pollution is the introduction of contaminants into the natural environment that cause
adverse change.[1]
Pollution can take the form of any substance (solid, liquid, or gas) or
energy (such as radioactivity, heat, sound, or light).

42. Pollutants, the components of pollution, can be either foreign substances/energies or
naturally occurring contaminants. Although environmental pollution can be caused by
natural events, the word pollution generally implies that the contaminants have an
anthropogenic source — that is, a source created by human activities. Pollution is often
classed as point source or nonpoint source pollution.
Forms of pollution
The major forms of pollution are listed below along with the particular contaminants
relevant to each of them:
 Air pollution: the release of chemicals and particulates into the atmosphere.
Common gaseous pollutants include carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide,
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and nitrogen oxides produced by industry and motor
vehicles. Photochemical ozone and smog are created as nitrogen oxides and
hydrocarbons react to sunlight. Particulate matter, or fine dust is characterized by
their micrometre size PM10 to PM2.5.
 Electromagnetic pollution: the overabundance of electromagnetic radiation in their
non-ionizing form, like radio waves, etc, that people are constantly exposed at,
especially in large cities. It's still unknown whether or not those types of radiation
have any effects on human health, though.
 Light pollution: includes light trespass, over-illumination and astronomical
interference.
 Littering: the criminal throwing of inappropriate man-made objects, unremoved,
onto public and private properties.
 Noise pollution: which encompasses roadway noise, aircraft noise, industrial noise
as well as high-intensity sonar.
 Plastic pollution: involves the accumulation of plastic products and microplastics in
the environment that adversely affects wildlife, wildlife habitat, or humans.

43.  Soil contamination occurs when chemicals are released by spill or underground
leakage. Among the most significant soil contaminants are hydrocarbons, heavy
metals, MTBE,[4]
herbicides, pesticides and chlorinated hydrocarbons.
 Radioactive contamination, resulting from 20th century activities in atomic physics,
such as nuclear power generation and nuclear weapons research, manufacture and
deployment. (See alpha emitters and actinides in the environment.)
 Thermal pollution, is a temperature change in natural water bodies caused by human
influence, such as use of water as coolant in a power plant.
 Visual pollution, which can refer to the presence of overhead power lines, motorway
billboards, scarred landforms (as from strip mining), open storage of trash,
municipal solid waste or space debris.
 Water pollution, by the discharge of industrial wastewater from commercial and
industrial waste (intentionally or through spills) into surface waters; discharges of
untreated sewage, and chemical contaminants, such as chlorine, from treated
sewage; release of waste and contaminants into surface runoff flowing to surface
waters (including urban runoff and agricultural runoff, which may contain chemical
fertilizers and pesticides; also including human feces from open defecation – still a
major problem in many developing countries); groundwater pollution from waste
disposal and leaching into the ground, including from pit latrines and septic tanks;
eutrophication and littering
Effects
Human health
Adverse air quality can kill many organisms, including humans. Ozone pollution can cause
respiratory disease, cardiovascular disease, throat inflammation, chest pain, and
congestion. Water pollution causes approximately 14,000 deaths per day, mostly due to
contamination of drinking water by untreated sewage in developing countries. An
estimated 500 million Indians have no access to a proper toilet,[26][27]
Over ten million

44. people in India fell ill with waterborne illnesses in 2013, and 1,535 people died, most of
them children.[28]
Nearly 500 million Chinese lack access to safe drinking water.[29]
A 2010
analysis estimated that 1.2 million people died prematurely each year in China because of
air pollution.[30]
The high smog levels China has been facing for a long time can do damage
to civilians' bodies and cause different diseases.[31]
The WHO estimated in 2007 that air
pollution causes half a million deaths per year in India.[32]
Studies have estimated that the
number of people killed annually in the United States could be over 50,000.[33]
Oil spills can cause skin irritations and rashes. Noise pollution induces hearing loss, high
blood pressure, stress, and sleep disturbance. Mercury has been linked to developmental
deficits in children and neurologic symptoms. Older people are majorly exposed to diseases
induced by air pollution. Those with heart or lung disorders are at additional risk. Children
and infants are also at serious risk. Lead and other heavy metals have been shown to cause
neurological problems. Chemical and radioactive substances can cause cancer and as well
as birth defects.
An October 2017 study by the Lancet Commission on Pollution and Health found that
global pollution, specifically toxic air, water, soils and workplaces, kills nine million
people annually, which is triple the number of deaths caused by AIDS, tuberculosis and
malaria combined, and 15 times higher than deaths caused by wars and other forms of
human violence.[34]
The study concluded that "pollution is one of the great existential
challenges of the Anthropocene era. Pollution endangers the stability of the Earth’s support
systems and threatens the continuing survival of human societies."[3]
Environment
Pollution has been found to be present widely in the environment. There are a number of
effects of this:
 Biomagnification describes situations where toxins (such as heavy metals) may pass
through trophic levels, becoming exponentially more concentrated in the process.

45. carbon dioxide emissions by jurisdiction (as of 2015)
Carbon dioxide emissions cause ocean acidification, the ongoing decrease in the pH of
the Earth's oceans as CO2 becomes dissolved.
greenhouse gases leads to global warming which affects ecosystems in
many ways.
Invasive species can outcompete native species and reduce biodiversity. Invasive plants
can contribute debris and biomolecules (allelopathy) that can alter soil and chemical
compositions of an environment, often reducing native species competitiveness.
Nitrogen oxides are removed from the air by rain and fertilise land which can change
the species composition of ecosystems.
Smog and haze can reduce the amount of sunlight received by plants to carry out
photosynthesis and leads to the production of tropospheric ozone which damages plants.
organisms in
the food web.
Sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides can cause acid rain which lowers the pH value of
soil.
pollution of watercourses can deplete oxygen levels and reduce species
diversity.
POLLUTION CONTROL
ollution control is a term used in environmental management. It means the control of
emissions and effluents into air, water or soil. Without pollution control, the waste products
from overconsumption, heating, agriculture, mining, manufacturing, transportation and
other human activities, whether they accumulate or disperse, will degrade the environment.
In the hierarchy of controls, pollution prevention and waste minimization are more

46. desirable than pollution control. In the field of land development, low impact development
is a similar technique for the prevention of urban runoff.
Practices
 Recycling
 Reusing
 Waste minimisation
 Mitigating
 Pollution prevention
 Compost
Pollution control devices
 Air pollution control
o Thermal oxidizer
 Dust collection systems
o Baghouses
o Cyclones
o Electrostatic precipitators
 Scrubbers
o Baffle spray scrubber
o Cyclonic spray scrubber
o Ejector venturi scrubber
o Mechanically aided scrubber
o Spray tower
o Wet scrubber
 Sewage treatment
o Sedimentation (Primary treatment)

47. o Activated sludge biotreaters (Secondary treatment; also used for industrial
wastewater)
o Aerated lagoons
o Constructed wetlands (also used for urban runoff)
 Industrial wastewater treatment
o API oil-water separators[10][45]
o Biofilters
o Dissolved air flotation (DAF)
o Powdered activated carbon treatment
o Ultrafiltration
 Vapor recovery systems
 Phytoremediation
REFERENCES
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_health
https://research.aota.org/ajot/article/74/Supplement_3/7413410005p1/6691/AOTA-2020-
Occupational-Therapy-Code-of-Ethics
https://www.omicsonline.org/open-access/a-review-of-sir-thomas-legges-aphorisms-and-
workplace-personal-protective-equipments-is-there-gap-in-knowledge-attitude-and-
utilization-2329-6879.1000134.php?aid=20396
https://medium.com/environmental-health/what-is-environmental-health-and-why-are-
we-concerned-47a2915ab9c
https://www.iloencyclopaedia.org/part-vii-86401/environmental-health-hazards/item/495-
linkages-between-environmental-and-occupational-health
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Workers%27_compensation

48. https://www.criteriacorp.com/resources/definitive-guide-validity-of-preemployment-
tests/what-are-pre-employment-tests
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pollution#Forms_of_pollution