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Velasquez_C2.pdf
1.
Copyright © 2012
Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Business Ethics Concepts & Cases Manuel G. Velasquez
2.
Copyright © 2012
Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Chapter Two Ethical Principles in Business
3.
Copyright © 2012
Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Utilitarianism • Actions and policies should be evaluated on the basis of the benefits and costs they will impose on society. • The only morally right action in any situation is that whose utility is greatest by comparison to the utility of all the other alternatives . • Leading utilitarian theorists: – Jeremy Bentham – John Stuart Mill
4.
Copyright © 2012
Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. How to Apply Utilitarian Principles • First, determine what alternative actions or policies are available to me in that situation. • Second, for each alternative action, estimate the direct and indirect benefits and costs that the action will probably produce for all persons affected. • Third, for each action, subtract the costs from the benefits to determine the net utility of each action. • Fourth, the action that produces the greatest sum total of utility must be chosen as the ethically appropriate course of action.
5.
Copyright © 2012
Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Criticisms of Utilitarianism • Critics say not all values can be measured. – Utilitarians respond that monetary or other commonsense measures can measure everything. • Critics say utilitarianism fails with rights and justice. – Utilitarians respond that rule-utilitarianism can deal with rights and justice.
6.
Copyright © 2012
Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. The Concept of a Right • Right = an individual’s entitlement to something. – Legal right = An entitlement that derives from a legal system that permits or empowers a person to act in a specified way or that requires others to act in certain ways toward that person. – Moral (or human) rights = rights that all human beings everywhere possess to an equal extent simply by virtue of being human beings. • Legal rights confer entitlements only where the particular legal system is in force. • Moral rights confer entitlements to all persons regardless of their legal system.
7.
Copyright © 2012
Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Moral Rights • Can be violated even when “no one is hurt”. • Are correlated with duties others have toward the person with the right. • Provide individuals with autonomy and equality in the free pursuit of their interests. • Provide a basis for justifying one’s actions and for invoking the protection or aid of others. • Focus on securing the interests of the individual unlike utilitarian standards which focus on securing the aggregate utility of everyone in society.
8.
Copyright © 2012
Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Three Kinds of Moral Rights • Negative rights require others leave us alone. • Positive rights require others help us. • Contractual or special rights require others keep their agreements.
9.
Copyright © 2012
Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Contractual Rights and Duties • Created by specific agreements and conferred only on the parties involved. • Require publicly accepted rules on what constitutes agreements and what obligations agreements impose. • Underlie the special rights and duties imposed by accepting a position or role in an institution or organization. • Require (1) the parties know what they are agreeing to, (2) no misrepresentation, (3) no duress or coercion,(4) no agreement to an immoral act.
10.
Copyright © 2012
Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Kant and Moral Rights • Individuals generally must be left equally free to pursue their interests. • Moral rights identify the specific interests individuals should be entitled to freely pursue. • An interest is important enough to raise to be a right if: – we would not be willing to have everyone deprived of the freedom to pursue that interest – the freedom to pursue that interest is needed to live as free and rational beings.
11.
Copyright © 2012
Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Kant’s Categorical Imperative (First Version) • We must act only on reasons we would be willing to have anyone in a similar situation act on. • Requires universalizability and reversibility. • Similar to questions: – “What if everyone did that?” – “How would you like it if someone did that to you?”
12.
Copyright © 2012
Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Kant’s Categorical Imperative (Second Version) • Never use people only as a means to your ends, but always treat them as they freely and rationally consent to be treated and help them pursue their freely and rationally chosen ends. • Based on the idea that humans have a dignity that makes them different from mere objects. • It is, according to Kant, equivalent to the first formulation.
13.
Copyright © 2012
Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Criticisms of Kant • Both versions of the categorical imperative are unclear. • Rights can conflict and Kant’s theory cannot resolve such conflicts. • Kant’s theory implies moral judgments that are mistaken.
14.
Copyright © 2012
Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Libertarian Philosophy • Freedom from human constraint is necessarily good and that all constraints imposed by others are necessarily evil except when needed to prevent the imposition of greater human constraints. • Robert Nozick’s Libertarian Philosophy: – the only moral right is the negative right to freedom – the right to freedom requires private property, freedom of contract, free markets, and the elimination of taxes to pay for social welfare programs
15.
Copyright © 2012
Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Types of Justice • Distributive Justice – requires the just distribution of benefits and burdens. • Retributive Justice – requires the just imposition of punishments and penalties. • Compensatory Justice – requires just compensation for wrongs or injuries.
16.
Copyright © 2012
Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Principles of Distributive Justice • Fundamental – distribute benefits and burdens equally to equals and unequally to unequals • Egalitarian – distribute equally to everyone • Capitalist – distribute according to contribution • Socialist – distribute according to need and ability • Libertarian – distribute by free choices • Rawls – distribute by equal liberty, equal opportunity, and needs of disadvantaged.
17.
Copyright © 2012
Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Retributive and Compensatory Justice • Retributive Justice = fairness when blaming or punishing persons for doing wrong. • Compensatory Justice = fairness when restoring to a person what the person lost when he or she was wronged by someone else.
18.
Copyright © 2012
Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Ethic of Care • Ethics need not be impartial. • Emphasizes preserving and nurturing concrete valuable relationships. • We should care for those dependent on and related to us. • Because the self requires caring relationships with others, thosae relationships are valuable and should be nurtured.
19.
Copyright © 2012
Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Objections to Care Approach in Ethics • An ethic of care can degenerate into favoritism. – Response: conflicting moral demands are an inherent characteristic of moral choices • An ethic of care can lead to “burnout”. – Response: adequate understanding of ethic of care will acknowledge the need of the caregiver to care for him or herself.
20.
Copyright © 2012
Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Theories of Moral Virtue • Aristotle – virtues are habits that enable a person to live according to reason by habitually choosing the mean between extremes in actions and emotions • Aquinas – virtues are habits that enable a person to live reasonably in this world and be united with God in the next • MacIntyre – virtues are dispositions that enable a person to achieve the good at which human “practices” aim • Pincoffs – virtues are dispositions we use when choosing between persons or potential future selves
21.
Copyright © 2012
Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Objections to Virtue Theories • It is inconsistent with psychology which showed that behavior is determined by the external situation, not moral character. – Response: moral character determines behavior in a person’s familiar environment. – Response: recent psychology shows behavior is determined by one’s moral identity which includes one’s virtues and vices.
22.
Copyright © 2012
Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Unconscious vs. Conscious Moral Decisions • Unconscious Moral Decisions – Comprise most of our moral decisions. – Made by the brain’s “X-system” using stored prototypes to automatically and unconsciously identify what it perceives and what it should do. • Conscious Moral Decisions – Is used in new, strange, or unusual situations for which the brain has no matching prototypes. – Consists of the conscious, logical but slow processes of the brain’s “C-system”. – Evaluates reasonableness of our intuitions, cultural beliefs, and the norms stored in our prototypes.
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