1. www.asli.org.uk 13
COVER STORY
As a trainer of interpreters at the University
of Wolverhampton, I find it very rewarding to
see the development in students as they
move successfully through the programme.
Graduation is a very proud day for all
involved. However, as you will all know,
training to be an interpreter is not always easy
and many student interpreters seem to lack
self-belief and suffer low confidence.
The impact of nerves and anxiety on
students’ ability to demonstrate their skills at
the required level (even when they have the
requisite skills) is clear during assessments.
This type of anxiety is not limited to student
interpreters; many qualified and experienced
interpreters will have come out in a cold sweat
when undertaking a particularly challenging
assignment. There are many other professions
where anxiety can be a barrier to performance.
Athletes, musicians, actors and teachers all
seem to have similar experiences.
As I began to look at ways to help
students manage their anxiety, I explored the
following areas:
What is anxiety and how do performance
anxiety and foreign language anxiety differ
from general anxiety?
What is it that student/qualified interpreters
fear?
How does anxiety affect them?
What strategies can be used to alleviate
any negative effects from anxiety?
Are there any positive aspects to
performance anxiety?
Trait, state, performance and foreign
language anxieties
The exploration of anxiety is generally broken
down into either trait anxiety (‘proneness to
experiencing anxiety’) or state anxiety
(‘anxiety in response to a specific situation
perceived to be dangerous or threatening’)
(Psychology Dictionary). Historically, anxiety
studies related to interpreting have also used
these general anxiety types: ‘utilizing trait
anxiety scales, state anxiety, or a combination
of both trait and state anxiety scales’. (Chiang
2010: 596)
Spotlight stress
Performance anxiety can undermine our
interpreting. Thaïsa Whistance reports on its
causes and consequences and offers tips on
making sure our adrenalin works to our advantage
‘There are other professions
where anxiety can be a
barrier to performance.
Athletes, musicians, actors
and teachers all seem to
have similar experiences’

2. 14 Newsli issue 95 January 2016
However, the anxiety experienced by
student/working interpreters may not fit neatly
into these two categories. While it is certainly
true that some interpreting students may be
prone to levels of ‘trait anxiety’, it is not true of
all of them. Similarly, although assessments
can be nerve-wracking and their results highly
significant, they are not a dangerous or
threatening undertaking. For working
interpreters there are, of course, some jobs
which will provoke greater feelings of anxiety
than others and ‘the situations triggering
anxiety will also differ among a group of
interpreters, even when they have similar trait
anxiety scores’. (Chiang 2010: 597)
The type of anxiety experienced by
interpreters may be explained by looking at
other types of anxiety that researchers have
categorised; for example, ‘performance
anxiety’ (Csikszentmihalyi 1975) or ‘foreign-
language/FL anxiety’ (Chiang 2010; Horwitz
et al 1986).
Chiang (2010: 596) found that ‘trait anxiety
and FL anxiety in Taiwanese student
interpreters were two related but
distinguishable psychological phenomena’.
The sense of anxiety in the case of foreign-
language learners is heightened by being
called upon to use their second language to
communicate ideas, when they may not
necessarily feel very confident or secure in
their Language 2 (L2) production. Horwitz et
al describe foreign-language anxiety as ‘a
distinct complex of self-perceptions, beliefs,
feelings, and behaviours related to classroom
language learning arising from the
uniqueness of the language learning process’
(1986: 31). For sign language interpreters, our
use of L2 (or 3 or 4…) is carried out in front of
an audience of sorts. For a student interpreter,
that may be an audience of assessors and
role-play participants and for working
interpreters it will be whomever is involved in
the particular assignment being undertaken.
This ‘performance’ element is something we
have in common with musicians, actors and
sports people, as Smith and Smoll have
determined. ‘Athletic performance anxiety is
thus part of a family of performance-related
fear-of-failure that include test anxiety, speech
anxiety and the stage fright that actors,
musicians and dancers can experience within
their evaluative performance situations.’
(1990: 421)
So it appears that student/working
interpreters may suffer from trait anxiety,
or that their anxiety may be a reaction to
an assessment or assignment that they
perceive to be threatening in the sense that
the outcome could be highly significant for
them (state anxiety). There is then the added
factor of the use of a language which is not
their first language (FL anxiety) and the
element of ‘performance’ which can add to
the level of anxiety.
Causes and negative effects
of anxiety
Having determined the types of anxiety that
interpreters and students may be
experiencing, it is important to explore the
reasons why that anxiety is triggered. Fullager
et al (2013) used Csikszentmihalyi’s construct
of ‘flow’ (1975) (a state of concentration so
focused that it amounts to absolute
absorption in an activity) to examine the role
‘Anxiety may be elevated
when undertaking an
assignment where there
may be high demand but
low control’

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COVER STORY
of skill/challenge balance in music
performance anxiety (MPA). They found that
‘both flow and performance anxiety were
associated with the balance between the
perceived skills necessary to perform a task
and the perceived challenges inherent in the
task. Flow was more likely to occur for tasks
where challenges and skills were balanced,
whereas performance anxiety was associated
with tasks where the challenge did not match
the skills of the performer.’ (2013: 246)
Students undertaking assessments may not
be confident that their skills are at the requisite
level for flow to occur. It is likely that this is part
of what creates the anxiety associated with
assessments. For practising interpreters,
anxiety may be elevated when undertaking an
assignment where we are less experienced or
where there may be high demand but low
control (Dean and Pollard 2001).
Smith and Smoll found that ‘the most
salient sources of threat are the possibilities of
failure and of disapproval by significant others
who are evaluating the athlete’s performance
in relation to some standard of excellence’
(1990: 421). This is also discussed by
Lasagabaster and Sierra who discuss the
‘unpleasantness that a feeling of being
monitored can cause’ when teachers are
being observed in the classroom (2011: 456).
Similarly, Horwitz et al found that: ‘Foreign
language anxiety concerns performance
evaluation within an academic and social
context. It is useful to draw parallels between it
and three related performance anxieties: 1)
communication apprehension; 2) test anxiety;
and 3) fear of negative evaluation.’ (1986: 127)
Fear of negative evaluation is also a factor
in music performance anxiety. Wells et al, in
their research into the impact of slow
breathing techniques to alleviate MPA, found
that this type of anxiety ‘may arise from acute
awareness of the possibility for negative
evaluation leading to physiological symptoms
which subsequently interfere with successful
performance’ (2012: 9).
What is interesting here is that the anxiety
actually leads to symptoms which prevent
the musician from performing their tasks
successfully. Nieuwenhuys and Oudejans
(2011: 747) explore the effects of anxiety
on ‘cognitive performance (eg, taking an
important exam) as well as perceptual-
motor performance (eg, picking up a cup
from a table).’ For sign language interpreters,
any negative impact on perceptual motor
skills will inhibit their ability to produce signs.
In my experience, this can be seen in
students, specifically in relation to the
production of fingerspelling and numbers in
BSL, which seem to be negatively affected
during assessments.
There are other negative effects of anxiety
on the student interpreters’ ability to produce
a rendition which reflects their skill level.
Firstly, the fear of negative evaluation by
their peers can affect students’ attendance
and they may miss out on important learning
and development opportunities. Horwitz et
al describe anxious students as experiencing
‘apprehension, worry, even dread. They
have difficulty concentrating, become
‘Any negative impact on
perceptual motor skills will
inhibit the ability to produce
signs. This can be seen in
students, specifically in the
production of fingerspelling
and numbers in BSL’

4. 16 Newsli issue 95 January 2016
forgetful, sweat, and have palpitations.
They exhibit avoidance behaviour such as
missing class and postponing homework.’
(1986:126)
In a review paper looking at literature
which explores the effects of acute stress on
health professionals, LeBlanc came to the
following conclusion: ‘Elevated stress levels
can impede performance on tasks that
require divided attention, working memory,
retrieval of information from memory, and
decision making’ (2009). This is obviously
very significant for interpreters who are
required to use all of these functions.
It may be that these effects lead students
to stick to less risky or complex linguistic
constructions than they may otherwise have
chosen. ‘The more anxious student tends to
avoid attempting difficult or personal
messages in the target language,’ Horowitz
et al have found (1986:126).
So it is clear that there are several
debilitating effects associated with being
excessively anxious during an exam or
assignment. It does seem, however, that the
way you perceive the upcoming event can
be significant.
How do we alleviate the negative
effects of performance or foreign
language anxiety?
In a study of performance anxiety in
musicians, Tomaka et al (1993, cited in
Simoens 2013: 12) demonstrated that
individuals who perceived a task as a
challenge had more positive physiological
changes leading towards energy mobilisation
than those who perceived the task as a threat.
The psychological shift in perspective, to
seeing the assessment as a great opportunity
to demonstrate how far you have come and
how well your skills have developed, can be
helpful in reducing feelings of anxiety and the
associated ‘symptoms’. Those students who
have prepared effectively for an assessment,
who have attended classes and done the
work required outside of the classroom, may
find that looking at assessments through the
lens of challenge and opportunity is an
effective strategy.
In their work exploring emotional stability
as a predictor of interpreter aptitude,
Bontempo and Napier advise that ‘teaching
interpreting students and accredited
practitioners to better manage anxiety and
occupational stress may be conducive to
improving their interpreting performance’
(2011: 10). How do we go about this, though?
LeBlanc (2009: s30) categorises the two
possible approaches to this as ‘skills-based
training or as stress management
interventions’.
The current focus in the classroom tends
to be on the skills-based training element,
but perhaps building in some stress
management techniques and awareness of
other ways to view assessment could be
helpful. For example, the final year
interpreting students this year at the
University of Wolverhampton have been
tasked with watching a lecture by Dr Steve
Joordens (2015), who gives some very sound
advice on how to turn something which feels
‘Individuals who perceived a
task as a challenge had
more positive physiological
changes leading towards
energy mobilisation than
those who perceived the
task as a threat’

5. www.asli.org.uk 17
COVER STORY
like a ‘failure’ into an opportunity to learn and
grow. He talks about how to change your
perspective on failure or critical feedback
and this was well received by the students.
Dr Joordens’ philosophy is echoed by
Nishitani and Matsuda, who state that it is
important for students to ‘understand that
they can learn much through their mistakes,
and that their fear of making a mistake may
be because they wrongly assume that it
gives others a bad impression’ (2011: 444).
One of the changes in mindset that can
be helpful is to view any form of feedback as
something to be valued or treasured. I
encourage students to welcome all feedback,
regardless of what they may perceive the
motivation of the giver of feedback to be.
Anything that helps you to gain an
understanding of someone else’s perception
of your skills is useful, in the sense that it
allows you to examine your part in creating
that perception and decide what action you
can take to improve it; after all, that is all you
can realistically change.
It seems wise then to encourage a
classroom culture where ‘mistakes’ are seen
as learning opportunities for the student and
their classmates. This helps to alleviate the
stress associated with fear of negative
evaluation from peers and leads to a more
open learning environment. When
assessment time comes around, students
may then feel a little more relaxed, having
been happy to participate and ‘perform’ in
class more often in the lead up to the
assessment period. This would tie in with
Horwitz et al’s assertion that ‘educators have
two options when dealing with anxious
students: 1) they can help them learn to cope
with the existing anxiety-provoking situation;
or 2) they can make the learning context less
stressful.’ (1986: 131)
Cho and Roger (2010: 169) found a
‘number of possible benefits of linking
theatrical training to interpreting study for the
purpose of overcoming performance anxiety
and improving extemporaneous performance
skills’. The exercises undertaken by the
student interpreters in their study included
memory, anticipation and improvisation tasks.
It may be that the introduction of this type of
exercises into the classroom would be of
some benefit.
It seems obvious, but actually putting in
the required amount of work is a way to
alleviate anxiety. Students need to undertake
the learning tasks and self-directed learning
that is given to them to give themselves the
very best chance of being ready to view the
assessment as a challenge, but not outside
of their ability level. Interpreters undertaking
a job that has the potential to cause anxiety
can ensure that they have adequately
prepared themselves. In a study of MPA in
flute players, Kenny et al found that ‘those
practising least reported the highest levels of
MPA’ (2011: 322).
There may be other ways that students
can help themselves be emotionally ready for
assessment time. Lin et al (2008) studied the
effects of Chan (Zen) meditation on MPA and
found that ‘enhanced concentration and
mindfulness (silent illumination), cultivated by
Chan practice, might enable one to channel
‘It seems wise then to
encourage a classroom
culture where “mistakes”
are seen as learning
opportunities for the student
and their classmates’

6. 18 Newsli issue 95 January 2016
performance anxiety to improve musical
performance’ (2008: 139). The rise of
‘mindfulness’ as a practice is worth exploring.
Barbosa et al (2013: 13) found that there had
been a ‘significant reduction in students’
levels of anxiety’ following their participation
in ‘The Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction
(MBSR) program… founded by Jon Kabat-
Zinn, PhD, in 1979’.
Rathsclag and Memmert (2015) looked at
the effects of ‘self-generated emotions’ on the
‘Understanding what it is
that you are really afraid of
gives you the opportunity to
get to grips with why you
may be feeling anxious’
Barbosa, P, Raymond, G, Zlotnick, C, Wilk, J, Toomey, R and Mitchell, J (2013)
‘Mindfulness-based stress reduction training is associated with greater empathy and reduced anxiety
for graduate healthcare students’ in Education for Health: Changes in learning & practice 26(1) pp9-14.
Bontempo, K and Napier, J (2011) ‘Evaluating emotional stability as a predictor of interpreter
competence and aptitude for interpreting’ in Interpreting 13(1) pp85-105.
Chiang, Y N (2010) ‘Foreign Language Anxiety and Student Interpreters’ Learning Outcomes:
Implications for the Theory and Measurement of Interpretation Learning Anxiety’ in Meta: journal des
traducteurs/Meta: Translators’ Journal 55(3) pp589-601.
Cho, J and Roger, P (2010) ‘Improving Interpreting Performance through Theatrical Training’ in The
Interpreter and Translator Trainer 4(2) pp151-171.
Clifford, A (2015) Three tips for coping with performance anxiety [Blog entry, Accessed 28.09.15]
Available at: www.glendon.yorku.ca/interpretation/three-tips-for-coping-with-performance-anxiety/.
Csikszentmihalyi, M (1975) Beyond boredom and anxiety: Experiencing flow in work and play, San
Fransisco, CA: Jossey: Bass.
Cuddy, A (2012) Your body language shapes who you are [Accessed 28 September 2015] Available at:
http://www.ted.com/talks/amy_cuddy_your_body_language_shapes_who_you_are?language=en.
Davis, J (2005) ‘Teaching observation techniques to interpreters’ in Roy, C (ed) (2005) Advances in
teaching Sign Language Interpreters, Washington Gallaudet: University Press.
Dean, R and Pollard, R Q (2001) ‘The application of demand-control theory to sign language interpreting:
Implications for stress and interpreter training’ in Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education 6 pp 1-14.
Dean, R and Pollard, R Q (2013) DC-S The Demand Control Schema: Interpreting as a Practice
Profession, North Charleston: CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform.
Fullager C J, Knight, P A, and Sovern, H S (2013) ‘Challenge/Skill Balance, Flow, and Performance
Anxiety’ in Applied Psychology: An International review 62(2) pp236–259.
Horwitz, E K, Horwitz, B and Cope, J (1986) ‘Foreign Language Classroom Anxiety’ in The Modern
Language Journal 70(2) pp125-132.
Jimenez, A and Pinazo, D (2001) ‘I failed because I got very nervous: Anxiety and performance in
interpreter trainees: an empirical study’ in The Interpreters’ Newsletter 11, EUT.
REFERENCES:
sprint performance of 24 sports students.
The emotions that students were encouraged
to invoke were ‘happiness’ (done by recalling

7. www.asli.org.uk 19
a happy personal event), ‘anxiety’ (recalling
an anxious moment) and ‘emotion-neutral’
(invoked by imagining themselves brushing
their teeth). ‘Participants’ sprint performances
were significantly enhanced in the happiness
condition compared with the emotion-neutral
and anxiety conditions, and, thus, we found a
performance-increasing effect for the
emotion of happiness.’ (2015: 191)
The authors therefore recommend that
athletes, having settled upon a particularly
COVER STORY
Joordens, S (2015) How to learn from failure [Accessed 21/11/2015] Available at: www. youtu.be/
Ju8a7LtD6Cw
Kenny, D T, Fortune, J M and Ackermann, B (2011) ‘Predictors of music performance anxiety during
skilled performance in tertiary flute players’ in Psychology of Music 41(3) pp306-328.
Lasagabaster, D and Sierra, J M (2011) ‘Classroom observation: desirable conditions established by
teachers’ in European Journal of Teacher Education 34(4) pp449-463.
LeBlanc, V R (2009) ‘The Effects of Acute Stress on Performance: Implications for Health Professions
Education’ in Academic Medicine 84(10) pp525-533.
Lin, P, Chang, J, Zemon, V and Midlarsky, E (2008) ‘Silent illumination: a study on Chan (Zen)
meditation, anxiety, and musical performance quality’ in Psychology of Music 36(2) pp139-155.
Nieuwenhuys, A and Oudejans, R R D (2011) Psychological Research 76 pp747–759.
Nishitani, M and Matsuda, T (2011) ‘The Relationship between Language Anxiety, Interpretation of Anxi-
ety, Intrinsic Motivation and the Use of Learning Strategies’ in US-China Education Review pp438-446.
Psychology Dictionary What is trait anxiety? [Accessed 21/11/2015] Available at: www.psychologydic-
tionary.org/trait-anxiety/.
Simoens, V L (2013) ‘Are music performance anxiety and performance boost perceived as extremes of
the same continuum?’ in Psychology of Music pp1-17.
Smith, R T and Smoll, F L (1990) ‘Sports Performance anxiety’ in Leitenberg, H (ed) Handbook of Social
and Evaluation Anxiety, New York: Springer Science Business Media.
Tomaka, J, Blascovich, J, Kelsey, R M and Leitten, C L (1993) ‘Subjective, physiological, and behavioral
effects of threat and challenge appraisal’ in Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 65(2)
pp248–260.
Wells, R, Outhred, T, Heathers, J, Quintana, D and Kemp, A (2012) Matter over Mind: A Randomised-
Controlled Trial of Single-Session Biofeedback Training on Performance Anxiety and Heart Rate
Variability in Musicians, PLOSONE 7(10).
Rathschlag, M and Memmert, D (2015) ‘Self-Generated Emotions and Their Influence on Sprint
Performance: An Investigation of Happiness and Anxiety’ in Journal of Applied Sport Psychology 27(2)
pp186-199.
happy memory, ‘self-generate the emotion of
happiness directly before the beginning of
the sprint’. It is certainly worth interpreters
giving this a try.
In his blog post with tips for interpreters
coping with performance anxiety, Clifford
(2015) recommends that those suffering with
such anxiety ‘figure out what it is that you’re
saying to yourself that is hitting your “panic
button” as “thoughts create emotions” rather
than the other way around’. Understanding

8. 20 Newsli issue 95 January 2016
negative evaluation by assessors can feel
daunting but what about if you thought that
the assessors were waiting to catch you
doing something right?
Be prepared and make sure you put in the
extra hours to develop your skills to the
requisite level.
Accept that you will make mistakes in your
learning environment. Making an error
creates a learning opportunity for everyone
and an opportunity to discuss ways not to
make it again. For qualified interpreters,
actively engage in collaborative CPD
activities that offer you this same opportunity.
Learn from your peers, tutors, and more
experienced interpreters and be assured that
they have all had the same anxious feelings
at some point.
When someone offers you feedback
(whether it be solicited or unsolicited,
constructive or critical in nature), welcome it
with open arms and sincerely thank the giver
for taking their time to provide you with an
opportunity to become a better interpreter.
Do a situational/picture analysis to ensure
that you have thought through the potential
demands and available controls.
View the upcoming assessment or
assignment as a challenge and an
opportunity to demonstrate your skills.
Ensure that you are placing your attention
on what is important rather than being drawn
into focusing on negative thoughts.
Take time for relaxation, slow breathing,
meditation, mindfulness exercises, or
whatever else works for you.
Find your happy place. What special
memory can invoke those feelings of
happiness and wellbeing that can enhance
your performance?
Pose like a superhero and keep things in
perspective!
COVER ST O RY
what it is that you are really afraid of gives you
the opportunity to rationally weigh up the
issue and get to grips with why you may be
feeling anxious.
Along similar lines, Cuddy (2012)
recommends the practice of ‘power posing’
as a way to build confidence and self-belief
before a big event, as it has been shown to
lower levels of the stress hormone cortisol.
Student/working interpreters may be
trained to undertake picture analysis, first
developed by Dean and Pollard ‘as a way to
teach the analysis of the EIPI demand
categories in various interpreted settings’
(Davis 2005: 34). Applying this type of
thinking to a forthcoming interpreting
assessment scenario is useful in allowing
students to think through what the demands
are in each of the EIPI categories, (see Dean
and Pollard 2013 for more information about
the categories and suggested class
activities). This type of preparation should
include the consideration of intrapersonal
demands that may occur, so that students
can then explore the available controls in
relation to managing their feelings of stress
and anxiety.
Useful strategies
Having examined the types of anxiety that
may be suffered by student interpreters, and
the factors which cause the anxiety; it seems
that, rather than being powerless in the face
of assessment/assignment nerves, there are
strategies that can be employed to mitigate
the detrimental effects of anxiety.
Recognise the fact that anxiety is a natural
response when you are facing something that
you may perceive as threatening. There are
very good reasons for the body to react in
this way. However, ask yourself if the threat is
as real as you fear. For example, fear of