1. 1
TRANSDERMAL DRUG DELIVERY SYSTEM
A Dissertation
Submitted
Ram Gopal College of Pharmacy, Sultanpur,Gurugram
Pt. B. D. Sharma University of health sciences, Rohtak
In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award
Of Degreeof
Bachelor of pharmacy
Submitted by
Shivang Choudhary
(Regn. No :19-RGC-49)
Supervised by
Mrs Priyanka
Associate Professor
(Department of Pharmaceutics)
RAM GOPAL COLLEGE OF PHARMACY
SULTANPUR GURUGRAM – 122506 (HARYANA)
2. 2
RAM GOPAL COLLEGE OF PHARMACY, SULTANPUR, OF HEALTH
SCIENCES
ROHTAK – 124001 (HARYANA)
GURUGRAM
PT. B. D. SHARMA UNIVERSITY
(A GRADE UNIVERSITY ACCREDITED BY NAAC)
CERTIFICATE
This is certified that the investigations described in the report entitled “ Transdermal drug delivery
system” in partial fulfillment of requirement of degree of Bachelor of pharmacy were carried out in the
Ram Gopal Gollege of Pharmacy , Sultanpur , Gurugram affiliation from Pt. B. D. Sharma University of
Health Sciences, Rohtak, Haryana by Mr. Shivang Choudhary under my direct guidance and supervision.
Supervisor
Mrs. Priyanka
Associated Professor
Ram Gopal College of Pharmacy Sultanpur
Gurugram
Forwarded by
Dr. Renu Kadian
Principal
Ram Gopal College Of Pharmacy
Sultanpur, Gurugram
3. 3
RAM GOPAL COLLEGE OF PHARMACY, SULTANPUR, GURUGRAM
PT. B. D. SHARMA UNIVERSITY OF HEALTH SCIENCES
ROHTAK -124001 (HARYANA)
(A GRADE UNIVERSITY ACCREDITED BY NAAC)
DECLARATION
The present dissertation entitled “transdermal drug delivery system”was carried out by me in the Ram
Gopal College of Pharmacy, Sultanpur, Gurugram affiliation from Pt. B. D. Sharma University of health
Sciences, Rohtak, Haryana. Further, I declare that no part of this dissertation has been submitted either
impart
Or
for any degree to Ram Gopal College of Pharmacy, Sultanpur, Gurugram or any other college.
Shivang Choudhary
Regn. No: 19- RGC-49
Date:
Place: Gurugram
4. 4
Acknowledgment
This dissertation was carried out at the Ram Gopal College of Pharmacy, Sultanpur, Gurugram under the
supervision of Mrs Piryanka at Ram Gopal College of Pharmacy, Sultanpur, Gurugram
Words should be inadequate to convey my deep sense of gratitude to my supervisor Mrs Priyanka.
Assistant professor, Ram Gopal College of Pharmacy, Sultanpur, Gurugram for her outstanding
contribution, valuable advice, support, caring, kindness and encouragement. I will always remember and
admire the combination of high professional career and humidity that characterizes your personality.
My sincere thanks to Dr. Renu Kadian, Principal, Ram Gopal College of Pharmacy, Sultanpur, Gurugram
for their support throughout my study.
Last but not least, I would like to thanks the entire person in my life for making my life so beautiful and
easy, you all are the key of my happiness.
Shivang Choudhary
Date:
Place: Farukhnagar
5. 5
INDEX
S.No Contents Page
no
1 Introduction 8
1.1 Advantage of transdermal drug delivery system 8
1.2 Disadvantage of transdermal drug delivery system 9
1.3 Anatomy of Skin 9
1.4 Percutaneous absorption 12
1.5 Route of drug penetration through skin 13
1.6 Barrier function of the skin 15
2 Basic Principal of Transdermal permeation 15
3 Factors affecting transdermal permeation 16
4 Formulation of transdermal drug delivery system 18
5 Evaluation of transdermal patches 22
6 Marketed Formulations 23
7 Comparison between Conventional formulation and Marketed transdermal
formulation
24
8 Conclusions 26
9 References 27
6. 6
LIST OF FIGURE
FIGURES PAGE
No
FIGURE 1: Schematic Representation of Skin And Its Appendages 9
FIGURE 2: Schematic Representation of Anatomy of Epidermis 10
FIGURE 3: Schematic Representation of Microstructure of Stratum Corneum 11
FIGURE 4: Schematic Representation of Different Layers of Epidermis 11
FIGURE 5: Schematic Representation of Percutaneous Permeation 13
FIGURE 6: Possible Macro Routes For Drug Penetration 1 Intact Horny Layer, 2 Hair
Follicles
and 3 Eccrine sweat gland
14
FIGURE 7: Schematic Representation of Transdermal Route 14
FIGURE 8: Possible Micro Routes For Drug Penetration Across Human Skin Intercellular
or
transcellular
15
FIGURE 9: Schematic Representation of Components of TDDS 18
FIGURE10: Global sales among TDD Product 23
FIGURE 11: Conventional Formulation Transdermal Drug Delivery System 25
7. 7
LIST OF TABLE
TABLE PAGE NO.
TABLE 1 : Ideal properties of drug candidate for Transdermal Drug Delivery 19
TABLE 2 : Use for polymers for Transdermal devices 20
TABLE 3 : Type of Absorption Enhancers 21
TABLE 4 : Marketed Formulation 23
TABLE 5: Commersial dermal formulations of NSAIDS 25
LIST OF ABBREVATIONS
SNo. Abbrevatioms Fullform
1 TDDS Transdermal Drug Delivery System
2 GIT Gastro Intestinal
3 BP Blood Pressure
4 in vitro Intensive therapy unit
5 In vivo In the body
6 SC Stratum Corneum
7 PE Penetration Enhancers
8 SLS Sodium lauryl sulphate
9 DSS Diotyl sulphosuccinate
10 DMSO Decodecylmethyl sulphoxide
11 EDTA Ethylene Diamine Tetra – acetic Acid
12 MTF Marketed Transdermal Formulation
8. 8
TRANSDERMAL DRUG DELIVERY SYSTEM
ABSTRACT: A transdermal patch is a medicated adhesive patch that is placed on the skin to deliver a
specific dose of medication through the skin and into the bloodstream. Often, this promotes healing to an
injured area of the body. An advantage of a transdermal drug delivery route over other types of medication
delivery such as oral, topical, intravenous, intramuscular, etc. is that the patch provides a controlled release
of the medication into the patient, usually through either a porous membrane covering a reservoir of
medication or through body heat melting thin layers of medication embedded in the adhesive. Transdermal
drug delivery offers controlled release of the drug into the patient, it enables a steady blood level profile,
resulting in reduced systemic side effects and, sometimes, improved efficacy over other dosage forms. The
main objective of transdermal drug delivery system is to deliver drugs into systemic circulation through skin
at predetermined rate with minimal inter and intrapatient variations.
1 Introduction :
During the past few years, interest in the development of novel drug delivery systems for existing drug
molecules has been renewed. The development of a novel delivery systems for existing drug molecules not
only improves the drug‟s performance in terms of efficacy and safety but also improves patient compliance
and therapeutic benefit to a significant extent.Transdermal drug delivery system (TDDS) defined as self
contained, discrete dosage forms which are also knows as “ patch” when patchs are applied to the intact
skin, deliver the drug through the skin at a controlled rate to the systemic circulation. TDDS are dosage
forms designed to deliver a therapeutically effective amount of drug across a patient „ skin. The skin is the
largest organ of the human body which covers a surface area of approximately 2 sq.m. and receives about
one third of the blood circulation through the body. 1
It is one of the most readily available organs of the
body with a thickness of few millimeters (2.970.28MM).
Separates the underlying blood circulation network from the outside environment.
Acts as a thermostate in maintaining body temperature.
Plays role in the regulation of blood pressure.
Protects against the penetration of UV.
Skin is a major factor in determining the various drug delivery aspects like permeation and
absorption of drug across rays.
The diffusional resistance of the skin is greatly dependent on its anatomy.
1.1 Advantage of transdermal drug delivery :
Transdermal drug delivery system enables the avoidance of gastrointestinal absorption with its
associated pitfalls of enzymatic and pH associated deactivation.
Avoidance of first pass metabolism.
As a substitute of oral route.
Avoidance of gastro intestinal incompatibility.
Minimizing undesirable side effects.
Inter and intra patient variation.
Avoiding in drug fluculation drug levels.
Provide utilization of drug with short biological half lives,narrow therapeutic window.
The patch also permit consists dosing rather than the peaks and valley in medication level
associated with orally administered medication.
9. 9
They are noninvassive, avoiding the inconvenience of parentral therapy.
Transdermal patches are cost effective.
Termination of therapy is easy at any point of time.
Provide suitability for self administration. 2
1.2 Disadvantage of tansdermal drug delivery:
Long time adherence is difficult
Transdermal drug delivery system cannot deliver ionic drugs.
It cannot achive high drug levels inblood.
It cannot develop for drugs of large molecular size.
It cannot develop if drug or formulation causes irritation to skin.
May cause allergic reaction. 3
1.3 ANATOMY OF SKIN:
The structure of human skin (FIG.1) Can be categorized into four main layers:
THE EPIDERMIS
The viable epidermis
A non – viable epidermis (stratum corneum)
THE OVERLYING DERMIS
The innermost subcutaneous fat layer (hypodermis ) 4
10. 10
Fig. 1 : Schematic Representation of Skin And Its Appendages.
The Epidermis:
The epidermis is a continually self renewing, stratified squamous epitelium covering the entire outer surface
of the body and primarily composed of two parts: the living or viable cells of the malpighian layer (viable
epidermis) and the dead cells of the stratum corneum commonly reffered to as the horny layer. 5
Viable
epidermis is further classified into four distinct layers as shown figures2.
Stratum Lucidum
Stratum granulosum
Stratum spinosum
Stratum basale
Fig ..2: Schemetics Representation of Anatomy of Epidermis.
Stratum cornieum:
This is the outermost layer of screen also called as horny layer.It is the rate limiting barrier that restricts the
inward and outward movement of chemical substances. The barrier nature of the horny layer depends
crituicaly on its constituents:75-80% proteins, 5-15% lipids, and 5-10% ondansetron material on a dry weiht
basis.Stratum corneum is approximately 10mm thick when dry but swells to several times when fully
hydrated. It is flexible but relatively impermeable. It consists of horny skin cells (corneocytes) which are
connected via desmosones (protein rich appendages of the cell membrane). The corneocytes are embedded
in a lipid matrix which plays a significant role in a lipid matrix which plays a significant role in determining
the permeability of substance across the screen. 6
11. 11
Fig. 3: Schematic Representation of Microstructure of Stratum Corneum.
Viable Epidermis:
This is situated beneath the stratum corneum and varies in thickness from 0.06mm on the eyelids to 0.8mm
on the palms. It consists of various layers as stratum lucidum, stratum granulosum, stratum spinosum, and
the stratum basale.In this basale layer, mitosis of the cells constantly renews the epidermis and this
proliferation compensates the loss of dead horny cells from the skin surface. As the cells produced by the
basale layer move outward, they itself alter morphologically and histochemically, undergoing keratinization to
form the outermost layer of stratum corneum. 7
.Shown in figure 4.
Fig. 4 Schematic Representation of Different Layer of Epidermis.
Dermis:
Dermis is the layer of skin just beneath the epidermis which is 3 to 5 mm thick layer and is composed of a
matrix of connective tissues, and nerves. The cutaneous blood supply has essential function in regulation of
12. 12
body temperature. It also provides nutrients and oxygen to the skin, while removing toxins and waste
products.Capillaries reach to within 0.2 mm of skin surface and provide sink conditions for most molecules
penetrating the skin barrier.The blood supply thus keeps the dermal concentration difference across the
epidermis provides the essential driving force for transdermal permeation. In terms of transdermal drug
delivery, this layer is often viewed as essentially gelled water, and thus provides a minimal barrier to the
deliver of most polar drugs, althrough the dermal barrier may be significant when delivering highly
lipophilic molecules. 8
Hypodermis:
The hypodermis or subcutaneous fat tissue supports the dermis and epidermis. It serves as a fat storage area.
This layer helps to regulate temperature, provides nutritional support and mechanical protection.It carries
principal blood vessels and nerves to skin and may contain sensory pressure pressure organs. For
transdermal drug delivery, drug has to penetrate through all three layers and reach in systemic circulation. 9
1.4 Percutaneous absorption:
Before a topically applied drug can act either locally or systemically, it must penetrate through stratum
corneum. Percutaneous absorption is defined as penetration of substances into various layers of skin and
permeation across the skin into systemic circulation. Percutaneous absorption of drug molecules is of
particular importance in transdermal drug delivery system because the drug has to be absorbed to an
adequate extent and rate to achieve and maintain uniform, systemic , therapeutic levels throughout the
duration of use. Inm general once drug molecule cross the stratum corneal barrier, passage into deeper
dermal layers ans systemic uptake occurs relatively quickly and easily. 8
The release of a therapeutic agent
from a formulation applied to the skin surface and its transport to the systemic circulation is a multistep
process. 10
Which involves:
Dissolution within and release from the formulation.
Partition into the skin‟s outermost layer, the stratum corneum (SC).
Diffusion through the SC, principally via a lipidic intercellular pathway.
Partitioning from the SC into the aqueous viable epidermis, diffusion through the viable
epidermis and into the upper dermis, uptake into the papillary (capillary system) and into
the microcirculation.
13. 13
Fig. 5: Schematic Representation of Percutaneous Permeation.
1.5 Route of drug penetration through skin:
In this process of percutaneous permeation , a drug molecule may pass through the epidermis itself or may
get diffuse through shunts, particularly by those offered by the relatively widely distributed hair follicles and
eccrine glands as shown in figure6.Drug molecules may penetrate the skin along the hair follicles or sweet
ducts and then absorbed through the follicular epithelium and the sebaceous glands. When a steady state has
been reached the diffusion through the intact Stratum corneum becomes the primary pathway for
transdermal permeation. 11
For any molecules applied to the skin, two main routes of skin permeation can be defined:
Transepidermal route
Transfollicular route
14. 14
Fig. 6 : Possible Macro Routes For Drug Penetration 1) Intact Horny Laye, 2)
Hair And 3) Eccrine Sweat Glands
Transepidermal route:
In transepidermal transport, molecules cross the intact horny layer. Two potential micro routes of entry
exist,the transcelullar or transcellular and the intercellular pathway as shown figure 7 and 8.
Fig. 7: Schematic Representation of Transdermal Route.
Both polar and non polar substances diffuse via transcellular and intercellular routes by different
mechanism. The polar molecules mainly diffuse through the polar pathway consisting of bound water within
the hydrated stratum corneum whereas the non polar molecules dissolve and diffuse through the non
aqueous lipid matrix of the stratum corneum. The principal pathway taken by a penetrant is decided mainly
the partition coefficient ( log k). Hydrophilic drug partition preferentially in to the intracellular
domains,whereas as lipophilic permeants traverse the stratum corneum via the intercellular route. Most
molecules pass the stratum corneum by the routes. 12
15. 15
Fig. 8: Possible Micro Routes For Drug Penetration Across Human Skin Intercellular Or
Transcellular.
Transfollicular route( shunt pathway):
This route comprises transport via the sweet glands and the hair folicles with their associated sebaceous
lands. Althrough these routes offer high permeability,they are considered to be a minor importance because
of their relatively small area, approximately 0.1% area of the total skin.This route seems to be most
important for ions and large polar molecules which hardly permeate through the stratum corneum. 13
1.6 Barrier function of the skin:
The top layer of skin is most important function in maintaining the effectiveness of the barrier. Stratum
corneum mainly consist of the keratinized dead cell and water content is also less as compared to the other
skin components. The lipids molecules join up and form a tough connective network, in effect acting as the
mortar between the bricks of a wall. Here the individual cells overlie each other and are packed, preventing
bacteriafrom entry and maintaining the water holding properties of the skin.
Stratum corneum mainly
consists of the keratinized dead cell and water content is also less as compared to the other skin components.
Lipids are secreted by the cells from the base layer of the skin of the top. These lipid molecules join up and
form a tough connective network, in effect acting as the morter between the bricks of a wall. 14
2 Basic Principal of transdermal permeation:
Transdermal permeation is based on passive diffusion. Skin is the most intensive and readily accessible
organ of the body as only a fraction of millimeter of tissue separates its surface from the underlying capillary
network. The release agent from a formulation applied to the skin surface and its transport to the systemic
circulation is a multistep process 15
, which includes
Diffusion of drug from drug to the rate controlling membrane.
16. 16
Dissolution within and release from the formulation.
Sorption by stratum corneum , and penetration through viable epidermis.
Effect on the target organ.
Partitioning into the skin‟s outermost layer, the stratum corneum.
Uptake of drug by capillary network in the dermal papillary layer.
Diffusion through the stratum corneum,principal via a lipidic intercellular pathway.
Properties that influence transdermal delivery:
Release of the medicament from the vehicle.
Penetration through the skin barrier.
Activation of the pharmacological response.
3 Factors affecting transdermal permeation:
a. Biological Factor:
Skin conditions:
The intact skin itself act as barrier but many acts like ,alkali cross the barrier cells and penetrates through the
the skin, many solvents open the complex dense structure of horny layer solvents like methanol, chloroform
remove lipid fractions, forming artificial shunts through which the drug molecules can pass easily. 16
Skin age:
It is seen thatbthe skin of adults and young ones are more permeable than the older ones but there is no
dramatic difference. Children shows toxic effects because of the greater surface area per unit body weight
thus potent steroids, boric acid ,hexachlorophene have produced severe side effects.17
Blood Supply:
Changes in peripheral circulation can affect transdermal absorption. 18
Regional skin site:
Thickness of skin, nature of stratum corneum and density of appendages vary site to site. These factors
affect significantly penetration. 19
Skin metabolism:
Skin metabolizes steroids, hormones, chemical carcinogens and some drugs. So skin metabolism determines
efficacy of drugs permeated through the skin.20
Species differences:
The skin thickness, density of appendages and keratinization of skin vary species to species, so affects the
penetration. 21
b. Physiochemical Factors:
Skin hydration:
17. 17
In contact with water the permeability of skin increases significantly. Hydration is most important factor
increases the permeation of skin. So use of humectant is done in transdermal delivery. 22
Temperature and pH:
The permeation of drug increases ten folds with temperatures variation. The diffusion coefficient decreases as
temperature falls. Weak acids and Weak bases dissociate depending on the Ph and pKa or pKb values. The
proportion of unionized drug determines the drug concentration in skin. Thus, temperature and pH are important
factors affecting drug penetration. 23
Diffusion coefficient:
Penetration of drug depends on diffusion coefficient of drug. At a constant temperature the diffusion
coefficient of drug depends on properties of drug, diffusion medium and interaction between them. 24
Drug concentration:
The flux is proportional to the concentration gradient across the barrier and concentration gradient will be
higher if the concentration of drug will be more across the barrier. 25
Partition coefficient:
The optimal partition coefficient (k) is required for good action. Drugs with higher K are not ready to leave
the lipid portion of skin. Also, drugs with low K will not be permeated. 26
Molecular size and shape:
Drug absorption is inversely related to molecular weight, small molecules penetrate faster than ones. 27
c. Environmental Factor:
Sunlight:
Due to Sunlight the walls of blood vessels become thinner leading to bruising with only minor trauma in sun
exposed areas. Also pigmentation: The most noticeable sun induced pigment change is a freckle or solar
lentigo.28
Cold Season:
Often result in itchy, dry skin. Skin responds by increasing oil production to compensate for the weather‟s
drying effects. A good moisturizer will help ease symptoms of dry skin. Also, drinking lots of water can
keep your skin hydrated and looking radiant. 29
Air Pollution:
Dust can clog pores and increases bacteria on the face and surface of skin, both of which lead to acne or
spots. This affects drug delivery through the skin. Invisible chemical pollutants in the air can interfere with
skin‟s natural protection system, breaking down the natural skin‟s oils that normally trap moisture in skin
and keep it supple. 30
Effect of heat on Transdermal patch:
Heat induced high absorption of transdermal delivered drugs. Patient should be advised to avoid exposing
the patch application site to external heat source like heated water bags, hot water bottles. Even high body
18. 18
temperature may also increase the transdermally delivered drugs. In this case the patch should be removed
immediately.Transdermal drug patches are stored in their original packing and keep in a cool, dry place they
are ready to used. 31
4 Formulation of transdermal drug delivery system:
Various components of transdermal drug delivery system are shown fig 9
Figure 9: Schematically Representation of Components of TDDS.
Drug substance:
For successfully developing a transdermal drug delivery system. The Transdermal route is an extremely
attractive option for the drugs with appropriate pharmacology and physical chemistry. Transdermal patches
offer much to drugs which undergo extensive first pass metabolism, drugs with narrow therapeutic window,
or drugs with short half life which causes non-compliance due to frequent dosing. The drugs for
Transdermal delivery. In addition drugs like rivastigmine for Alzheimer „s and Parkinson, methylphenidate
for attention deficit hyperactive disorder and elegizing for depression are recently approved as TDDS.The
drug should be choosen with great care. The following are some of the desirable properties of a drug for
transdermal delivery. 32
Physicochemical properties:
The drug should have a molecular weight less than 1000 Daltons.
The drug should have affinity for both lipophilic and hydrophilic phase. Extreme partitioning
characteristics are not conductive to successful drug delivery via the skin.
The drug should have low melting point.
Along with these properties the drug should be potent, having sort half life and be non irritating.
Biological properties:
19. 19
The drug be very potent
The drug should have short biological half life.
The drug should be stable when contact with the skin.
They should not stimulate an immune reaction to the skin.
The drug should not get extensively metabolized in the skin.
The drug should not be irritant and non allergic to human skin.
Dose is less than 50 mg per day,and ideally less than 10 mg per day.
Table 1 shows the important characteristics for an ideal candidate/drug for TDDS.
TABLE 1: Ideal Properties of Drug Candidate For Transdermal Drug Delivery.
Polymer Matrix::
Polymer are the backbone of transdermal drug delivery system, which control the release of the drug from
the device. System for transdermal delivery are fabricated as multi layered polymeric laminates in ehich a
drug reservoir or a drug polymer matrix is sandwitched between two polymeric layers, an outer impervious
backing layer that prevents the loss of drug through the backing surface and an inner polymeric layer that
functions as an adhesive, or rate controlled membrane. Polymer matrix can be prepared by dispersion of
drug in liquid or solid state synthetic polymer base. Polymer used in TDDS should have compatibility with
the drug and other components of the system such as penetration enhancers and PSAs. 33
Ideal properties of a polymer to be used in a transdermal system:
Molecular weight, chemical functitionality of the polymer should be suchthat the specific drug
diffuses properly and gets released through it.
Parameter Properties
Dose
Half life
Molecular point
Melting point
Partition coefficient
Aqueous Solubility
pH of the aqueous saturated
solution
Skin Permeability Coefficient
Skin Reaction
Oral Bioavailability
Less than 20mg/day
<10 hrs
<400 Dalton
<200ºĊ
1 to 4
>1mg/ml
5-9
>0.5×10 -3
cm/h
Non irritating and non sensitizing
Low
20. 20
Penetration Enhancers:
These are compounds which promote the skin permeability by altering the skin as barrier to the flux of a
desired penetrate.These are chemical compounds that increase permeability of stratum corneas so as to attain
higher therapeutic levels of the drug candidate.Penetration enhancers interact with structural components of
stratum conium. The flux of the drug (J) is given by-
J = D dc/dx
D = diffusion coefficient
C = conc. of the diffusing species
X = spatial coordinate
i.e., proteins or lipids. They alter the protein and lipid packaging of stratum conium, thus chemically
modifying the barrier functions leading to increased permeability. 34
hese may conveniently be classified
under the following main headings:
a Solvents: These compounds increase by swallowing the polar pathway and/or by fluidizing lipids.
Examples include water alcohols – methanol and ethanol; alkyl methyl sulfoxides – dimethyl sulfoxide,
alkyl homologs of methyl sulfoxide dimethyl acetamide and dimethyl formamide ;pyrrolid-ones-
2pyrrolidone. 35
b Surfactants: These compounds are proposed to enhance polar pathway transport, especially of
hydrophilic drugs. The ability of a surfactant to alter penetration is a function of the polar head group and
the hydrocarbon chain length.Anionic Surfactant. 36
e.g., Diotyl sulphosuccinate, sodium lauryl sulphate,
Decodecylmethyl sulphoxide etc.
Ideal properties of penetration enhancers:
Controlled and reversible enhancing action.
Chemical and physical compatibility with drug and other pharmaceutical excipients.
Should not cause loss of body fluids electrolytes or other endogens materials.
The polymer should be stable.
The polymer and its deaggration product must be non toxic or non antagonistic to the host.
Large amounts of the active agents arc incorporated into it.
Non irritating-,non allergic, nontoxic.
Odorless , colorless, economical and cosmetically acceptable.
Pharmacological inertness.
The polymer should be nontoxic.
The polymer should be inexpensive.
The polymer should be easily of manufacture.
Non toxic,nonallergic, nonirritating.
Pharmacological inertness.
Odourless, colorless ,economical and cosmetically acceptable.
TABLE 2 : Useful for Polymers for Transdermal Devices
22. 22
junctions
Positively charged Chitosan salts, Paracellular Ionic interactions with
Polymer Trimethyl chitosan negatively chared groups
Of glycocalix
5 Evaluation of transdermal patches:
The transdermal patches can be characterized in terms of following parameters
Physiochemical evaluation
In vitro evaluation
In vivo evaluation
Physicochemical evaluation:
Thickness:
The thickness of transdermal film is determined by travelling microscope, dial gauge, screw
gauge or micrometer at different points of the film. 37
Uniformity of weight:
Weight variation is studied by individually weighing 10 randomly selected patches and
calculating the average weight. The individual weiht should not deviate significantly from
the average weight.38
Moisture content:
The prepared films are weighed individually and kept in a desiccators containing calcium
chloride at room temperature for 24h. The films are weighed again after a specified interval
unit they show a constant weight. The percent moisture content is calculated using following
formula. 39
%Moisture content = Initial weight – Final weight ×100 4
Moisture Uptake:
Weighed films are kept in a desiccator at a room temperature for 24h. These are then taken
out and exposed to 84% relative humidity using saturated solution of potassium chloride in a
desiccator until a constant weight is achieved. %moisture uptake is calculated as given
below. 40
% Moisture uptake = Final weight - Initial weight ×100
I2 = Final length of each strip
I1 = Initial length of each strip
In vitro release studies:
Transdermal patches can be in vitro evaluated in terms of Franz diffusion cell the cell is composed of two
compartment: donor and receptor. The receptor compartment has a volume of 5-12ml and effective surface
area of 1-5cm2. The diffusion buffer is continuously stirred at 600rpm by a magnetic bar.The temperature in
the bulk of the solution is maintained by circulating thermostated water through a water jacket that
surrounds the receptor compartment. The drug content is analyzed using suitable method, maintenance of
sink condition is essential. 41
23. 23
In vivo studies:
Transdermal patches can be in vivo evaluated in terms of In vivo evaluations are the true depiction of the
drug performance. The variables which cannot be taken in to account during in vitro studies can be fully
explored during in vivo studies. In vivo evaluations of TDDS can be carried out using animal models
volunteers. 42
6 Marketed Formulation :
Transdermal drug delivery market is stagnant:
In fact, the market for Transdermal products has been in a significant upward trend that is likely to
continue for the foreseeable future. While it is true that product approvals for new TDD products have
not exploded as some predicted following the rapid success of TDD nicotine products in the early and
mid 90s, an increasing number of TDD products continue to deliver real therapeutic benefit to patients
around the world. More than 35 TDD products have been approved for sale in the US, and
approximately 16 active ingredients are approved for use in TDD products globally. TDD products sales
in the US have in increased by 23% from 2000 to 2001 and by 9% over the same time period in
Europe. 43
Fig 10 : Global Sales Among TDD Product
Table 4 : Marketed Formulation
Product Drug Manufacturer Indication
Name
Androderm Testosterone Thera Tech/Glaxo Smith Kline Hypogonadism(males)
Nitro-dur Nitriglycerin Key Pharmaceuticals Angina pectoris
Nitrodisc Nitroglycerin Roberts Pharmaceuticals Angina pectoris
24. 24
Minitran Nitroglycerin 3M Pharmaceuticals Angina pectoris
Deponit Nitroglycerin Schwarz-Pharma Angina pectoris
Climaderm Estradiol Ethical Holdings/Wyeth-Ayerest Postmenstrual
Syndrome
Climara Estradiol 3M Pharmaceuticals/Berlex Labs Postmenstrual
Syndrome
Estraderm Estradiol Alza/Norvatis Postmenstrual
Syndrome
Fematrix Estrogen Ethical Holdings/SolvayHealthcare Postmenstrual
Syndrome
FemPatch Estradiol Parke-Davis Postmenstrual
Syndrome
Alora Estradiol Thera Tech/Protocol and Gamble Postmenstrual
Syndrome
Prostep Nicotine Elan Crop/LederleL Smoking cessation
Nicoderm Nicotine Alza/Glaxo Smith Kline Smoking cessation
Habitraol Nicotine Novartis Smoking cessation
Nuvelle TS Estrogen/ Ethical Holingds/Schering Hormone
Progesterone replacement therapy
CombiPatch Estradiol/ Noven,Inc./Aventis Hormone
Northindrone replacement therapy
Ortho-Evra Norelgestromin/ Ortho-McNeil Pharmaceuticals Birth control
estradiol
Duragesic Fentanyl Alza/Janssen Pharmaceuticals a Moderate/severe pain
Catapres- TTS Clonidine Alza/Boehinger Ingelheim Hypertension
7 Comparison between Conventional formulation and Marketed Transdermal
Formulation :
Conventional Formulation:
The formulations used for transdermal drug delivery include ointments, creams , and gels. Nitroglycerine
,testosterone , estrogen and progesterone are delivered systemically as ointments and gels. These
Formulations are relatively inexpensive and easy to manufacture. These are associated with less local skin
reactions than with patches. Variability and poor reproducibility in the amount of drug delivered result
primarily from improper application technique,application of too little much of the product, and removal of
the product from the site of application by its rubbing off on clothes and other surfaces before all the drug is
absorbed. Another major concern is that the product may be transferred from the individual who is being
treated to another individual through direct skin contact. The classical dosage form of NSAIDS for dermal
use that are common available are usually gells,creams,ointments and lotions. 44
Table 5
Marketed Transdermal Formulation:
25. 25
In fact, the market for Transdermal products has been in a significant upward trend that is likely to continue
for the foreseeable future. While it is true that product approvals for new TDD products have not exploded
as some predicted following the rapid success of TDD nicotine products in the early and mid 90s, an
increasing number of TDD products continue to deliver real therapeutic benefit to patients around the world.
More than 35 TDD products have been approved for sale in the US, and approximately 16 active ingredients
are approved for use in TDD products globally. TDD products sales in the US have in increased by 23%
from 2000 to 2001 and by 9% over the same time period in Europe. An increasing number of TDD products
continue to deliver real therapeutic benefit to patients around the world. More than 35 TDD product have
now approved for sale in the US, and approximately 16 active ingredients are approved for use in TDD
products globally. The table gives detail information of the different drugs which are administered by this
route and the common names by which they are marketed, it also gives the conditions for which the
individual system is used. 45
Figure 11 : Conventional transdermal drug delivery system.
Table 5 : Commercial dermal formulations of NSAIDS
Drugs Formulation type
Benzydamine Gel,cream
Felbinac Gel
26. 26
Bufexamac Cream, ointment, lotion,emulgel
Diclofenac epolamine Patch
Diclofenac sodium Gel, spray gel
Diclofenac potassium Gel
Diclofenac diethylammonium Gel, emulgel
Etofenamate Gel, cream
Ibuprofen Gel, cream
Ketoprofen Gel
Naproxen Gel
Nimesulide Gel
Piroxicam Gel
Salicyclic acid Cream, ointment, lotion
8 Conclusion:
Since 1981, transdermal drug delivery system have been used as safe and effective drug delivery devices.
Their potential role in controlled release is being globally exploited by the scientists with high rate of
attainment . If a drug has right mix of physical chemistry and pharmacology , transdermal delivery is a
remarkable effective route of administration. Due to large advantages of the TDDS, many new researches
are going on the present day to incorporate newer drugs via the system. A transdermal patch has several
basic components like drug reservoirs, liners, adherents, permeation enhancers, backing laminates,
plasticizers and solvents, which play a vital role in the release of drug via skin. Transdermal patches can be
divided into various types like matrix, reservoir, membrane matrix hybrid, micro reservoir type and drug in
adhesive type transdermal patches and different methods are used to prepare these patches by using basic
components of TDDS.
After preparation of transdermal patches, they are evaluated for physicochemical studies, in vitro
permeation studies, skin irritation studies, animal studies, human studies and stability studies. But all
prepared and evaluated transdermal patches must receive approval from FDA before sale. Future
developments of therapeutic regimens and the continuing expansion of drugs available for use. Transdermal
dosage form may provide clinicians an opportunity to offer more therapeutic options to their patients to
optimize their care.
Ttransdermal drug delivery is hardly an old technology , and the technology no longer is just adhesive
patches. Due to the recent advances in technology and the incorporation of the drug to the site of action
without rupturing the skin membrane transdermal route is becoming the most widely accepted route of drug
administration. It promises to eliminate needles for administration of a wide variety of drugs in the future.
27. 27
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