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Agroecology: India's Journey to Agricultural Prosperity
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Agroecology:
India’s Journey
to Agricultural
Prosperity
The evidence and path forward
through agroecology

Agroecology: India’s Journey to Agricultural Prosperity
The evidence and path forward through agroecology
Report presented to the Government of India on behalf of:
H.H. Pujya Swami Chidanand Saraswatiji (India)
President and spiritual head of Parmarth Niketan Ashram, India Heritage Research Foundation
Sadhvi Bhagawati Saraswatiji, PhD (India/USA)
President of Divine Shakti Foundation, Secretary-General of the Global Interfaith WASH
Alliance, Managing Editor for the Encyclopedia of Hinduism
Ravi Agarwal, MBA (India)
Director of Toxics Link, environmental specialist and writer
John Fagan, PhD (USA)
Professor of Molecular Biology, Director of Earth Open Source and founder of Global ID
Group
Gopi Ghosh, PhD (India)
Director and Head of Policy Research, Asian Institute of Poverty Alleviation, New Delhi;
former Assistant Country Representative of Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the
UN; former Deputy Chief Director in India’s Ministry of Agriculture
Hans R Herren, PhD (Switzerland/USA)
Agronomist and entomologist, world leading expert on biological pest control and
sustainable agriculture, Co-Chair of the IAASTD report, President and CEO of the
Millennium Institute, recipient of the 2013 Right Livelihood Award
Graeme Sait (Australia/New Zealand)
World leader in biological agriculture, founder of Nutri-Tech Solutions and ‘nutrition
farming’
Colin Tudge (England)
Cambridge UK biologist, scientific writer, founder of the Campaign for Real Farming
Commissioned by:
Bharat Mitra (India/Australia/Israel)
President and founder of ORGANIC INDIA and UPLIFT

Editors:
Anna da Costa, MA, MSc (India) and Suzanne Pinckney Pflaum, MBA (USA/Australia)
Supporting Authors:
Christopher Bradburn, MSc; Christopher Kennedy, MEd; Marilyn McHugh, MPH; Jacob
Pflaum, CFA; Johanna Unger, MSc
January 2015

Contents
Summary............................................................................................................................1
Introduction.......................................................................................................................3
What is Agroecology?.........................................................................................................5
Defining agroecology......................................................................................................................6
Comparing current and agroecological approaches....................................................................7
How agroecology relates to “organic” and other sustainable agriculture approaches.............8
Examining the data............................................................................................................9
Agroecology sustains or increases yields....................................................................................10
Success Globally........................................................................................................10
Success in India.........................................................................................................11
Agroecology enhances livelihoods ..............................................................................................14
Success in India.........................................................................................................16
Agroecology supports health and nutrition...............................................................................19
Success in India.........................................................................................................22
Agroecology builds ecological resilience ....................................................................................23
Success in India.........................................................................................................25
Agroecology improves efficiency, especially of small farms.....................................................27
Challenges to the scale of agroecology in India................................................................29
Policy environment.......................................................................................................................29
Market structure...........................................................................................................................31
Information, knowledge, and technology..................................................................................32
Research.........................................................................................................................................33
Recommendations and immediate next steps..................................................................35
Protect India’s sovereignty – reject GM food trials....................................................................35
Pilot agroecology regionally – level the playing field.................................................................35
Ten additional recommendations................................................................................................37
The report presenters offer the following, in service to the Government of India................39
General support........................................................................................................39
Pilot project support.................................................................................................39
References and notes........................................................................................................40

Agroecology: India’s Journey to Agricultural Prosperity 1
Summary
The Honourable Minister of Environment, Forests and Climate Change, Prakash Javadekar,
recently announced the Indian Government’s decision to move forwards with the trialing
of GM food crops, stating that: “For the sake of food security, to get the poor to live with
dignity, we need to evaluate all safe techniques of food production.”
There is no doubt that food security, poverty alleviation, and environmental sustainability
are national priorities of paramount importance for India. However, a large and growing
body of scientific evidence suggests that the use of GM technology cannot deliver on its
promises to solve these complex and interconnected problems (see our report delivered
to the Government of India in October 2014, Would the introduction of GM crops benefit
India?). Conducting trials of GM crops at this time is strongly unadvisable on the grounds
that contamination is inevitable, economically costly and would create significant human
and environmental health hazards (see our report delivered to the Government of India in
January 2015, What is wrong with GMO field trials?).
The large scale implementation of agroecological practices, instead, offers a robust
alternative solution to these national-level challenges; one that can provide India and her
growing population with lasting food security, enhanced livelihoods, improved public health
and a resilient and diverse agriculture long into the future.
In 2008, the most comprehensive study and assessment of agricultural practices ever
conducted (the International Assessment of Agricultural Knowledge, Science, and
Technology for Development – IAASTD) concluded that agroecological practices can deliver
equal or better yields and economic returns to the farmer than chemical- and biotechnology-
based agriculture, while also enhancing farmer livelihoods, improving public health and
reviving ecosystem resilience.
Convened by the world’s most renowned international development agencies (including the
FAO, UNDP, UNEP, UNESCO, World Bank, and WHO), involving over 400 scientists, and
endorsed by 59 governments, including India, the report explicitly did not endorse GMO,
citing “highly variable” yields and even “yield declines” in some cases, significant biosafety
concerns, and intellectual property rights issues.
Agroecology is the application of ecological concepts and principles to the design
and management of sustainable agro-ecosystems. It represents the leading edge of
scientific farming, integrating the most advanced knowledge of biology, genetics,
agronomy, soil science, entomology, and other sciences with the traditional and
localized agricultural knowledge of farmers. A key concept in contemporary agroecology
is that agricultural systems cannot be studied independently of the human
communities that depend on them. Thus, unlike any other discipline related to

2 Agroecology: India’s Journey to Agricultural Prosperity
agriculture, agroecology includes the social and human sciences, as well as the ecological
and agricultural sciences.
There are multiple examples, from both India and across the world, that clearly demonstrate
the potential for agroecological practices to achieve a thriving agriculture. Each illustrates that
compared to currently predominant forms of agriculture, agroecological practices can:
1. Sustain or improve yields;
2. Enhance farmer livelihoods;
3. Support health and nutrition;
4. Build ecological resilience; and,
5. Improve efficiency, especially of small farms.
Despite the innate potential of agroecological practices, there are a number of challenges that
need to be overcome for their widespread adoption and scale. These exist within the current
policy environment; market structure; availability of information, knowledge, and technology;
and the focus of agricultural research. Each of these four challenge areas are described in
this report, with key recommendations for how to begin addressing them. Although not
exhaustive, these recommendations denote leverage points to level the playing field across the
different forms of agriculture that exist in India currently.
In addition, the report presenters recommend two immediate next steps so that India can
benefit from the full potential of agroecology:
1. Halt all GMO trials, as the history of such trials around the world is rife with
contamination issues. These will have severe economic impacts and compromise the
Government’s ability to implement agroecological practices to their full potential.
2. Conduct a large scale pilot of agroecological practices across 1 lakh villages to fulfil
Honourable Union Agriculture Minister Radha Mohan Singh’s vision. Regional pilots which
level the playing field for agroecological and conventional farmers will not only demonstrate
the value of agroecology but also explore and build the knowledge base for improved
application of these techniques across India. This will require coordination throughout
the socioeconomic system from the smallholder farmer to the government ministries.
Finally, there are a number of ways in which the presenters of this report can be in service
to the Government of India as it forges this new path, a few of which are described at the
conclusion of this report.
India, with its large smallholder demographic, rich cultural heritage, diversity of agro-climatic
zones, and vibrant ecology, is perfectly primed to capture this opportunity. The adoption of
agroecological practices at scale would provide an opportunity for India not just to secure
her own current and future needs, but to become a major exporter of high quality, healthful
produce. The decision to capture this opportunity would mark India out as a global leader
towards the agricultural transformation that the world desperately needs.

Introduction
T
he Honourable Minister of Environment, Forests and Climate Change, Prakash
Javadekar, recently announced the Indian Government’s decision to move forwards
with the trialing of GM food crops, stating that: For the sake of food security, to get
the poor to live with dignity, we need to evaluate all safe techniques of food production.1
There is no doubt that food security, poverty alleviation, and environmental sustainability
are national priorities of paramount importance for India. There is also no doubt that today,
with rapidly growing rates of indebtedness and farmer suicides,2
significant declines in soil
and water quality, and concerns around access to safe and nutritious food,3
that India’s
agricultural sector is in crisis.4,5
However, a large and growing body of scientific evidence suggests that the use of GM
technology cannot be a solution to these complex and interconnected problems. Instead,
the large scale implementation of agroecological practices can provide India and her growing
population with lasting food security, enhanced livelihoods, improved public health and a
safe, diverse, and resilient agriculture long into the future.
The irrelevance of GM to meeting our current
and future food needs was confirmed by
a comprehensive report commissioned by
six United Nations agencies and the World
Bank. Conducted by over 400 scientists and
experts6
from 80 countries and endorsed by 59
governments (including India), the International
Assessment of Agricultural Knowledge, Science
and Technology for Development (IAASTD)7
did not endorse GM crops as a solution to world
hunger.
The report pointed out that yields of GM crops
were “highly variable” and in some cases resulted
in “yield declines”. It added that there were
lingering safety concerns (human, animal, plant,
microbial, and physical environment) over GM
crops and that the patents attached to them could
undermine seed saving, and food security in developing countries. Asked at a press
conference if GM crops were the answer to world hunger, IAASTD director Professor
Bob Watson said, “The simple answer is no.”8
Research and experiences internationally since this time have confirmed that the adoption
of GM technology is not only irrelevant but may also be economically, socially, and
environmentally detrimental for India. See our report delivered to the Government of India
Large scale
implementation of
agroecological practices
can provide India and
her growing population
with lasting food
security, enhanced
livelihoods, improved
public health and a safe,
diverse, and resilient
agriculture long into the
future.

in October 2014, “Would the introduction of GM crops benefit India?”9
, and our report delivered
in January 2015, “What is wrong with GMO field trials?”10
Instead, the IAASTD report called for a shift towards agroecological food production
systems, which it concluded can deliver equal or better yields and economic returns to
the farmer than predominant forms of chemical- and biotechnology-based agriculture,
while also enhancing farmer livelihoods, improving public health and reviving ecosystem
resilience.11
A substantial body of scientific evidence to this effect has continued to build since this
time. In September 2014, at the holding of the first Agroecology Symposium at the Food
and Agriculture Organization in Rome, close to 70 senior agricultural scientists from across
the world called for “a UN system-wide initiative on agroecology as the central strategy
for addressing climate change and building resilience.”12
This is yet another undeniably
strong indication of the importance that is now being given to the IAASTD report’s
recommendations by the world’s foremost international food and agriculture agency.
Agroecological food production systems can deliver equal
or better yields and economic returns to the farmer than
predominant forms of chemical- and biotechnology-based
agriculture, while also enhancing farmer livelihoods,
improving public health, and reviving ecosystem resilience.
– IAASTD: Agriculture at a Crossroads13

What is Agroecology?
A
groecology has emerged as a systemic response to today’s global agricultural crisis:
one that seeks to address the interconnected economic, social, and ecological
challenges we face today in a way that is effective and lasting.
Based on the principles of sustainability, integrity, productivity, equity, and stability,1,2
agroecology’s scientific foundations are in the ecological and social processes that underlie
sustainable food production, rather than the chemical and economic processes that underpin
industrial agriculture. A key concept in contemporary agroecology is that agricultural
systems cannot be studied independently of the human communities that depend on
them.3
Thus, unlike any other discipline related to agriculture, agroecology includes the
social and human sciences, as well as the ecological and agricultural sciences.4
1.
Agroecology is the application of ecological concepts and
principles to the design and management of sustainable
agro-ecosystems.
– Miguel Altieri, Professor of Agroecology, UCLA, Berkeley5
Since the middle of the twentieth century, major breakthroughs in crop breeding and
farming practices have more than doubled physical agricultural output.6
For India, they
allowed the nation to become largely self-sufficient even as its population doubled.7
However, while these practices (typically termed “industrial”, “intensive”, “conventional”, or
“chemical”) have increased yields tremendously in the short term, they have taken a heavy
toll on environmental and human health.
A major loss of plant and animal species diversity,8
vast tracts of degraded land, reduced
crop resilience, and a loss of livelihoods for many farmers are all symptoms of industrial
agricultural practices.9
Some of these practices have also led to a significant decline in the
nutrient content of food. This has happened through the unintentional selecting-out of high
nutrient crop varieties when breeding for high yield potential; the use of shallow-rooting
annuals, which are unable to tap into soil nutrients at deeper levels; and the failure to return
a full complement of nutrients to the topsoil.10
The widespread contamination of food and
water bodies with pesticide residues, fertiliser and heavy metals is, in addition, an alarming
health concern.11,12
As the environmental problems associated with industrial agriculture have become more
evident, adjustments have been made to the prevailing model to make it “more sustainable”.

These have, however, been unable to address the fundamental, structural problems
associated with the approach. Today, India’s industrial agricultural practices remain largely
unsustainable, inequitable, and gender insensitive.13,14,15
Defining agroecology
Contrary to popular belief, agroecology is not “chemical agriculture without the chemicals”,
and it is not what is normally understood as “subsistence agriculture”. Agroecology
represents the leading edge of scientific farming, integrating the most advanced
knowledge of biology, genetics, agronomy, soil science, entomology and other sciences
with the traditional agricultural knowledge of farmers in a region. This is demonstrated
by the fact that when “organic-by-default” and typical chemical agricultural operations have
converted to genuine agroecological practices, integrating the multitude of science- and
traditional knowledge-based dimensions that exist, dramatic improvements in yield, as well
as many other social and environmental benefits have been reported.16
By enhancing the health and resilience of natural systems, agroecological farming practices
improve long-term land productivity, replenish ecosystem health, reduce negative health
impacts for farmers and consumers, while enhancing the nutritional benefits of food, and –
when fairly and effectively connected to markets – improve farmers’ livelihoods financially
and otherwise.17
The discipline of Agroecology is often described as having three facets. It is:18
1. A scientific discipline, involving the holistic study of agro-ecosystems, including human
and environmental elements.
2. A set of principles and practices to enhance the resilience and ecological, socio-economic,
and cultural sustainability of farming systems.
3. A movement seeking a new way of considering agriculture and its relationships with
society.
Agroecology does not seek a one-size-fits-all prescription for what constitutes sustainable
farming, but instead takes into consideration the surrounding ecosystems and regions so
as to best optimise available resources.19
As a result, farming methodologies frequently
vary.20,21
Agroecological systems are, however, typically defined by the following properties:
u
u Low external input, energy-saving practices that preserve and build soil health, conserve
water, and enhance natural pest resistance and resilience in crops: for example, crop
rotation, intercropping, mixed cropping, “push-pull” systems to control pests, inclusion
of livestock, and use of nitrogen-fixing plants to enhance soil fertility.
u
u The use of thousands of traditional varieties of major food crops which are naturally and
locally adapted to stresses such as drought, heat, harsh weather conditions, flooding,
salinity, poor soil, and pests and diseases.22

u
u Programmes that enable farmers to cooperatively preserve and improve traditional seeds
of diversified food crops and indigenous breeds of animals.
u
u The use of existing crops and their wild relatives in traditional breeding programmes to
develop varieties with useful traits.23
u
u The use of safe modern biotechnology techniques, such as marker assisted selection
(MAS), to speed up traditional breeding.24,25,26
Comparing current and agroecological approaches
In contrast to the external input-driven approach of industrial agriculture, agroecology is
knowledge-intensive, skill-based and local resource-driven, emphasizing low-cost techniques
that use farmers’ local knowledge and experimentation as a foundation. The knowledge-
intensive and long-term nature of agroecological solutions has caused them to receive little
support from agribusiness and large-scale developers, who are frequently interested in
quick, rapid-return solutions. Most funding to be invested in the fight against hunger goes
into subsidies for agrochemicals and large-scale projects,27
which sideline small growers
in the process. Agroecological systems, on the other hand, are designed to give farmers –
small and large – independence from the need for costly external inputs and to make both
communities and environments resilient, self-sufficient and healthy in the long-term.
Fig 1: Current vs Agroecological Approaches28
Current Approach Agroecological Approach
Segregation Integration
Reductive perspective Systemic perspective
Short-term perspective Long-term perspective
More external and artificial inputs More local and natural inputs
Declining Biodiversity Promoting Biodiversity
Degeneration Regeneration
Input intensive Knowledge intensive
Measures single crop yield Measures whole farm yield
Mono-cropped Multi-cropped
Low resource use efficiency High resource use efficiency

How agroecology relates to “organic” and other
sustainable agriculture approaches
Agroecological concepts and principles embrace a wide range of practices within the field
of sustainable agriculture. As a result, they are not in conflict with, but rather encompass
a variety of approaches also known by other names. These include, but are not limited
to: organic agriculture, Non-Pesticide Management (NPM), Integrated Pest Management
(IPM), Integrated Nutrient Management (INM), nutrition farming, agroforestry, System of
Rice Intensification (SRI), System Crop Intensification, no-till farming, natural agriculture,
natural farming, permaculture, aquaculture, rainwater harvesting, forest gardening, zero
budget natural farming, and biodynamic farming.
Even as early as 1968...I gave a lecture in the Indian
Science Congress, warning that the excessive use of
pesticides and fertilizers, the excessive exploitation of
groundwater, growing monocultures instead of varietal
diversity – all of this would be very harmful…I coined
the term Evergreen Revolution, which means increasing
production in perpetuity without ecological harm.
– M.S. Swaminathan, father of India’s Green Revolution29

Examining the data
T
he chief drivers for the Government of India’s interest in GM technology, says
Honourable Minister Javadekar, are its potential to deliver food security and
poverty alleviation for the people of India. The wealth of scientific research that
exists today indicates, however, that GM will not be able to deliver these benefits in a safe
and secure manner.1
Instead, it shows with ever-increasing clarity that an agroecological
approach can not only deliver these and additional benefits, but that it is particularly suited
to India’s significant smallholder demographic.
This chapter outlines some of the key benefits that agroecological methods offer over the
predominant approach to agriculture today.
u
u Agroecology sustains or increases yields
u
u Agroecology enhances livelihoods
u
u Agroecology supports health and nutrition
u
u Agroecology builds ecological resilience
u
u Agroecology improves efficiency, especially of small farms
2.

Agroecology sustains or increases yields
One of the primary concerns when it comes to moving away from a system of highly
intensive and unsustainable chemical agriculture is whether alternative approaches can
produce and sustain sufficient yields. Research to date has demonstrated that agroecological
methods can not only produce the same yields as conventional practices, but in many cases
can dramatically increase them over a period of a few years, outperforming conventional
methods and providing a multitude of additional benefits to farmer, environment and
society.2,3,4,5,6,7
Success Globally
A panoply of agroecological techniques have been successfully tested in many regions
worldwide,8
demonstrating their potential to significantly improve yields.9
In what may be the most systematic study of the potential of such techniques to date,
Pretty et al. (2006) compared the impacts of 286 recent sustainable agriculture projects,
covering 37 million hectares in 57 developing countries. The study found that agroecological
techniques increased average crop output by 79%, while simultaneously improving the
supply of critical environmental services.10
Twenty-five per cent of these projects reported a
100% increase or more. Over the four year period of the study, randomly resampled projects
indicated a 56% increase in the number of farmers and a 45% increase in the number of
hectares that had converted to agroecological practices; evidence of its appeal and growing
spread.11
In 2008, a United Nations report looked at 114
farming projects across 24 African countries and
found that agroecological practices achieved yield
increases averaging over 100%. In East Africa,
a yield increase of 128% was found. The report
concluded that agroecology can be more conducive
to food security in Africa than chemically-based
production systems, and that it is more likely to be
sustainable in the long-term.12
A more recent study examined 40 initiatives
employing agroecological production methods
in 20 African countries, including agroecological
approaches to aquaculture, livestock, agroforestry,
conservation agriculture, and crop variety
improvements with locally appropriate cultivars
and cropping systems. Analysis of project
outcomes demonstrated not only an average crop
yield increase of 113%, but numerous environmental benefits too, including carbon
... agroecological
techniques were found
to increase productivity
on 37 million hectares
of farmland, with an
average crop increase of
79%, while improving
the supply of critical
environmental services.
Twenty-five per cent of
projects reported a 100%
increase or more.

sequestration and reductions in pesticide use and
soil erosion.13
Policy changes to promote agroecological practices
at a large scale have already been shown to
have significant impacts on the potential yields
of small farmers. One of the world’s most far-
reaching institutional agroecological policies to
date is Brazil’s National Policy for Agroecology
and Organic Production, launched in April 2012
by the National Council on Food and Nutritional
Security (CONSEA). CONSEA convened 133 organisations and 24 social movements/
networks from all over the country to articulate this comprehensive national policy.15
Since
this time, over 200,000 small scale family farms have adopted agroecological practices,
showing average yield increases between 100-300% for black beans and corn, as well as
increasing resilience to irregular weather patterns, an essential goal for climate change
adaptation.16
Success in India
In India, there are a growing number of agroecology success stories at multiple scales, each
of which indicate the potential for agroecological practices to not only sustain or enhance
yields, but to provide a great many additional ecological and social benefits. This section
highlights a number of examples in which the uptake of agroecological practices has had
a particularly clear impact on sustaining or enhancing yields, alongside other parameters:
System Intensification methods in Jharkhand, Bihar and Tamil Nadu, and organic cotton
cultivation in Madhya Pradesh.
In Jharkhand State, 150 rain-fed farming families17
working with Indian NGO PRADAN
began experimenting with System
Intensification methods to enhance the
yields of protein-rich finger millet (ragi)
in 2005. Through the use in System of
Finger Millet Intensification (SFMI),
yields increased from between 750 kg to
1 t/ha, to 3-4 t/ha. Costs of production
per kilo were also reduced by up to 60%,
from Rs 34 to Rs 13.50,18,19
resulting in
an increase in farmer incomes from Rs
5,628/acre to Rs 8,110/acre20
Today, up to
100,000 family farmers use this technique
in Jharkhand State.21

As another example, the System of Rice
Fig 2: SRI methods frequently result in
dramatically improved plant and root growth
(SRI rice, left – conventional rice, right).
Photo: Amrik Singh22
Recent projects
conducted in 20 African
countries demonstrated
a doubling of crop yields
over a period of 3–10
years.14

Intensification (SRI), which broke world records for rice yields in Bihar and Tamil Nadu in
201223
, is a method of increasing the productivity of irrigated rice by naturally enhancing
the richness of the root system. Even though this method was initially dismissed by some
academic researchers and received little financial backing from agribusiness, SRI has
produced dramatic rice yield increases in India. A farmer from Bihar harvested a record
breaking 22.4 tonnes of paddy rice per hectare in 2012 using SRI methods, while a farmer
in Tamil Nadu harvested another record yield of nearly 24 tonnes of paddy rice per hectare
using these methods.24
Fig 3: Indian farmer holding SRI and
conventionally grown rice harvests28
The Tamil Nadu government has advocated a second green revolution by
using more organic fertilizer and less inorganic fertilizer. Our chief minister’s
aim is to get double the yield and triple the income of farmers using SRI.
– Jaisingh Gnanadurai, Joint Director of Agriculture in Tamil Nadu 25
According to the Bihar government, average rice yields are at least 40% larger than for
conventional rice farming across the hundreds of thousands of hectares in which rice is
now grown using SRI.
According to the SRI International Network and Resources Center (SRI-Rice) at Cornell
University, the benefits of SRI have now been demonstrated in over 50 countries.
They include increased yields of 20-100% or more, up to a 90% reduction in seed
requirements, and up to 50% water savings.26
The system can be applied to a variety
of crops, and though it is not restricted to organic and chemical-free systems, the use of
chemical inputs is, in practice, often minimal.27
As is made evident by the examples above, the merits of agroecology go far beyond yields
into whole-system improvements that
benefit both farmer and ecosystem. These
improvements, even when yields do not
increase, can lead to significant cost savings
(alongside other increases in income) for
farmers.
A 2003-2005 field study in Madhya Pradesh
monitored 60 organic and 60 conventional
cotton farms over two cropping seasons.
The organic farms cultivated the same
range and nearly the same quantity of
cotton crops as the conventional farms,
however, they grew a non-GM cotton
species – Gossypium hirsutum – instead

of the genetically modified Bt cotton being used on the conventional farms. They also
used more diverse cropping patterns. Despite using half the nutrient inputs and input
costs per crop unit, organic farmers were able to achieve the same cotton yields as
conventional farmers using Bt cotton.29
Likely reasons for this include increased crop
health through better soil fertility and improved soil-water dynamics. The success of this
project inspired the initiation of two more organic cotton initiatives in nearby regions.
These examples serve to remind us that plant genetics play only one part in determining
yields and, ultimately, food security. The way in which crops are grown is critical.
Agroecological farming methods that nourish soil, preserve water and minimize external
inputs not only ensure that there is enough food for the current population, but that the
land stays productive for future generations.

Agroecology enhances livelihoods
As is evident from the data above, there are many cases in which yields of single crops are
higher in agroecological systems that have undergone a full conversion process than in
equivalent conventionally managed systems.30
At the same time, it is precisely the emphasis
on yield as the key measure of agricultural performance that can blind analysts to the full
value of agroecological practices. Beyond impressive yields per unit area, agroecology excels
dramatically when it comes to more comprehensive metrics of sustainability, resilience
and environmental services.31
For these reasons, agroecological practices seek to achieve
optimal sustainable yields rather than maximizing “output”.32
Crucially for farmers, especially subsistence and
small hold farmers, agroecology improves financial
security. While less than 14% of India’s GDP comes
from agriculture,33
work within this sector forms
a primary source of income for more than 59% of
the population.34,35
This huge share in the country’s
employment illustrates the large number of people
that rely on subsistence farming. It also illustrates
the challenging imbalance between demographics
and GDP that is driving widening disparities
between rural poor and urban rich, and has added
to the challenge of income generation and food
insecurity for small farmers, in particular.36,37
It is an understandable priority for India to
economically grow the agricultural sector, so as to
maintain a strong stake in the global agricultural
market.38
However, there must be careful
consideration for the needs of ‘India’s backbone’
of millions of small farmers lest the introduction
of biotechnology and foreign economic influence
inadvertently exacerbate, rather than alleviate,
agrarian poverty.
Agroecological practices, in contrast to industrial
practices, enhance the agrarian economy as a whole.
Through the reduction and stabilisation of input
costs40
alongside the potential for higher and more
diversified crop yields through which to earn a revenue (see Figure 4),41
agroecological
practices enhance livelihood opportunities for farmers.
Data shows that over
time agroecological
systems exhibit:
u
u more stable levels of
total production per
unit area than high-
input systems;
u
u produce economically
favourable rates of
return;
u
u provide a return to
labour and other
inputs sufficient for a
livelihood acceptable
to small farmers and
their families; and,
u
u ensure soil protection
and conservation
as well as enhance
biodiversity.39

Success Globally
Due to increasing awareness worldwide
of the benefits of agroecology, NGOs
and national governments are utilizing
agroecological practices as a means of
alleviating poverty and enhancing rural
livelihoods. In addition to the change
to Brazilian national policy mentioned
in Agroecology Sustains or Enhances
Yields, further illustrative examples have
been outlined below in the form of the
Government of Malawi’s agroforestry
programs, and regional organic
programmes in Africa, Latin America and
the Caribbean.
Following a dramatic food crisis in 2005/6,
due to drought, the Government of Malawi
introduced a number of agroforestry
practices to make farmers less reliant on
costly external inputs, in preparation for
the scaling back of fertilizer subsidies due
to a lack of public funds. By mid-2009, over
120,000 Malawian farmers had received
training and nitrogen-fixing tree materials from the programme, which had been extended
to 40% of the country, benefiting 1.3 million people. Besides making farmers less reliant
on artificial fertilizers and their contingent subsidies, agroforestry practices were able to
increase maize yields more than two-fold, from 1 t/ha to 2-3 t/ha. This programme improved
the stability of farmers’ incomes throughout the country.43
In a study conducted by Pretty et al. (2000), farmers growing organic crops for both
domestic and export markets in Latin America and the Caribbean were found to have
higher incomes than a control group using chemically-based methods. Reasons included the
lower cost of organic technologies; the substitution of labour and organic inputs for more
expensive chemical inputs that often require access to credit; premiums paid for organic
products; and the strong long-term relationships that organic farmers developed with
buyers, which resulted in better and more reliable prices. As a bonus, organic production
was associated with positive effects on the health of farm workers. Concern about pesticide
poisoning was an important factor in farmers’ adoption of organic farming.44
As the example above illustrates, in addition to savings that accrue from reduced external
input costs and enhanced yields, organic farmers are often able to realise additional incomes
through engagement with “organic” markets and their premiums, both domestically and
Fig. 4: Income, expenses & returns in organic
and conventional systems in a 30-year study42

internationally. One UN study by Gibbon et al. (2008) undertaken in Uganda between 2005
and 2006 compared 172 organic farmers with 159 conventional farmers. The study found
that increases in yield and income were achieved with the conversion to organic practises
for pineapple, coffee, and cacao-vanilla, after some initial investments in conversion were
made.45
Organic markets, which are expected to reach US$104.5 billion globally by 2015, are
becoming an increasingly significant opportunity for small farmers (as well as large
farmers) to enhance their incomes.
Success in India
The uptake of agroecological practices such as Zero Budget Natural Farming, Community
Managed Sustainable Agriculture (CMSA) and integrated duck rice farming, alongside the
emergence of organic markets, have all been found to have significant effects on household
incomes in India, across a variety of geographical scales.
Zero Budget Natural Farming (ZBNF) emerged in response to growing debts among farmers
and the consequent increase in farmer suicides.46
Through the use of as many on-farm
resources as possible, farmers minimise the need for financial loans required for agricultural
modernisation, hence the zero budget. Several thousand peasant families from India have
joined this movement, moving away from monoculture cash crop farming, to locally
resourced, agroecological farming methods, according to La Via Campesina.47,48
In Andhra Pradesh, models of Community Managed Sustainable Agriculture (CMSA) have
proved particularly successful amongst local farming communities and, as of 2011, were
being practiced at a large scale across 3,500,000 acres, by an estimated 500,000 farmers.
Farmers are trained in non-pesticide management and organic farming techniques over
a period of four seasons. Community monitoring and management, rather than external
certification, subsequently guarantees the quality
and reliability of produce for consumers. The
CMSA model was developed and initiated by the
Centre for Sustainable Agriculture, while financial
backing from the state government is believed to
have greatly facilitated the scale of these efforts.49
Pest attacks drastically decreased and soil fertility
returned to its natural higher levels. While specific
crop yields did not increase (but were sustained),
the lowered costs of production that were achieved
through the adoption of these practices allowed
some farmers enough finances to plant paddy twice
yearly, raising the overall productivity of the land,
and their consequent incomes.50
Furthermore, the farming community saw a 40% drop in
hospitalization due to pesticide poisoning.51

In Jharkhand State
using SFMI, . . . farmer
incomes increased with
significant net returns of
Rs 8,110/acre for finger
millet, up from Rs 5,628/
acre with conventional
methods.

Significant numbers of farmers in southern India have also adopted a unique agroecological
technique called the ‘Aigamo method’. While first developed in Japan as a means for pest
control, it simultaneously increased the amount of protein in farmers’ diets and added to
their household income.52
Smallholder farmers found that the introduction of ducks and
fish into rice paddies provided an effective means of
controlling insects. The ducks eat weeds, their seeds,
insects and other pests, thereby reducing weeding
labour, while the duck and fish excrement provide
useful plant nutrients.53
The farmers then eat the
ducks and fish, both of which increase their protein
intake. The International Rice Research Institute
reported 20% higher crop yields as a result of these
measures, as well as increases in net incomes of up
to 80%.54
A two-year comparative study in Madhya Pradesh
of 120 cotton farms (also described above in
Agroecology Sustains or Increases Yields) showed that
organically cultivated fields sustained the yields of
conventionally cultivated Bt cotton, while nutrient
and other input costs were reduced by 50%. As a
result of 10-20% lower production costs combined
with a 20% organic premium, farmers attained
increases in incomes of 10-20%.55
The organic food market in India (which promotes an important subset of
agroecological practices) is growing at a rate of 2056
-25%57
annually. This market is
one that many Indian farmers could exploit and benefit from while increasing on-farm
sustainability. When farmers are fairly and effectively connected to these markets,
one study by Ramesh et al. (2010) found that
organic farmers in India could expect 22.0%
higher net profits compared to their conventional
counterparts, thanks largely to a 20-40%
premium for certified organic produce.58
To support the capture of this rapidly growing
market (and the resilience of their own agricultural
economies), a number of Indian states have made
legislative commitments to the adoption of organic
practices at a large scale:
u
u The state of Sikkim has a goal of becoming 100% organic by the end of this year (2015).
A state-wide organic program was first initiated in 2003 by Prime Minister Pawan
Chamling. Since then, it has involved 400 villages, 14,000 farmers and 5,500 hectares
in 4 districts. The Sikkim Organic Mission has the intention of converting its remaining
Where farmers are fairly
and effectively connected
to these markets,
Ramesh et al. (2010)
found that organic
farmers in India could
expect 22.0% higher
net profits compared
to their conventional
counterparts, thanks
largely to a 20-40%
premium for certified
organic produce.
As a result of 10-20%
lower production costs
and a 20% organic
premium, farmers
attained increases in
incomes of 10-20%.

50,000 hectares by the end of 2015, and has already involved 30,000 farmers in different
conversion stages.59
u
u Uttarakhand has declared itself an ‘Organic State’ with the intention of supporting
farmers to convert to organic systems where possible. The state has already converted
10,000 hectares of land, which includes 15,000 farmers and 45 different crops.60
u
u In 2004, The Mizoram Organic Farming Bill was unanimously passed by the Mizoram
Assembly. It commits the state to a full conversion to organic practices where appropriate
and possible.61
u
u Many other states, including Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Bihar and West Bengal,
have started to develop organic farming roadmaps.62
If a small state like Sikkim can do it, why can’t we dream
of developing the whole of north-east as an organic state?
The government of India will help it in capturing the global
market.
– Honourable Prime Minister Narendra Modi63

Agroecology supports health and nutrition
One of the central properties of agriculture is the management and transfer of nutrients for
human consumption. Agroecology holds that “quantity” of food mass alone is an insufficient
measure of agricultural success. Any truly optimal agricultural system needs to provide the
balanced nutrition necessary for healthy human development.64
Industrial agriculture typically favours three main food crops; rice, wheat and maize,
all of which are primarily sources of carbohydrates. Their relative lack of protein and
nutrients available in other legumes and vegetables are contributing to worldwide dietary
imbalances.65
Over 80,000 plants are available for human consumption, yet rice, wheat and
maize supply the bulk of our caloric intake.66
Some scientists are now increasingly insisting
on the need for more diverse agro-ecosystems, incorporating a greater number of traditional
varieties, in order to ensure better diets through a more diversified nutrient intake.67,68
Moringa and millet are both examples of plants consumed in a traditional Indian diet with
considerable potential to enhance overall nutrition.
Native to the southern foothills of the Himalayas,
moringa (also known as “drumstick”) is a crop that is
widely cultivated for both food and medicinal purposes
across many parts of Asia and Africa. The plant can
be grown in a variety of soil types and conditions,
without fertilizers or irrigation, and its seed cake can
also be used as an effective organic fertilizer. According
to the National Geographic Society, the dried leaves
of Moringa oleifera have, gram for gram, 25 times the
iron of spinach; 17 times the calcium of milk; 15 times
the potassium of bananas; 10 times the vitamin A of
carrots; and 9 times the protein of yoghurt. According
to Trees of Life International, the leaves have 7 times
the vitamin C of oranges and contain significant
amounts of vitamin B6, manganese, and magnesium.69
Millet is another traditional crop in India of high nutritional value70
and low water
requirements, that far exceeds wheat and rice across a number of nutritional
parameters. Through the cultivation of this grain, farmers have been able to boost their
household nutritional intake by moving away from heavy, unsuitable rice diets, even in
environmentally harsh regions.71
Agroecological techniques such as agroforestry, multicropping with locally adapted and
native plants, and nutrient recycling through animal and green manures, increase on-farm
genetic diversity and implement a number of practices that build a thriving communities
of soil biota. Each of these factors increase the potential range and availability of nutrients
for intake by humans in the form of food.72
This translates to improved levels of health and
nutrition for consumers.73,74,75
The dried leaves of
Moringa oleifera have,
gram for gram, 25 times
the iron of spinach;
17 times the calcium
of milk; 15 times the
potassium of bananas;
10 times the vitamin A
of carrots; and 9 times
the protein of yoghurt.

Significant research exists in support of this claim, particularly around the relatively
higher nutritional content of organic food over foods produced using chemical-industrial
methods.76
A recent review, authored by more than 20 agricultural scientists from around
the world documents this thoroughly.77

The fact that agroecology excludes chemical inputs also has significant health advantages.
There is a large and growing volume of evidence that the chemical inputs used in industrial
agriculture can be toxic, carcinogenic, cause birth defects, and compromise reproductive
function.78
Complicating the matter, the relationship between exposure to toxins and
toxicity is non-linear, having been proven to be non-monotonic79,80,81
and subject to
little-understood ‘cocktail’ effects.82,83,84
As a result of these characteristics, effects can be
significantly worse when exposure to multiple chemicals takes place simultaneously.85
These
important discoveries point to the need for cumulative risk assessment tools and far more
careful evaluations of safe exposure levels.86
In addition to impacting human health, chemical
inputs also damage soil biology, which limits
nutrient availability to the plants and, by extension,
the people that eat from the land. It is well
established that the long-term use of chemical
fertilizers and pesticides leads to significantly
reduced soil organic matter and water retention.
It also drastically alters the microflora of the
soil, decreasing soil productivity and, ultimately,
agronomic efficiency.87,89
To take one example, in 2010, the Shumei Natural
Agriculture Network analysed the nitrate and
vitamin C content of vegetables grown in Natural
Agriculture and compared them with the average values for vegetables in Japan, provided
by the government. They found that the nitrate content was almost 65 times lower and
the vitamin C content two times higher in Natural Agriculture vegetables compared to
conventionally grown vegetables (both outcomes favourable for human health89
).90
The relationship between
exposure to toxins and
toxicity is non-linear,
having been proven
to be non-monotonic
and subject to little-
understood ‘cocktail’
effects.
The soil is the great connector of lives, the source and
destination of all. It is the healer, restorer and resurrector, by
which disease passes into health, age into youth, death into
life. Without proper care for it we can have no community,
because without proper care for it we can have no life.
– Wendell Berry, conservationist and writer, The Unsettling of
America: Culture and Agriculture

Success Globally
The following examples, taken from projects conducted across a number of African
countries, illustrate the effects that the implementation of agroecological practices can have
on human nutrition, while providing other economic, social, and environmental benefits
too.
In drought-prone Cheha in south-west Ethiopia, a 2008 study by the United Nations
Environment Programme (UNEP) and the United Nations Conference on Trade and
Development (UNCTAD) found that 12,500 farm households benefited from the
implementation of agroecological practices across 5,000 hectares of land. Practices included
the introduction of new varieties of vegetables, fruit and forest trees, the use of organic
manure for soil fertility, the implementation of natural pest controls, and the provision of
affordable veterinary services. In addition according to the project’s facilitators, The Cheha
Integrated Rural Development Project, these new
practices resulted in a 60% increase in crop yields,
and a significant change in diet leading to a 70%
improvement of overall nutrition levels within
participating communities.91
Other surveys showed
more diverse sources of food led to increased
nutritional security for children and all members of
the farmer household.
The UNEP/UNCTAD study also evaluated 15 other
agroecological projects in Africa. These included 7
in Kenya, 2 in Malawi, 3 in Tanzania, 2 in Uganda
and 1 in Ethiopia. All found multiple benefits for
smallholders, including higher yields, which led
to greater access to food throughout the year, and
more diverse sources of food, which led to increased
nutritional security for children and all members of the farmer household.92
In 1999, a permaculture project was started in the 50 household Chitekete village of
Zimbabwe to respond to the drying up of a spring due to heavy deforestation, overgrazing
and cropping in the area. The project used various permaculture techniques. Large
indigenous orchards were planted to stabilize soils, build nutrients, and improve water
retention. A diversity of crops and animals were also introduced; the animals providing
sources of food and natural fertilizer. As a result, the diet of Chitekete’s villagers changed
to include more vitamins, carbohydrates, fibre and protein.93
Since the conception of this
project, farmer-to-farmer permaculture schools have been developed that teach farmers
across the district a variety of techniques, including natural pest control and fruit tree
grafting.
Since the conception of
this project, farmer-to-
farmer permaculture
schools have been
developed that teach
farmers across the
district a variety of
techniques, including
natural pest control and
fruit tree grafting.

Success in India
In many parts of India, the use of indigenous crop varieties alongside the implementation of
other agroecological practices is helping farmers and the communities that surround them
to meet their nutritional requirements.
Due to its wild plant diversity, unique cropping
systems and food and rural cultures, the Indian
Government nominated the Zaheerabad region, in
the Medak district of Telangana to become an Agro-
Biodiversity Heritage site.94
Despite the region’s
harsh and dry landscape, the local people and
farmers consume some of the country’s most diverse
and nutritious food, due to the agroecological
practices they employ. The dietary diversity in this
region is unique, with over 200 local varieties of
cereals, millets, pulses, oil-seeds, fruits, vegetables,
greens, roots, and tubers. Many farmers have
rejected converting to more conventionally accepted
mass monocultures (such as sugar cane, soya, and
maize) to supply large commodity markets, staying
instead with the local, agroecological diversity that already exists within the region.
Farming in this way has richly enhanced the nutritional intake of farmers in comparison
to conventional heavy rice diets. Foxtail millet, for instance, is an early maturing crop and
is harvested at the time of year when household food pots are empty. Horsegram and finger
millet are crops that have the least demand on moisture. In the Deccan region where famine
is a constant fear, these crops offer much needed relief during hard seasons. Mustard is used
to treat serious infections. Oils such as groundnut and safflower are seen as much healthier
than conventional sunflower oil. These are but a few examples of the many traditional crops
used here to enhance nutrition for marginal farmers.95
Such practices not only improve
human health and nutrition in the region, but the diversity of food sources has also
increased regional food security.96
Sources of nutrition can come not just from traditionally cultivated crops, but from
uncultivated and forest sources, too. These sources can be particularly important for tribal
communities. Living Farms, an NGO that works with tribal villages in the eastern state of
Odisha, documented 357 forest foods harvested by tribes in the region. The National Institute
of Nutrition (NIN) studied 63 of these foods and found them to be high in micronutrients.
“Forest foods are the best available sources of micronutrients which are available, accessible,
and affordable,” said Buduru Salome Yesudas, a nutrition researcher who has been
documenting the food systems of various indigenous tribes in southern India since 1995.
According to Yesudas, more research is needed to uncover the potential that these foods have
to stop malnutrition and how they can be included in mainstream food pyramids.97
Despite the Medak
district of Telengana’s
harsh and dry landscape,
the local people and
farmers consume some
of the country’s most
diverse and nutritious
food due to the
agroecological practices
they employ.

Healthy and diverse
populations of soil
microbes, one of
the key features of
agroecological systems
to be lost with chemical
practices, also play a
crucial role in mitigating
climate change.
Ecosystems provide a
wealth of ‘services’ for
free, the economic value
of which was recently
estimated at between
$125-$145 trillion.
The more diverse the
ecosystem, the richer
the services. Practices
that promote diversity –
agroecological practices –
optimise and rejuvenate
these services, while
practices that reduce
diversity – industrial
agricultural practices
– reduce the efficacy of
these services.
Agroecology builds ecological resilience
Agroecological practices crucially mitigate the risks
associated with ecological variability by making
farmland more resilient to extreme weather events,
pest invasions, and other ecological or physical
shocks. This is particularly important at a time
when climate change is driving increasingly unusual
weather patterns across the world.98
Whereas chemical agriculture attempts to minimise
risks by reducing the diversity and variability
inherent in nature, and GM technology presumes a
stability of ecological conditions that is increasingly
unrealistic for today’s farmers, agroecology
minimizes risk by promoting the rich diversity of
ecological systems to enhance agricultural resilience
to environmental changes.
Ecosystems provide a wealth of ‘services’ for
free, the economic value of which was recently
estimated at between $125-$145 trillion.99
These
services include climate and atmosphere regulation,
nutrient cycling, waste treatment, the purification
and retention of fresh water, the formation and
enrichment of soil, waste treatment, disturbance
regulation, refugia for resident and transient
populations such as migratory species, raw materials, genetic resources, and recreational
resources. The more diverse the ecosystem, the richer the services. Practices that promote
diversity – agroecological practices – optimise and rejuvenate these services, while practices
that reduce diversity – industrial agricultural
practices – reduce the efficacy of these services.
Healthy and diverse populations of soil microbes are
one of the key features of agroecological systems to
be lost with chemical practices. Alongside making
farmland more resilient,100
they also play a crucial
role in mitigating climate change.101
Soil organic
matter, not forests, is the major land-based storage
reservoir for carbon. Microbe and invertebrate
diversity is responsible for breaking this material
down and making it available to plants – one of
many ecosystem services. It also contributes to
the rate of production and consumption of carbon

dioxide, methane, and nitrogen. An estimated 140-170 million tons of nitrogen are fixed
(made biologically usable) by microbes worldwide annually. This is the equivalent of US$90
billion when compared to nitrogen fertilizer use.102
Success Globally
There are numerous examples from around the world that clearly illustrate the potential
for agroecological practices to improve ecological resilience and revive deteriorated
food systems. Below are outlined three, each showcasing how the implementation of
agroecological practices has played a constructive role in post-disaster recovery and the
revival of severely degraded agricultural land.
In 2005, an earthquake devastated large areas of land in the Allai Valley, northern
Pakistan.103
Rather than reverting to the monocropped rice and wheat farming systems that
had previously dominated the area, the Partnership for Recovery and Development of Allai
(PRDA) worked with the Sungi Development Foundation to set up a village-based movement
to help repair and reforest the valley through an integrated range of low-cost agroecological
farming systems. Working through this network, thousands of smallholders improved their
ecological farming skills and knowledge through on-farm demonstration plots and training
sessions. Farm profits and productivity, food security, nutrition, health and education
outcomes, employment opportunities, livelihoods, the environment and soil health all
improved considerably. Vegetable cultivation expanded by 1,000 acres in the Allai Valley,
resulting in 80% of all households in the area cultivating their own vegetables.104
Southern Niger suffers from significant water scarcity and desertification issues. The use
of agroecological methods by farmers, supported by a World Bank project, reduced crop
failure risks and improved food security for small
scale farmers.105
One of the techniques used is called
Farmer Managed Natural Regeneration (FMNR),
which involves farmers growing trees on cultivated
land. This approach, which resulted in the “re-
greening” of about 5 million hectares in southern
Niger is “one of the great success stories in the field
of climate change and agriculture” and “the single
largest environmental transformation in Africa.”106
Large parts of Ethiopia suffer from land degradation
and topsoil loss, which has damaged crop yields
for many farmers. To try to counter this, the
Ethiopian government installed the Sasakawa
Global 2000 program in 1992, which is based on
high external inputs and high resource demanding
crop varieties.107
At the same time, the Institute for
Sustainable Development implemented a project
This approach, which
resulted in the “re-
greening” of about
5 million hectares
in southern Niger,
is “one of the great
success stories in the
field of climate change
and agriculture” and
“the single largest
environmental
transformation in
Africa”.

After the Great Drought
of the 1970s forced
thousands of small
farmers into hunger
due to failures of
certain modern crop
varieties,... farmers in
the area began adopting
agroecological farming
techniques... to improve
ecological resilience.
using agroecological principles and compared the performance between the two approaches.
The experiment lasted for five years with significant improvements in soil health, revival
of abandoned grazing lands, and water conservation. Farmers also obtained yields at least
equal to those of the high external input farmers, while straw yields were higher.108
For
the farmers, the increases in straw yields were particularly positive when using compost,
because they used the residues of this crop to feed their animals during the dry season.
Success in India
India is a global crop diversity hub, with about 166 species of native crops, including 25
major and minor crops that have originated and/or been developed within the country. A
further 320 species of wild relatives of crop plants are also known to occur here.109
These
resources could be harnessed by millions of India’s farmers today to help develop ecologically
resilient farming systems and as a strategy for climate change adaptation. Outlined below
are a few of the growing number of examples that exist across the country as illustrations of
this potential.
In the Zaheerabad region of the Medak district
of Telangana (also described above in Agroecology
Promotes Health and Nutrition) an agroecological
movement started in the 1970s that today includes
5,000 female farmers. After the Great Drought
of the 1970s forced thousands of small farmers
into hunger due to failures of certain modern crop
varieties (including a variety of sorghum, some
pulses, and legumes), farmers in the area began
adopting agroecological techniques with the help
of the Deccan Development Society to improve
ecological resilience. These techniques included
the sowing and saving of a variety of landrace food
crops, agroforestry, soil conservation, organic
agricultural production and the production of local
homemade biopesticide remedies, alongside the
rejuvenation of local markets. The result has been that thousands of farmers today cultivate
resilient farming systems that enhance their seed and food security.110
In Nagapatnam and surrounding coastal districts in Tamil Nadu, farmers, led by the Tamil
Nadu Organic Farmers’ Movement (TOFarM), used agroecological practices to revive
ravaged farmland following the 2004 tsunami. Conventional technical inspection teams
reported it would take up to 10 years to begin growing on the salt-soaked lands. However,
farmers that employed organic and other agroecological practices were successful in growing
crops after just 2 years, through intelligent desalination of the soil with specific plant
species, and rebuilding the previously wiped out soil microbiology.111

In 2008, as a response to multiple cases of GM
Bt cotton crop failures due to climate change, the
NGO Caritas India began promoting the protection
of natural resources and encouraged communities
in Maharashtra’s Vidharbha region to use locally
sourced resources for agriculture.112
The local cotton
varieties proved to be much more reliable and
climate resilient than the “modern alternative”.
Many other local seed varieties were promoted for
use under differing climatic conditions, including
‘early sowing’, ‘late sowing’ and ‘short duration’
varieties. In addition to other agroecological
practices such as water harvesting and Integrated
Pest Management, these communities are starting
to better manage a variety of the challenges that
arise due to climate change, through their improved
overall farm resilience.113
Conventional technical
inspection teams
reported it would take
up to 10 years to begin
growing on the salt-
soaked lands. Farmers
that employed organic
and other agroecological
practices were successful
growing crops after just 2
years through intelligent
desalination of the soil
with specific plant species
and rebuilding the
previously wiped out soil
microbiology.

Improving the productivity, profitability, and sustainability of smallholder
farming is the main pathway out of poverty in using agriculture for
development.
– World Bank’s World Development Report 2008: Agriculture for Development116
Agroecology improves efficiency, especially of small
farms
There has been a longstanding assertion by economists that to increase agricultural
productivity one must increase farm size, so as to capture economies of scale.114
This is
reflected in Giampiero’s (1997) influential report, ‘Socioeconomic Constraints to Farming
with Biodiversity’, when he observed that modern farms are developed with large capital
investments in machinery, chemical inputs, irrigation and the extension of land that
must continually be justified by increases in on-farm profits maintained by monoculture
outputs.115
Such ‘bigger is better’ thinking is antiquated today. An increasing volume of evidence is
emerging to indicate that the world’s future food security lies not with large-scale farmers,
but in the hands of small farmers, as small farms are more efficient than large ones,
producing more food per hectare of land.117,118,119,120,121
Small-scale farmers currently produce
70% of the world’s food using only a quarter of the world’s farmland.122
For India, these findings hold particular relevance. Eighty-three percent of India’s farmers
are defined as ‘small or marginal’, possessing less than 2 hectares of land each and
accounting for 42% of India’s operating area.123
These small landholders produce 41% of
India’s total grain (49% of rice, 40% of wheat, 29% of coarse cereals and 27% of pulses), and
over half of the country’s fruits and vegetables.124
Small-scale diversified farming is responsible for the
lion’s share of agriculture globally. ... Small-scale farmers
maximize return on land, make efficient decisions,
innovate continuously and cause less damage to the
environment than large farms.
– IAASTD: Agriculture at a Crossroads129
A 2011 study of farm size and productivity in India, by Chand et al. (2011)125
found that
small and marginal farmers are generally more efficient than large farmers in terms of per

hectare output and cropping intensity. As Dr. Bina Agarwal, Professor of Development
Economics and Environment at the University of Manchester, UK, points out in one of
the Government of India’s 12th Plan working papers,126
this underscores the substantial
potential of disadvantaged farmers if they were to receive support for overcoming their
constraints.”127
Despite certain depopulation trends within the sector,128
Indian agriculture will
undoubtedly continue to be characterised by a significant smallholder demographic
long into the future. Optimising this demographic’s potential is not only possible, but
essential to India’s food security and economic well being.

Challenges to the scale of agroecology in
India
A
groecology holds immense potential to transform Indian agriculture so as to
deliver lasting food security, poverty alleviation, robust economic growth and
environmental regeneration. However, there are a number of significant challenges
that need to be addressed to realise its true potential.
Policy environment
The existing policy environment strongly favours “established” chemical approaches to
agricultural development, in terms of subsidies, R&D priorities, technology push, farmer
support systems and institutions.
u
u Subsidies are production-linked and, in many cases, promote the agrochemical industry
(through both well organised business promotion and other established communication
channels). Food and fertiliser subsidies, for example, amount to more than Rs 2
lakh crore (including the arrears), which is almost 10 times the public investment in
agriculture.1
u
u R&D priorities are primarily tuned towards conventional intensive agriculture that
promotes the use of external inputs and chemicals and concentrates on a few selected
crops (for example, rice, wheat, mango and banana). This happens at the expense of other
food crops such as coarse cereals and indigenous traditional varieties of legumes, fruits
and vegetables.
u
u Agrochemical industry and seed suppliers promote their products heavily in rural areas,
frequently benefiting from accompanying policy support. There is little comparable
large-scale promotion of low-input, low-cost agroecological methods and products.2
u
u A major re-evaluation of the disproportionate policy focus (through the provision of
production support, subsidies, infrastructure and investment) on “Green Revolution
areas” (GR areas) is needed. Many of India’s states are gaining (or are close to gaining)
self-sufficiency in terms of food grain production for their own population.3
In addition,
some grains are produced in significant surplus. A recent Nature study,4
for example,
found that India currently a surplus of 120 million tonnes of rice per annum.
The long distances that food grains are transported through the PDS, primarily from
the Northern states, to meet food security needs (see next point) carry enormous
transaction and environmental costs. Instead, it would make more sense to promote
adjoining States to share their surplus, boosting the agricultural economies of these
poorer states and their people, narrowing the gap between producer and consumer and
supporting the provision of a more culturally appropriate food basket. In such a scenario,
3.

a major segment of Punjab or Haryana’s agriculture could then move away from the
unsustainable cereal-based cropping systems that are currently devastating their social
and ecological health.
u
u The Public Distribution System, which aims to provide some of India’s poorest with
subsidised food grains while simultaneously providing farmers with assured markets has
been under controversy in terms of efficiency, outreach, utility, and targeting. An
estimated one third of the subsidized food supply does not reach target groups due to
poor system visibility, management and infrastructure.5
Procurement is concentrated on a few grains and other commodities (e.g. rice and wheat)
with little inclusion of coarse cereals, such as bajra and millet, which are not only more
nutritious, but frequently part of the traditional food basket of many communities.6
As
per the point above, it is also highly centralised, with up to 80% of purchases traditionally
concentrated in the northern states of Punjab, Haryana, and Uttar Pradesh, although
there have been recent shifts towards greater procurement of these crops through the
PDS in non-GR areas.
As many of India’s poorest consumers are also part of the production process, there is
much that could be done to enhance direct connectivity between the two.
u
u Community institutions, such as cooperatives, and local NGOs are often poorly
resourced, limiting the essential role they might play in understanding, researching,
training, supporting, and connecting with farming communities.7
u
u There is limited acknowledgement of the role that forest, indigenous, and
uncultivated food crops could play in achieving food security and livelihood generation
for India’s rural, and particularly, poor tribal populations.8
u
u There is poor gender accounting within agriculture.9
Women form 43% of the global
agricultural workforce, and alongside their domestic activities deliver up to 70% of total
agricultural labour in India, according to some estimates.10,11
Yet, they are frequently
marginalised.12,13
This results in reduced wages,14
access to credit, land, agricultural
inputs, training and education, and decision-making power, in comparison to their male
counterparts.15,16
u
u Externalities in pricing contribute to undervaluation of agroecological practices.
As stated by De Schutter and Vanloqueren (2011), “the absence of full inclusion of
externalities in agrifood price systems has enabled the development of industrial farming
despite important social and environmental costs, and has hindered a comprehensive
valuation of the benefits of agroecology [including enhanced soil and water quality,
reductions in health-related problems, gains in biodiversity, increased crop and ecosystem
resilience]. The success of large plantations is, in part, attributable to the fact that the
price of food does not reflect the real costs to society resulting from their operations,
particularly from the impacts of their modes of production on the soil and climate and on
public health.”17

Market structure
With rising costs of external inputs, such as fertilizer, pesticide, and seed, it becomes
increasingly important for farmers to find ways to secure higher net returns from their
produce. This increases the importance of farmer access to equitable and effective markets
that can help them capture higher net returns. Smallholders, in particular, face the following
market challenges:
u
u Weak marketing infrastructure for smallholders: The current marketing infrastructure,
mainly governed by the APMC Act, is rife with middlemen, highly inequitable, and
inefficient. Pricing is frequently distorted and for the most part, smallholders receive a
very small share of the final product price.19
Individual smallholders, with limited physical
or virtual access to markets, typically have little bargaining power and holding capacity,
and are forced to make distress sales.
u
u Poor access to inputs and equipment: Seed, fertilizer, and equipment critical to boost
production (particularly in the absence of agroecological inputs) are in many cases
costly, of inferior or dubious quality, or simply unavailable to small farmers. The 2005
National Sample Survey on access to technology, for example, found that only 40% of
farmers had accessed any source of information on modern technology over the previous
year.20
For only 5.7% of these farmers was the source of information a government
extension worker.21
In most cases, the recommendations available to farmers originate
from commercial interests, which take precedence over farmer benefit and welfare or
environmental concerns.
u
u Poor access to finance: Of the 120 million farm households in India, only 30-35 million
have access to institutional credit from formal sources. The rest, some 75-80% of farm
households, end up accessing private sources of credit from informal money lenders at
extortionate rates as high as 36-72%. Without adequate financing, it is incredibly difficult
for farmers to invest in better production practices, inputs, technologies, marketing,
infrastructure (such as storage) or additional livelihood opportunities that could enhance
their output and incomes significantly in the long run.
u
u Poor access to additional services: Farmers also lack access to risk mitigation tools such
as insurance and credit services. Small farmers in India face significant risks such as:
Fertilizer subsidies are leading to over-consumption of
fertilizers – a practice that is causing soil degradation.
– Honourable Union Agriculture Minister Radha Mohan Singh18

weather, production, incidence of disease and pests, and marketing. Such tools are vital
for mitigating some of these risks.
u
u Difficult for retailers to engage small farmers fairly: For retailers in need of large
volumes, working with large farmers and the APMC system with its middlemen is one
of the only viable options for cost-effectively purchasing produce today. Accessing
smallholders individually confers significant risks and frequently untenable transaction
costs. These costs lead to a preference for working with the current, inequitable market
infrastructure, large producers, and the middlemen and traders who are in place to obtain
suitable volumes and prices.22
u
u Medium-large farmers disproportionately benefit: As a result of these infrastructural
imbalances, most benefits of the changing, globalizing market have gone to those
medium and large farmers who have managed to develop direct tie-ups with processors
and retailers. Thanks to volumes, technology adoption ensuring quality and consistency,
and access to markets they have a built in advantage. Few small and marginal farmers
have managed to do the same and link with corporate players, a fact with immense
implications for the majority of India’s farmers.23
u
u Economies of scale, ease of production, and pressure of globalisation also result in a
concentration/specialization of production patterns (such as monocropping) that limit
farmer options to cultivate in diversified ways.24
They are also frequently characterised by
large mark-ups even when little processing is involved.25
u
u Certification mechanisms for organic or natural produce are costly, inefficient and highly
complex, favouring large and influential farmers. Certification bodies operate with mixed
success and trustworthiness.
u
u Poor responsiveness to market signals: The system is not easily able to respond to
market signals. As food prices rise, the signals do not always reach production systems,
so they cannot respond, resulting in alternate glut and scarcity situations. In 2012, for
example, the price of pulses had risen five times, but incentives to produce these crops
were almost non-existent.
Information, knowledge, and technology
Agriculture today is highly knowledge-intensive, from the selection of soils for particular
crop varieties to the management of inputs and other limited resources, such as water, and
more. This is particularly so when natural resources are depleting very fast. In addition
to a lack of access to physical inputs and equipment, the lack of access to information,
knowledge, and technology to support their use is a significant inhibitor to the optimization
of production and marketing practices by small farmers.
u
u A lack of access to information, knowledge and technology inhibits productivity and
livelihood enhancement: The 2005 National Sample Survey found that in rural areas, one
of the most significant sources of knowledge about modern technologies and cultivation,

aside from other farmers at 17%, was input dealers at 13%.26
As a result, methodologies
and techniques used are often skewed towards those private firms able to promote their
own products to farmers (fertilizer, pesticide, seed etc) and discourage farmers’ use of on-
farm and local inputs, local knowledge and practices.
Not only would access to information on weather, new or revived technologies and
market pricing enable better farm planning and more equitable market access but also
training and capacity building around best practices would greatly enhance the capacity of
farmers to optimize their operations.
Subsistence farming often happens when farmers do not know how to optimize their
resources. This can be particularly true in rain-fed areas, which account for 65% of India’s
arable land,27
and are home to a large proportion of India’s rural poor.28
u
u Extension services and channels are not easily accessible to women, who are the
majority of farmers: Available figures show that only 5% of extension services globally
have been addressed to rural women, while no more than 15% of the world’s extension
agents are women. In selected states, more than 60% of agricultural operations are
performed by female farmers, yet the fact that “most farmers in India are women”29
is
simply not reflected in extension provision or training.30
u
u Current models of agricultural education, research and knowledge sharing are
not suited to the promotion of agroecological practices: The dominant model of
technology transfer, stemming from conventional agricultural universities and research
establishments, breaks down for the sharing of agroecological approaches as it is largely
top-down and based on the adoption of “quick fix” solutions. New agroecological systems
not only require the participation of local communities with a considerable share of their
own knowledge and expertise, but need to be tailored and adapted in a site-specific way
to highly variable and diverse farm conditions, so as to best optimise the productivity
potential of the land and other natural endowments.31
u
u A lack of information for the consumer, both directly through retailers and indirectly
via the media regarding the benefits of agroecological farming practices (of nutrition,
health and livelihoods), means that consumers are not able to easily make informed
choices to support farming practices that promote health and food safety.
Research
Agricultural research and development since the 1960s has been strongly influenced
by powerful economic and institutional interests who benefit from the expansion of
conventional agro-industrial approaches. At the same time, research and development
around agroecological approaches has been not only discouraged, but largely ignored.32
u
u Agroecological research and case studies, particularly within India, remain limited,
under-recognised, and unconsolidated. Relying on anecdotal data limits the ability to
make compelling cases and inform other policy, market, and programmatic decisions.

u
u Further research and more comprehensive field trials and pilots assessing the
effectiveness of agroecological solutions for pest control, soil fertility and other farming
practices that maintain and enhance productivity as well as promote food diversity within
India are urgently needed, across all agroclimatic zones.
Agroecology contributes to the realization of the right to
adequate food in its different dimensions: availability,
accessibility, adequacy, sustainability and participation.
However, in moving towards more sustainable farming
systems, time is the greatest limiting factor. Whether or
not we will succeed will depend on our ability to learn
faster from recent innovations and to disseminate works
more widely.
– UN Special Rapporteur on Right to Food, Olivier De Schutter33

Recommendations and immediate next
steps
I
n light of the compelling evidence of the significant variety of risks associated with
implementing GM food trials combined with the long-term potential for meeting India’s
food security and poverty alleviation goals through agroecological practices, we offer the
following recommendations for immediate implementation:
Protect India’s sovereignty – reject GM food trials
We strongly recommend that the Government of India reject all GMO trials at this time
on the grounds that the trials and use of GMO crops are neither safe nor necessary.1
They
pose serious threats to India’s agricultural and economic sovereignty and food security.
In order to consider GMO trials, key liabilities and biosafety concerns, some of which are
outlined in the report What is wrong with GMO field trials?2
, must be and have not yet been
addressed. If the decision to trial GMOs in India results in ecological contamination, the
ability to implement agroecological practices will be severely compromised. This will impact
productivity, ecological resilience, population health, and farmer livelihoods in a multitude
of ways.3
Once compromised, these elements cannot be effectively restored.
Instead of taking this path, the Government of India has the opportunity to maintain
control over the nation’s natural assets, placing itself in a strong position to systematically
improve food security, alleviate poverty, and advance environmental sustainability.
By wholeheartedly channeling its political, intellectual and economic will into becoming a
global leader in agroecology, the Government of India will be empowering the smallholder
community at the heart of its agricultural system with the most powerful and scientifically
advanced agricultural practices that exist today. In-so-doing, India will be carving out a
pathway toward an agricultural transformation, not just for itself, but for every nation
across the world.
Pilot agroecology regionally – level the playing field
The Honourable Union Agriculture Minister Radha Mohan Singh recently voiced the
laudable vision of choosing one lakh villages in various regions across the country to
promote agroecological farming.4
We support the implementation of this vision through regional pilot projects that will test,
build, and consolidate best practices through dynamic cross-sector partnerships. Piloting
in this way would allow for minimal investment upfront while still honing the approach for
highest long-term efficacy.
4.

To conduct the pilot effectively, we suggest the following plan:
1. Convene an expert group built from national and international agroecological experts
and scientists to establish a detailed pilot program, to help oversee the pilot projects,
and to identify potential locations and local implementation partners, with whom
detailed, tailored plans for each region over a specified time period can be developed.
2. Establish a clear budget for the pilots following the assessment phase. At the scale the
Honorable Union Agriculture Minister Radha Mohan Singh has suggested, one estimate,
drawn from the Alliance for Sustainable and Holistic Agriculture’s recent Roadmap on
Scaling Up Sustainable Agriculture, proposes that such a series of pilot projects would
cost the government Rs. 5,500 Crore.6
For perspective, the previous government had
allocated Rs. 67,970 Crore for this fiscal year. However, the Fertiliser Association of
India (FAI) forecasts that it will be closer to Rs 100,000 Crore.7
3. Recruit cross-sector management team to oversee pilot implementation, supporting
farmers in dealing with challenges related to the conversion to agroecological practices
and in dealing with other technical challenges.
4. Engage Indian and international academic institutions early on in the program
to establish baselines and to monitor and evaluate agricultural and socioeconomic
outcomes relative to the baselines, and to make evidence-based suggestions for program
enhancement.
5. Create a program that supports the process of conversion to agroecology by
providing training to farmers, facilitating knowledge sharing among farmers around
agroecological methods, providing bridge financing and/or insurance, and creating
access to needed local inputs and local knowledge. This program also captures feedback
from farmers for the monitoring of outcomes.8
6. Implement an iterative process for program improvements based upon feedback from
farmers, along with data gathered through the monitoring process and management
committees.
7. After pilot period completes, implement necessary national and state-level policy
changes and engage national and international investment community alongside
broader civil society to launch larger-scale agroecological programs.
I see no reason why this environmentally safe, and farmer-
friendly, system of sustainable agriculture cannot cover
200 million acres across the country in another ten years
or so if the government gets serious.
– Devindra Sharma, distinguished Indian food and trade policy
analyst5

Ten additional recommendations
In addition, we offer ten recommendations to the Government of India as further steps
towards supporting large-scale implementation of agroecological practices in India:
1. Review current agricultural policies for changes that would help catalyse a large-
scale shift towards agroecological practices for India and analyze further published
recommendations from Indian and global experts [For example, the recommendations
from the IAASTD Report, The Final report: The transformative potential of the right to
food from the Special Rapporteur on the right to food, Olivier De Schutter published in
January of 2014 (enclosed), and the Rio+20 declaration The Future We Want]
2. Set up an Indian Institute for Enlightened Agriculture that will (a) review and
assimilate current agroecological practices from across India, (b) conduct research
that advances the frontiers of agroecology, (c) develop practical new technologies,
applications and practices by assimilating the research advances, as well as new
knowledge from around the world, and (d) collaborate with government and civil society
to create policy recommendations that optimize the application of these developments
and to create training programs for farmers.
3. Channel increased public funding into targeted agroecological research programs
at universities and research institutions across the country, that will research and
compile case studies from across the country, document current best practices, conduct
comparative yield studies for key crops, document traditional knowledge. Explore
opportunities to collaborate with universities and research institutions globally.
4. Establish a nationwide seed-saving program, working with civil society partners who
are active in this space,10
to ensure the preservation of India’s rich heritage of crop
genetic resources.
5. Support the growth of organic markets by purchasing a diverse basket of food
types for government schemes, such as PDS: It is highly recommended that existing
government food-purchasing schemes procure locally sourced and safe organic food for
schemes such as mid-day meal and antyodaya. When locally sourced, these foods are
expected to be cost effective. In addition, nutritious foods such as millets can also be
included in such food schemes, which in their traditional systems of production are “by
default” organic.11
The key challenge is creating the conditions that would encourage more
farmers to adopt environmentally sound agricultural practices instead of
continuing to practice unsustainable conventional farming methods.
– UN Environment Program Green Economy Report on Agriculture9

6. Foster development of low-cost forms of agroecologic certifications (e.g. organic)
as an alternative to third-party systems: Collective certification systems for farmers,
which are based on trust and transparency, such as the Participatory Guarantee System
(PGS),12
provide low- to no-cost options for local markets.13,14
These tools need to be
developed with appropriate mechanisms in place for quality assurance.
7. Support and promote farmer-focused structures such as Farmer Producer
Organizations and cooperatives, per recently proposed amendments to the NCDC Act
for extending loans and subsidies directly to farmers.15
8. Promote local farmer’s markets, particularly in urban centers to encourage the direct
sale of produce and value-added products to consumers without middlemen through
whom farmers’ rewards dribble away.
9. Ensure that the Kisan Channel due to be launched nationwide early this year, as well
as the Krishi Darshan programmes of Doordarshan contain significant content on
agroecological practices, female and male farmer support programs, and marketing
opportunities.16
10. Build efforts to educate consumers, enabling them to be active and knowledgeable
about agroecological farming. This could include the provision of accessible labs for
testing for the presence of toxic chemical residues and GMOs,17
the creation of
greater transparency of food sources,18
and the establishment of nutrition education
programmes in schools.

The report presenters19
offer the following, in service to
the Government of India:
General support:
u
u Provision an advisory group of international agroecological experts to support
government policy makers in the development of policies and programmes
u
u Deliver a training program to Ministers and other Government personnel on the
implementation of national and state assessment of agriculture and food systems in line
with the IAASTD recommendations and the latest science around agroecological practices
and their potential
u
u Facilitate partnerships with international academic and technical institutions
u
u Support with identifying partners to implement each of the “Ten Additional
Recommendations”
Pilot project support:
u
u Help to convene Indian and global expert advisors to implement assessments and design
pilot project criteria and principles using the Millennium Institute Integrated Simulation
Threshold21 (T21) model approach as the guiding framework, facilitated by Dr. Hans R.
Herren
u
u Support with the identification of regional pilot areas
u
u Support with the design and implementation of trainings for farmers, in conjunction
with many other partners
u
u Support with recruitment of cross-sectoral experts for management team and expert
group

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