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An Historical Grammar of Nærut Nɑnɑ́rɑ and Its Daughter Languages

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Scott Brewer
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Scott Brewer Universityof SouthCarolina 8/21/2015 An Historical Grammar of and Its Daughter Languages
Brewer i Table of Contents Chapter 1: Phonological Bedrock..........................................................................................................................................1 §1.1 Initial Phonological Inventory................................................................................................................................1 §1.1.1 Consonants.............................................................................................................................................................1 §1.1.2 Vowels: Monophthongs....................................................................................................................................1 §1.1.3 Vowels: Diphthongs............................................................................................................................................1 §1.2 Sound Changes..............................................................................................................................................................1 §1.3 Phonotactics...................................................................................................................................................................2 Chapter 2:The MotherTongue..............................................................................................................................................3 §2.1 Post-Sound Change Phonology: Nærut N n .............................................................................................3 §2.1.1 Consonants.............................................................................................................................................................3 §2.1.2 Vowels: Monophthongs....................................................................................................................................3 §2.1.3 Vowels: Diphthongs............................................................................................................................................3 §2.2 Morphology....................................................................................................................................................................3 §2.2.1 Grammatical Particles – Nominal, Pronominal, and Adjectival......................................................3 §2.2.2 Pronominal Morphology..................................................................................................................................4 §2.2.3 Nominal Morphology.........................................................................................................................................5 §2.2.4 Grammatical Particles and Prefixes – Verbal..........................................................................................6 §2.2.5 Verbal Morphology.............................................................................................................................................7 §2.2.6 Numerals and Fraction Terms.......................................................................................................................9 §2.2.7 Methods of Derivation....................................................................................................................................10 §2.2.8 Honorifics.............................................................................................................................................................15 §2.3 Syntax.............................................................................................................................................................................16 §2.3.1 Basic Sentence Order......................................................................................................................................16 §2.3.2 Interrogatives.....................................................................................................................................................16 §2.3.3 Noun-Phrase Order..........................................................................................................................................18 §2.3.4 Prepositions........................................................................................................................................................18 §2.3.5 Coordination.......................................................................................................................................................18 §2.3.5 Syntactic Focus..................................................................................................................................................19 §2.3.6 Subordinate Clauses........................................................................................................................................19 §2.3.7 Possession ...........................................................................................................................................................21
ii Brewer §2.3.8 Negation ...............................................................................................................................................................22 §2.3.9 Mood......................................................................................................................................................................23 §2.3.10 Honorific Speech............................................................................................................................................24 §2.4 Translations ................................................................................................................................................................25 §2.4.1 The Tower of Babel – P ik B bel ot.......................................................................................................25 e oem o t e in – e i onol k ot............................................................................................26 e o e – imin on em e ot .........................................................................................27 §2.4.4 The Universal Declaration of Human Rights: Article ne – el ol nn ti ob e b ot ek olt ot ti le t -het...................................................................................................................................27 e t o t e i t t – Be ek o ot ek ot ....................................................28 §2.4.6 The Litany Against Fear – M e el ol p ot b nt lp it .................................................29 Chapter 3: Migration andEvolution.................................................................................................................................30 §3.1 Fictional Setting.........................................................................................................................................................30 §3.1.1 Linguistic Expansion.......................................................................................................................................30 §3.1.2 The Growth of an Empire..............................................................................................................................32 Chapter 4: Nærut Otmjóv – The Speech of the North................................................................................................33 §4.1 Phonological Changes.............................................................................................................................................33 §4.2 Phonological Inventory..........................................................................................................................................34 § 4.2.1 Consonants.........................................................................................................................................................34 § 4.2.2 Vowels: Monophthongs................................................................................................................................34 § 4.2.3 Vowels: Diphthongs........................................................................................................................................35 § 4.2.4 Orthography ......................................................................................................................................................35 §4.3 Morphology.................................................................................................................................................................35 §4.3.1 Grammatical Endings – Nominal, Pronominal and Adjectival......................................................35 §4.3.2 Pronominal Morphology...............................................................................................................................36 §4.3.3 Nominal and Adjectival Morphology.......................................................................................................37 §4.3.4 Verbal Affixes and Particles.........................................................................................................................38 §4.3.5 Verbal Morphology..........................................................................................................................................39 §4.3.6 Numerals and Fraction Terms....................................................................................................................50 §4.3.7 Methods of Derivation....................................................................................................................................51 §4.3.8 Honorifics.............................................................................................................................................................55 §4.4 Syntax.............................................................................................................................................................................56
Brewer iii §4.4.1 Subject Dropping..............................................................................................................................................56 §4.4.2 Basic Sentence Order......................................................................................................................................56 §4.4.3 Syntactic Focus..................................................................................................................................................56 §4.5 Translations ................................................................................................................................................................58 §4.5.1 The Tower of Babel – Pærik B vloþ.........................................................................................................58 e oem o t e in – e i on o ..............................................................................................59 e o e – Þ imin n em e oþ............................................................................................60 e nive l e l tion o m n i t ti le ne – el nn i óv e Fr vo ek olt o le -het ...........................................................................................................................60 e t o t e i t t – Be o o ek o ................................................................61 §4.5.6 The Litany Against Fear – M le el p t b nt l i ........................................................62 Chapter 5: Nærüt Jul ob – The Speech of the South................................................................................................63 §5.1 Phonological Changes.............................................................................................................................................63 §5.2 Phonological Inventory..........................................................................................................................................64 § 5.2.1 Consonants.........................................................................................................................................................64 § 5.2.2 Vowels: Monophthongs................................................................................................................................65 §5.2.3 Vowels: Diphthongs.........................................................................................................................................65 § 5.2.4 Orthography ......................................................................................................................................................65 §5.3 Morphology.................................................................................................................................................................66 §5.3.1 Grammatical Endings – Nominal, Pronominal, and Adjectival.....................................................66 §5.3.2 Pronominal Morphology...............................................................................................................................67 §5.3.3 Nominal and Adjectival Morphology.......................................................................................................69 §5.3.4 The Definite Article..........................................................................................................................................70 §5.3.5 Verbal Affixes.....................................................................................................................................................71 §5.3.6 Verbal Morphology..........................................................................................................................................72 §5.3.7 Numerals and Fraction Terms....................................................................................................................76 §5.3.8 Methods of Derivation....................................................................................................................................76 §5.3.9 Honorifics.............................................................................................................................................................81 §5.4 Syntax.............................................................................................................................................................................82 §5.5 Translations.................................................................................................................................................................83 §5.5.1 The Tower of Babel – P kno B bel t...................................................................................................83 §5.5.2 The Poem of the Ring – e i onolno k tno ..................................................................................84
iv Brewer e o e – imin onno em e no............................................................................85 e nive l e l tion o m n i t ti le ne – nn t ob el olno e botek olt ti - et lest..........................................................................................................................86 e t o t e i t t – Be ekno o n ekno otno.......................................86 §5.5.6 The Litany Against Fear – M e el olno p ot b nt lpi tot................................................87 Chapter 6: Tifejóf – The Speechof the Homeland........................................................................................................88 §6.1 Phonological Changes.............................................................................................................................................88 §6.2 Phonological Inventory............................................................................................................................................90 § 6.2.1 Consonants.........................................................................................................................................................90 § 6.2.2 Vowels: Monophthongs................................................................................................................................90 §6.2.3 Vowels: Diphthongs.........................................................................................................................................90 § 6.2.4 Vowels: Nasals..................................................................................................................................................91 § 6.2.5 Orthography ......................................................................................................................................................92 §6.3 Morphology.................................................................................................................................................................92 §6.3.1 Grammatical Endings – Nominal, Pronominal and Adjectival......................................................92 §6.3.2 Pronominal Morphology...............................................................................................................................93 §6.3.3 Nominal Morphology......................................................................................................................................94 §6.3.4 Adjectival Morphology...................................................................................................................................94 §6.3.5 Verbal Affixes.....................................................................................................................................................95 §6.3.6 Verbal Morphology..........................................................................................................................................97 §6.3.7 Numerals and Fraction Terms.................................................................................................................104 §6.3.8 Methods of Derivation.................................................................................................................................105 §6.3.9 Honorifics..........................................................................................................................................................109 §6.4 Syntax..........................................................................................................................................................................110 §6.5 Translations .............................................................................................................................................................111 §6.5.1 The Tower of Babel – Pærek B vl t ....................................................................................................111 e oem o t e in – e i on t ..........................................................................................112 e o e – imin n em e t ...................................................................................113 e nive l e l tion o m n i t ti le ne – el nn t i ó e Fr vot k olt t e le t -het............................................................................................................................113 e t o t e i t t – Be o ot k t ............................................................114 – e it n in t e – e el p tep nt l i ................................................115
Brewer v Chapter 7:The Wheel of Fire.............................................................................................................................................116
vi Brewer
Brewer 1 Chapter 1: PhonologicalBedrock §1.1 Initial Phonological Inventory The phonological startingpointhasbeenkeptrelativelysimple,asitallowsforafew soundchangesto be appliedearlyontothe structure of the language,providingitwithamore realisticcharacter. §1.1.1 Consonants Bilabial Dental Palatal Velar Glottal Plosive p[ː] pʰ[ː] b[ː] t[ː] tʰ[ː] d[ː] k[ː] kʰ[ː] ɡ[ː] ʔ[ː] Nasal m[ː] n[ː] ŋ[ː] Fricative s[ː] h Tap ɾ [r] Approximant w[ː] j[ː] Lat. Approx. l[ː] §1.1.2 Vowels: Monophthongs Front Back High i[ː] u[ː] Mid e o Low æ ɑ[ː] §1.1.3 Vowels: Diphthongs ɑ[ː]j, ɑ[ː]ʊ,oj,oʊ,u[ː]j,æj,æʊ,ej,eʊ,i[ː]ʊ These soundchangesare appliedtoall initial formsof lexical items.Because of the factthatthe syntacticparticlesare overtime beingreanalyzedaspartsof the wordstheymodify,the changesapply across the boundarybetweenwordandparticle. §1.2 Sound Changes 1. s  z / V_V 2. tj  tʃ 3. dj  dʒ 4. Ns  NCVS s (e.g.ens  ents) 5. VF nVF  VF ɲVF (e.g.tene  teɲe) 6. VF lVF  VF ʎVF  ʎæ) 7. sj  ʃ 8. #Vj  #jV 9. ɑː#  ɑw# 10. ʔː  ʔh ˑ 11. Cʰ#  C# 12. V[voicedconsonant]#Vː[voicedconsonant]# 13. VʃV  VʒV
2 Brewer 14. VF V  VF jV 15. VBR V  VBR wV §1.3 Phonotactics 1. [ɲ,ʎ] can onlyoccur betweenfrontvowels. 2. [ɑː] cannot occur wordfinally. 3. [s]  [z] whenintervocalic. 4. [ʃ]  [ʒ] whenintervocalic. 5. Aspiratedstopsdeaspiratewhen word-final. 6. Nasalscannotprecede [s].Anepentheticvoicelessstopmustbe insertedbetweenthe two phonemes. 7. Whena front vowel precedesanothervowel,anepenthetic[j] will be insertedbetween them. 8. Whena back roundedvowel precedesanothervowel,an epenthetic[w] will be inserted betweenthem. 9. Diphthongsof the type [Vj] cannotoccur initially. 10. Vowelsinwordfinal syllablesthatprecede voicedconsonantsare lengthened.Thiscreates longallophonesof [æ,e,o]. 11. All consonantscanbe geminatedexceptfor[h] and [ʔ];[ʔː] hasbecome [ʔh ˑ]. 12. Stressgenerallyfallsonthe firstsyllable of the root. (All of these rulesoperate acrossthe boundariesbetweenwordsandgrammatical particles.)
Brewer 3 Chapter 2: The Mother Tongue §2.1 Post-Sound Change Phonology: §2.1.1 Consonants Bilabial Dental Post-Alveolar Palatal Velar Glottal Plosive p[ː] pʰ[ː] b[ː] t[ː] tʰ[ː] d[ː] k[ː] kʰ[ː] ɡ[ː] ʔ ʔh ˑ Nasal m[ː] n[ː] (ɲ[ː]) ŋ[ː] Fricative s[ː] (z) ʃ[ː] (ʒ) h Affricate tʃ[ː] dʒ[ː] Tap ɾ [r] Approximant w[ː] j[ː] Lat. Approx. l[ː] (ʎ[ː]) §2.1.2 Vowels: Monophthongs Front Back High i[ː] u[ː] Mid e(ː) o(ː) Low æ(ː) ɑ[ː] §2.1.3 Vowels: Diphthongs ɑ[ː]j, ɑ[ː]ʊ,o(ː)j,o(ː)ʊ,u[ː]j,æ(ː)j,æ(ː)ʊ,e(ː)j,e(ː)ʊ,i[ː]ʊ §2.2 Morphology §2.2.1 Grammatical Particles – Nominal, Pronominal, and Adjectival Case Particle – Basic Form Function Nominative Ø Subject Accusative is / wis / jis Direct Object Genitive t w t t Possession Partitive lo Part of a Whole Dative drɑ Indirect Object Locative sej / psej / tsej / ksej Location Instrumental ‘em Means/Instrument Comitative ents / wents / jents Together with p p t t t p p t t Case particlesare addedto the final constituentof the nounphrase.As NærutN isaheadinitial language,thismeanstheyare addedto the final adjective ordeterminerthatmodifiesanoun.However, whenemphasisisdesired,the particlescanbe addedtoeveryconstituentof the nounphrase. Pluralizersmustfollow every constituentof anominal phrase.
4 Brewer §2.2.2 Pronominal Morphology Singular 1st Singular 2nd Singular 3rd Sing. Masc. 3rd Sing. Fem. 3rd Sing. Neu. Nominative tɑ den rom ærom orom Accusative tɑ is den is rom is ærom is orom is Genitive tɑ ot den ot rom ot ærom ot orom ot Partitive tɑ lo den lo rom lo ærom lo orom lo Dative tɑ drɑ den drɑ rom drɑ ærom drɑ orom drɑ Locative tɑ sej den tsej rom psej ærom psej orom psej Instrumental tɑ ‘em den ‘em rom ‘em ærom ‘em orom ‘em Comitative tɑ ents den ents rom ents ærom ents orom ents Dual 1st Dual Inclusive 1st Dual Exclusive 2nd Dual 3rd Dual Nominative e o mor ttɑ dæd Accusative e o wis mor is ettɑ is dæd is Genitive e o wot mor ot ttɑ ot dæd ot Partitive e o lo mor lo ttɑ lo dæd lo Dative e o drɑ mor drɑ ttɑ drɑ dæd drɑ Locative e o sej mor sej ttɑ sej dæd sej Instrumental e o ‘em mor ‘em ttɑ ‘em dæd ‘em Comitative e o wents mor ents ttɑents dædents Plural 1st Plural Inclusive 1st Plural Exclusive 2nd Plural 3rd Plural Nominative nɑru on tæle Accusative nɑ wis on is tæle jis is Genitive nɑ wot on ot tæle jot ot Partitive nɑru lo on lo tæle lo lo Dative nɑ drɑ on drɑ tæle drɑ drɑ Locative nɑru sej on tsej tæle sej sej Instrumental nɑ ‘em on ‘em tæle ‘em ‘em Comitative nɑ wents on ents tæle jents ents
Brewer 5 §2.2.3 Nominal Morphology ɑ ɑm - man Singular Plural Collective Plural Nominative ɑ ɑm ɑ ɑm ek ɑ ɑm t Accusative ɑ ɑm is ɑ ɑm ek ɑ ɑm t Genitive ɑ ɑm ot ɑ ɑm t ek ɑ ɑm t t Partitive ɑ ɑm lo ɑ ɑm wek ɑ ɑm t Dative ɑ ɑm drɑ ɑ ɑm drɑ ek ɑ ɑm drɑ t Locative ɑ ɑm psej ɑ ɑm p ek ɑ ɑm p t Instrumental ɑ ɑm ‘ m ɑ ɑm ‘ m ek ɑ ɑm ‘ m t Comitative ɑ ɑm ents ɑ ɑm t ek ɑ ɑm t t dunoj – ceiling Singular Plural Collective Plural Nominative dunoj dunoj ek dunoj t Accusative dunoj is dunoj is ek dunoj is t Genitive dunoj ot t ek dunoj ot t Partitive dunoj lo dunoj lo wek dunoj lo t Dative dunoj drɑ dunoj drɑ ek dunoj drɑ t Locative dunoj sej dunoj sej ek dunoj sej t Instrumental dunoj ‘ m ‘ m ek dunoj ‘ m t Comitative dunoj ents dunoj ents ek dunoj ents t t – hour Singular Plural Collective Plural Nominative bist t ek bist t Accusative t is t ek t t Genitive t ot t t ek t t t Partitive t lo t wek t t Dative t drɑ t drɑ ek t drɑ t Locative t sej t ek t t Instrumental t ‘ m t ‘ m ek t ‘ m t Comitative tents t t ek t t t ɑ’ – cup Singular Plural Collective Plural Nominative ɑ’ ɑ’ jek ɑ’ t Accusative ɑ’ jis ɑ’ ek ɑ’ t Genitive ɑ’ jot ɑ’ t ek ɑ’ t t Partitive ɑ’ lo ɑ’ wek ɑ’ t Dative ɑ’ drɑ ɑ’ drɑ ek ɑ’ drɑ t Locative ɑ’ sej ɑ’ ek ɑ’ t Instrumental ɑ’ ‘ m ɑ’ ‘ m ek ɑ’ ‘ m t Comitative ɑ’ jents ɑ’ t ek ɑ’ t t
6 Brewer §2.2.4 Grammatical Particles and Prefixes – Verbal Non-Finite Forms–  Active Infinitive: t t w t  Passive Infinitive:su  Supine:  Imperfective Verbal Adverb:mu- + -i  Perfective Verbal Adverb:hɑw- + -i PersonParticles –  1st Person,Active:moj  2nd Person,Active:æn  3rd Person,Active: jol / ol  1st Person,Passive: em  2nd Person,Passive: ’ ’ w ’  3rd Person,Passive:ŋ  Dual/Plural, Active:‘ Tense Prefixes–  Present:Ø-  Past: ‘ -  Future: un- Aspect Prefixes–  Imperfective:Ø- (present) /[C]o- /w- (pastand future)  Perfective:Ø-  Progressive:ɑm -  Inchoative:en(n)-  Terminative:rɑ- Mood Particles–  Conditional:ste  Subjunctive:t  Imperative:  The 3rd person active particle cantriggerfinal-consonantmutationinverbs,as yod-coalescence iscommon withdental consonants.Verbrootsendinginthe phonemes [tds z] have 3rd person formsthat e t t [tʃ ʒʃ ʒ]. Whenthishappens,the thirdpersonmarkeris reducedto{ol} and the final consonantof the root exhibitsthe mutation.  Infinitive,supine,person,andplural particlesall followthe verbtheymodify.Tense andaspect markersare prefixes,withtensecomingbefore aspect.The moodparticlesare all placedbefore the conjugatedverb.  Whenmore than one verboccurs in sequence,itisextremelycommonforonlythe lasttobe markedwithpersonandnumberparticles.  The imperfectiveaspectismarkedthroughreduplication inthe pastand future tenses. The initial consonant orconsonantclusterof the root isreduplicated,andisthenfollowedbythe vowel /o/. If the root-initial syllable isof the type CCCV,thenonlythe firsttwoconsonants participate inreduplication(skrɑskoskrɑ .If ittakesthe shape Ch CV,thenonlythe aspirated stopappearsin the reduplicatedsyllable  .If the wordbeginswithavowel,then the perfective markerissimply{w-}, fromearlier{o-}.  There isno presentperfective.  The passive voice ismarkedbya separate seriesof personmarkers fromthe active voice,butis not markedfornumber.  Personparticlesare markedwithsecondarystress.  Whena verb rootendinginan alveolartrill [r] appearsinthe supine,the supine particle is phoneticallyreducedto[iː] t t t p p t t m t m  The imperfectiveverbal adverbisusedtoindicate simultaneousactions,whereasthe perfective marks an actionthat has alreadybeencompleted.
Brewer 7 §2.2.5 Verbal Morphology VerbRoot:reldus(say) (This tablerepresentsthe indicativemood.Othermoodsareindicated through theuseof their preposed particles.) Infinitive: reldus ot Supine: reldus Imperfective Verbal Adverb: mureldusi Perfective Verbal Adverb: hɑw Active Voice Past Present Future Imperfective 1st Person Sing. ‘ moj reldus moj unroreldus moj 2nd Person Sing. ‘ æn reldus æn unroreldus æn 3rd Person Sing. ‘ roreldu ol reldu ol unroreldu ol 1st Person D & P ‘ roreldus moj ‘ reldus moj ‘ unroreldus moj ‘ 2nd Person D &P ‘ roreldus æn ‘ reldus æn ‘ unroreldus æn ‘ 3rd PersonD & P ‘ roreldu ol ‘ reldu ol ‘ unroreldu ol ‘ Perfective 1st Person Sing. ‘ reldus moj - unreldus moj 2nd Person Sing. ‘ æn - unreldus æn 3rd Person Sing. ‘ reldu ol - unreldu ol 1st Person D & P ‘ reldus moj ‘ - unreldus moj ‘ 2nd Person D &P ‘ reldus æn ‘ - unreldus æn ‘ 3rd PersonD & P ‘ reldu ol ‘ - unreldu ol ‘ Progressive 1st Person Sing. ‘ ɑm reldus moj ɑm reldus moj unɑm reldus moj 2nd Person Sing. ‘ ɑm reldus æn ɑm reldus æn unɑm reldus æn 3rd Person Sing. ‘ ɑm reldu ol ɑm reldu ol unɑm reldu ol 1st Person D & P ‘ ɑm reldusmoj ‘ ɑm reldus moj ‘ unɑm reldus moj ‘ 2nd Person D &P ‘ ɑm reldus æn ‘ ɑm reldus æn ‘ unɑm reldus æn ‘ 3rd PersonD & P ‘ ɑm reldu ol ‘ ɑm reldu ol ‘ unɑm reldu ol ‘ Inchoative 1st Person Sing. ‘ reldus moj enreldus moj unenreldus moj 2nd Person Sing. ‘ reldus æn enreldus æn unenreldus æn 3rd Person Sing. ‘ reldu ol enreldu ol unenreldu ol 1st Person D & P ‘ reldus moj ‘ enreldus moj ‘ unenreldus moj ‘ 2nd Person D &P ‘ reldus æn ‘ enreldus æn ‘ unenreldus æn ‘ 3rd PersonD & P ‘ reldu ol ‘ enreldu ol ‘ unenreldu ol ‘ Terminative 1st Person Sing. ‘ ɑreldus moj rɑreldus moj unrɑreldus moj 2nd Person Sing. ‘ ɑreldus æn rɑreldus æn unrɑreldus æn 3rd Person Sing. ‘ ɑreldu ol rɑreldu ol unrɑreldu ol 1st Person D & P ‘ ɑreldus moj ‘ rɑreldus moj ‘ unrɑreldus moj ‘ 2nd Person D &P ‘ ɑreldus æn ‘ rɑreldus æn ‘ unrɑreldus æn ‘ 3rd PersonD & P ‘ ɑreldu ol ‘ rɑreldu ol ‘ unrɑreldu ol ‘
8 Brewer Participle Imperfective ’ roreldus reldus w roreldus Perfective ’ reldus - w reldus Progressive ’ ɑm reldus wɑm reldus w ɑm reldus Inchoative ’ reldus w reldus w reldus Terminative ’ rɑreldus rɑreldus w rɑreldus Passive Voice Past Present Future Imperfective 1st Person ‘ u em reldu em unroreldu em 2nd Person ‘ ’ ’ un ’ 3rd Person ‘ ŋ ŋ un ŋ Perfective 1st Person ‘ em - unreldu em 2nd Person ‘ ’ - unreldus ’ 3rd Person ‘ reldus ŋ - unreldus ŋ Progressive 1st Person ‘ ɑm reldu em ɑm reldu em unɑm reldu em 2nd Person ‘ ɑm reldus ’ ɑm reldus ’ unɑm reldus ’ 3rd Person ‘ ɑm reldus ŋ ɑm reldus ŋ unɑm reldus ŋ Inchoative 1st Person ‘ reldu em enreldu em unenreldu em 2nd Person ‘ reldus ’ enreldus ’ unenreldus ’ 3rd Person ‘ reldus ŋ enreldus ŋ unenreldus ŋ Terminative 1st Person ‘ ɑreldu em rɑreldu em unrɑreldu em 2nd Person ‘ ɑreldus o’ rɑreldus ’ unrɑreldus ’ 3rd Person ‘ ɑreldus ŋ rɑreldus ŋ unrɑreldus ŋ Participle Imperfective m’ roreldus hæmreldus hæmunroreldus Perfective m’ reldus - hæmunreldus Progressive m’ ɑm reldus hæmɑm reldus hæmunɑm reldus Inchoative m’ reldus hæmenreldus hæmunenreldus Terminative m’ rɑreldus hæmrɑreldus hæmunrɑreldus
Brewer 9 §2.2.6 Numerals and Fraction Terms The numeralsone throughtengovernthe genitive case,singularwithone,pluralwithall the others.For numbershigherthanten,the final numberwilldetermine whetherthe genitive singularorplural is used. All numeralsdecline like nounsandadjectives,thoughinnumbershigherthantenonlythe last numbercombineswithacase particle. The numeralsone throughtenare stressedonthe second syllable of the root. The numeralsone throughtenare:  gewɑ  ɑ tw )  mitɑ t  ɑ tɑ  k ɑ  imɑ  rwetɑ  luksɑ t  hojnɑ  sre ɑ t The language alsohas a setof collective numeralsthatdescribeasetor group, similartothe terms pair, duo,or trio.These special numeralsare frequentlyusedalone todescribe agroupof people. Though they inherently describeaplural group,theytriggersingularagreementwithverbs. Whenusedinconjuctionwitha noun,the nounappearsinthe genitive case. Aswithregularnumerals, the collective numeralsare stressedonthe secondsyllable. While itistheoreticallypossibletouse a collective numeral withagroupof any size,inpractice theyare notusedfor groupslargerthan ten. Asthey by definitiondescribe groupslargerthanone,there isno singularcollective.However,buildingonthe patternusedtocreate the collective numerals,the word w t w t t m “ m t ”  p /duo)  m t t  ɑ t uartet)  k t t  m t t  rwet pt t  k t t  t  sre t Fractiontermsare alsostressedon the secondsyllable of the root anddecline inthe same fashionas nounand adjectives,justasnumeralsdo. Theygovernthe partitivecase,butunlikenumerals,the object determineswhich grammatical numberisused. The firsttenfractionsare:  getet(awhole)  t  mitet(athird)  ɑ t t t  k t t  imet(asixth)  rwetet(aseventh)  lukset(aneighth)  hojnet(aninth)  sre et(atenth) Withthe numeral rootsforone throughfive,the suffix - canbe addedtocreate frequentative adverbs (i.e.once,twice,etc.).
10 Brewer §2.2.7 Methods of Derivation §2.2.7.1 Nouns fromVerbs  Abstraction₁:verbroot+ don + (case/numberparticles) Examples:enne (begin)  ennedon(beginning),rɑ  rɑ  Abstraction₂:verbroot+ + (case/numberparticles) Example:howmɑ t  howmɑw t t t  Agent:verbroot + res + (case/numberparticles) Examples:dem(rule) m t [t] t w  t t p t  Patient:verbroot+ ol + (case/numberparticles) Examples:horte (build)  hortejol(building),irɑ p  irɑ p  Occupation:verb root+ juŋ + (case/numberparticles) mp m t w k  m ŋ t  t ŋ  Location:verbroot + sejn + (case/numberparticles) mp ’ t tt  ’ t tt m t m  romessejn(school)  Instrument:verbroot+ rek + (case/numberparticles) Examples:nærni (speak)  nærnirek(language),njæwr(spin)  njæwrrek(wheel)  Master: verbroot + rom + (case/numberparticles) Examples:horte (build)  horterom t t ŋ t  ŋ rrosrom(masterof combat) §2.2.7.2 Verbs fromNouns  Method1: ne + noun root+ (person/numberparticles) mp ‘ t p  ’ t tt t m  t m [ ]  Method2: som+ nounroot + (person/numberparticles) Examples:poro(iron)  somporo(forge), ɑ m  somɑ t  Method3: j + nounroot + (person/numberparticles) Examples:ɑŋ  tɑ ɑŋ ɑ m  tɑ ɑ k w §2.2.7.3 Adjectives from Verbs  Active Participle: u + (tense/aspectprefixes) +verbroot + (case/numberparticles) mp tɑ ɑŋ  tɑ ɑŋ [p mp ] p k  ’ nonærni (speaking[past impfv.])  Passive Participle:hæm+(tense/aspectprefixes) +verbroot+ (case/numberparticles) Examples:nærni (speak)  hæmnærni (spoken[pres. impfv.] ɑ t  m’ ɑ (created[pastimpfv.])  Capability:verbroot+ ‘ mp ‘ t pt  ‘ t’ɑt pt t  t ’ɑt §2.2.7.4 Adverbs fromAdjectives  Quality:adjectiveroot+ rur Examples:turi (whole)  t w t t  t t  Positive Comparative:adjective root+on Examples:tɑ t  tɑ m k m  imejon(better)  Negative Comparative:adjectiveroot+ liŋ Examples:tɑ t  tɑ ŋ k t t  t ŋ t
Brewer 11  DiminutiveComparative:adjectiveroot+ in Examples:tɑ t  tɑ tt m k m (good)  imejin(alittle better)  AugmentativeComparative:adjectiveroot+ om Examples:tɑ t  tɑ m m m k m  imejom(muchbetter)  Positive Superlative:adjective root+ Examples:tɑ t  tɑ t t mostquickly),ime (good)  m t t t  Negative Superlative:adjective root+‘ Examples:tɑ t  tɑ ’ɑ t t k t t  t ’ɑ t t brightly)  Elative:adjectiveroot+ mos Examples:tɑ t  tɑ lemos(mostquickly),ime(good)  imemos(mostwell)  Enough:adjective root+ tos Examples:tɑ t  tɑ t t m  imetos(wellenough)  Very:adjective root+b Examples:tɑ t  tɑ ɑwt k m ood)  imebɑwt(verywell) §2.2.7.5 Verbs fromAdjectives  ro + adjective root+(person/numberparticles) Examples:stiri (important)  rostiri (matter), t  t  to become:‘ob + adjective root+ (person/numberparticles) Examples t t  ‘ t t e (happy)  ‘ m pp e (happier)  ‘ e(becomehappier),mostɑ [m t k t ]  ‘ m tɑ m m t k  make so: ne + adjective root+ (person/numberparticles) Examples:swɑ  neswɑ m k m  nejime (make good) §2.2.7.6 Nouns fromAdjectives  Quality:Adjective root+emo mp t m k  t m m k ime (good)  m m m (home)  mmɑ(homeless)  mmɑ m m  Personal Embodiment:Adjective root+ Examples:ser(brave)  ɑ ɑ m  ɑ m ɑ t §2.2.7.7 Verbal Adverbs (Gerunds)  Imperfective:mu +verbroot + i (verbrootsendingin/i/l t t w t Examples:rojæs(have) m  m w ,  Perfective:h +verbroot + i t t t w t nærni (speak)  hɑw havingspoken) ‘ɑ’ t  hɑw’ɑ’ havinghit m t w k  hɑwm t havingworked) §2.2.7.8 Nouns fromNouns  Augmentative:nounroot+ om Examples:ɑŋ  ɑŋ m[ t ] m  m m[ ] tɑ p  tɑ m el)
12 Brewer  Diminutive:nounroot+ in Examples:ɑ ɑm m  ɑ ɑm ɑ w m  ɑ m t  m (kitten),hæsɑt  hæsɑt tt  Elemental/Essential:nounroot+ sre Examples:ɑŋ  ŋ w t w t  w t w t  Abstract:noun root+ (o)ssa Examples:sor o(brother)  sor ossɑ t ’ t t  ’ t ɑ t  Master: tes + noun root Examples:ri ɑ w  tesri ɑ w m ter),poro(iron)  tesporo(blacksmith)  Decessive:verbroot+‘o + (case/numberparticles) Examples:mɑ k  mɑ ’ (former/deadking),dɑ t  dɑ ’ t  Falseness:nounroot+ o Examples:nærut(speech)  t ŋ ɑ m  ŋ ɑ  Nationality:nounroot+ru Examples:Jisrɑ’  Jisrɑ’ t  Simple nouncompoundsare usuallystressedonthe firstsyllableof the secondnominal element. Example:mɑ k + ɑm  mɑ ɑm t §2.2.7.9 Possessive Adjectives  n + 1st syllableof pronoun+ Examples: o 1st singular:tɑ tɑ  nɑtɑ o 2nd singular:den  nɑ ɑ o 3rd singular,masculine: rom  nɑ mɑ o 3rd singular,feminine:ærom  nɑ ɑ o 3rd singular,neuter: orom  nɑ ɑ o 1st dual,inclusive:  nɑ ɑ o 1st dual,exclusive: mor  nɑm ɑ o 2nd ttɑ nɑ tɑ o 3rd dual:dæd nɑ ædɑ o 1st plural,inclusive: nɑ  nɑ ɑ ɑ o 1st plural,exclusive: on  nɑ onɑ o 2nd p t  nɑt ɑ o 3rd plural:  nɑ elɑ §2.2.7.10 Adjectives from Nouns  SemblativeAdjectives:nounroot+ i i (epentheticvoicelessstopappearsafternasals) mp m t  mp i (catlike), ɑ ɑm m  ɑ ɑmp i (manly)  Adjectivesof Trait:nounroot + job Examples:otɑm t  otɑm t t t  t t  Abessive Adjectives:nounroot+ m mp ‘ m m  ‘ mmɑ m m m  mmɑ m  “- ”A t t+ w Examples:otɑm(north)  otɑmwɑ t ɑ ɑm m  ɑ ɑmwɑ m §2.2.7.11 Adjectives from Adjectives  “- ”A t t t+w Examples:ælɑ w  ælɑwɑ w ɑ m  ɑ mwɑ
Brewer 13 §2.2.7.12 Degrees of Comparison  Positive Comparative:on + adjective root Examples:tɑ t  ontɑ t ɑ w  onælɑ w  DiminutiveComparative: in + adjective root Examples:tɑ t  intɑ alittle faster),ælɑ w  inælɑ tt w  Negative Comparative:liŋ + adjective root Examples:tɑ t  ŋtɑ t ɑ w  ŋ ɑ w  AugmentativeComparative: om+adjective root Examples:tɑ t  omtɑ m t ɑ w  omælɑ m w  Positive Superlative: + adjective root Examples:tɑ t  t tɑ t t ɑ w  t ɑ w t  Negative Superlative: ‘ + adjective root Examples:tɑ t  ‘ɑ tɑ t t t ɑ w  ‘ɑ ɑ t t w  Elative:mos+ adjective root Examples:tɑ t  mostɑ m t t ɑ w  mosælɑ m t w  Enough:tos + adjective root Examples:tɑ t  tostɑ t ɑ w  tosælɑ w  Very:b + adjective root Examples:tɑ t) bɑwttɑ t ɑ w  bɑwt ɑ w §2.2.7.13 Verbs from Verbs (Someof thesederivationalpatternsaregrammaticalized in the daughterlanguages,though in different ways,depending on thelanguage.Often,they arethefoundation of a morecomplicated aspectual system,forming a systemof subaspects.)  completeness: + verbroot mp t  m m  m m t  semeliterative:m + verbroot mp ɑm  mɑ orɑm m  mɑ m  durative (short):læs+ verbroot mp  t tt m  læsromes(tolearnalittle)  durative (long): es+verbroot Examples:entsori (play)  esenstori(playawhile),suljem(sleep) essuljem(sleepawhile)  protractive:led + verbroot mp  tɑ w t  tɑ w t  habitual (customaryaction): + verbroot Examples: moj (Irun)  m ‘ m jol (ruled[perfective])  ‘ mjol (usedtorule [perfective])  negative conative (attemptedaction implyingfailure):wil+ verbroot Examples: m mp over) wil m t t mp over[andfail]),romes(learn)  wilromes(trytolearn [andfail])  neutral conative (attemptedactionwithnoimpliedoutcome): sos+ verbroot Examples:ældo(make)  sosældo(trytomake),romes(learn)  sosromes(trytolearn)  positive conative(attempted actionimplyingsuccess): rem+ verbroot Examples:ældo(make)  remældo(trytomake [andsucceed]),romes(learn)  remromes(try to learn[andsucceed])
14 Brewer  reversionary: l+verb root Examples:rodi (do)  ɑlrodi (undo),ældo(make) ɑ m  momentane:gew +verbroot mp m mp  wm mp ilsos(annoy) gewilsos(momentarily annoy)  desiderative:dri+ verbroot mp resun(eat)  wm k  drinrowm(be thirsty)  reflexive: o +verbroot Examples:rojæs(have) t ŋ m k  t ŋ m w  motionaway: verb root Examples:runɑ w k  ɑ w k w  w  motiontoward: h +verbroot Examples:runɑ w k  hɑ ɑ w kt w  hɑ t w  motionaround/about: u +verbroot Examples:runɑ w k  ɑ w k   motionover: + verbroot Examples:runɑ w k  ɑ w k   motionunder: in(e) + verbroot Examples:runɑ w k  inerunɑ w k   motioninto:t( + verbroot Examples:runɑ w k  tɑ ɑ w k t  tɑ t  motionoutof: emi + verbroot Examples:runɑ w k  emirunɑ w k t  m t  motionthrough: e(r) + verbroot Examples:runɑ walk) errunɑ w kt  t  motionahead: ge(m) + verbroot Examples:runɑ w k  gerunɑ w k w  w  motiononto:o(d) + verbroot Examples:runɑ w k  orunɑ w k t  t  motionup: + verbroot Examples:runɑ w k  t ɑ w k p  t p  motiondown: he+ verbroot Examples:runɑ w k  herunɑ w k w  w  motionpast:pro + verbroot Examples:runɑ w k  prorunɑ w kp t  p p t
Brewer 15 §2.2.8 Honorifics NærutN utilizesacomplex setof honorificparticles toindicate relative status. Honorific Relationship me peers, simple politeness or inferior to superior, respect to inferior to superior, deep respect t superior to inferior, respect min spouses ɑ children to parents parents to children student to teacher wes youngpersonto olderperson(age difference of 25 yearsor more) er oldpersonto youngerperson(age difference of 25 years or more) Honorificparticlesprecedecase particles,andare separatedfromthe rootbya hyphen.Theyare normallyonlyusedwithpersonalnames,personal pronouns,and possessiveadjectives andtheyalmost neverappearinthe 1st person.
16 Brewer §2.3 Syntax §2.3.1 Basic Sentence Order §2.3.1.1 Standard Word Order Standardword orderinactive voice isVerb-Subject-Object.Use of the syntacticcase particlesallows virtuallyanywordorder,butothersyntacticarrangements are markedforfocus.  t m tɑ – I see you. §2.3.1.2 Passive Voice Standardword orderinpassive voice isVerb-Subject-(Agent),andthe agent,whenpresent,ismarkedby the instrumental case.Otherwordordersare possible,andare usedto shiftfocus.  Am tɑ emtɑ ‘ m –I am beingwatched (by you).  tɑ emtɑ ‘ m –I am watched (bythem). §2.3.1.3 Stative Syntax In stative sentencesthatutilizethe verb o ot(tobe),syntax oftenbecomesSubject-Verb,since neitherthe subjectnoritspredicate descriptorismarkedforcase.  m t – He isold.  Arrɑm k ‘ tɑ k – The menare fast. §2.3.2 Interrogatives §2.3.2.1 Polar Interrogatives In polarinterrogative sentences,the defaultsentence orderisverb-second,withaclause-final interrogative particle o.Frontinganelementtoa clause-initialpositionfocusesthe discourseonthat element.  ɑ t t – Do you see me?  t t tɑ – Is it you that seesme? Whenthe speakerexpectsacertainanswer,positive ornegative,differentparticlesare used.Whenthe expectationisforapositive answer,thenthe particleis wej.Whenthe expectationisnegative, is used.  ɑ t t w –Do you see me? (positiveexpectation) Os. – Yea. – Nay.  m tɑ ɑ – Do you know her? (negative expectation) Aso. – Yes./ Mun. – No. Tag questionsare formedbyappendinga tp t t t t m t t “sulos ”(lit. not so?) inthe case of a negative tag “o os ” lit.be so?) inthe case of an affirmative.  He’s tall,right/isn’t he? – m  He isn’ttall, right/is he? – m
Brewer 17 NærutN usesafive-formsystemforansweringpolarquestions.Itoperatesasfollows:  Positive question,affirmative answer: os o Are you a king? – Deno esænmɑ wej? Yes(yea),I am. – m tɑ  Positive question,negative answer: o Are you a king? – Den esænmɑ w No, I’m not. – m tɑ  Negative question,affirmativeanswer: o o Are you not a king?– Deno esænsul mɑ wej? Yes,I am. – A m tɑ  Negative question,negative answer: mun o Are you not a king?– Deno esænsul mɑ wej? o No (nay),I’m not. – m tɑ  The fifthresponse isusedinspecial caseswhere the personansweringthe questionwishesto expressdispleasure withthe premise of the questionitself.Itisusuallyusedwhensomeone has askeda ridiculousquestion, orwhen the questionermeanttorhetoricallytrapthe personbeing questioned.Itisneitherpositivenornegative,butratherstatesthatthe questiondoesnot deserve ananswer.Itcan be a fairlyrude,butisusuallyonlyusedinresponsetothe rudenessof another It takesthe form rr . o Are you a king? (askedtoa beggaron the street) – Deno esænmɑ w Are you serious?Freeze in hell,youshit. – Rrɑ ttɑ ollɑmp ɑtt §2.3.2.2 Choice Questions Choice questionsare usedtopresentoptions.There are three general strategies:  Usingthe word ur (and). Thiswordisusedto provide alistof options,all of whichare presented as a group. o Do you want bread and water? – k w t w ɑ  Usingthe word it (or).Thiswordis usedtoprovide discrete optionsforsomeone tochoose from. It explicitlyallowsforonlyonce choice fromthe availablechoices. If none of the options are desired,thenthere are three possible answers: (nay,positive inquiries), mun (no, negative inquiries),and æwosul(neither/none such). o Do you want bread or water? – k t w t w ɑ Water,please.– w t w t ‘ ɑm ’ Bread, please.– k t ‘ ɑm ’ Neither,thank you (informal).– w is,ŋ ɑ  The third optionisto use the word en. Thiswordfallssomewherebetween urandit, withthe m t pt t t “ ” Whenthe respondentwantsone option,theyanswerby repeatingthatoptionfollowedbythe appropriate case particle. If all available optionsare desired,thenthe respondentanswers lu (both) orr l (all).If neitheroptionisdesired,then there are three possible answers: (nay,positive inquiries), mun (no,negative inquiries),and o ul(neither/none such). o Do you want bread and/or water? – Keken w t w ɑ Both, please.– w t ‘ ɑm ’ Neither,thank you (informal). – w ŋ ɑ
18 Brewer §2.3.2.3 Wh-questions In wh-questions,the defaultpositionforthe questionwordisininitial position,withthe interrogative particle o inclause-final position. Responsestoquestionsplace the informationrelevanttothe inquiry ininitial position.  m tɑ – Where am I?  – What is this? §2.3.2.4 EchoQuestions Echo questionsare usedwhenthe hearerwishestoverifythe contentof the question.Thismaybe from uncertainty,orevenincredulity,the pointbeingtoensure thatall partiesare onthe same page.Echo questionsare usuallyverysimple,usuallyjustthe one wordorpiece of informationthatisthe focusof the inquiry,followedbythe particle te.If the word wasfollowedbyacase particle inthe original question,thenthatparticle isrepeatedinthe echoquestion.  Knɑ ɑ – Do you want some meat to eat? Knɑ t – Meat? Os. – Yes.  ol ekɑ tɑm –Where isthe northern border? ‘A t –The eastern(border)? tɑm – No, the northern.  ‘ sændenre tɑ t – What didyou say about me? Re denot te? – Aboutyou? Os,re tɑ t – Yes,about me. §2.3.3 Noun-Phrase Order Since NærutN isstronglyheadinitial,all nounphrasesstartwiththe noun. Anymodifierswill followthe head. Whenacase particle isused, itnormallyonlyappearsinphrase final position.In emphaticconversational speechitisverycommonto markall the constituentsof the nounphrase with the case particles,whichiseffectivelythe beginningof atrue nominal case system.  ‘ t t mɑ ɑmɑ m – She saw the bigman. (standardform)  ‘ t t mɑ ɑm ɑ m – She saw the big man. (emphaticconversational form) §2.3.4 Prepositions Prepositions serve asthe headsof theirphrases,andare therefore restrictedtophrase-initial position. Everyprepositiongovernsatleastone case,thoughsome can governmore to distinguishdifferent meanings.  ol rom tɑ ɑt t –He’sin the house.  ‘ tɑ romtɑ ɑt ɑ –He enteredthe room. §2.3.5 Coordination Whentwo or more verbsare coordinated,all butthe lastcan omitpersonandnumbermarking. However,if the verbsgoverndifferentobjectsorone ormore of themtakesan objectwhile the other(s) ’t ’t t m t markedforpersonandnumber.The subjectwill onlyappearonce if itis identical ineveryclause.
Brewer 19 Clause coordinationisaccomplishedinthree differentways. 1. Simple coordination “ ” p t w t t t ur.Whentwoor more noun phrases that operate asthe subject are thus coordinated,the verbinthe associatedpredicateis inthe plural. a. Am rno ‘ ɑ ɑm ɑ – The man and the woman are running. b. Amej ɑm ɑ –The girl is runningand singing. c. Am m tɑkekisur ɑm wmm w t w – I’m eatingbread and drinking water. 2. Alternativecoordination “ ” usesthe conjunction it. a. Unnonemɑ t nelomormoj tɑ – I will rule or (I will) die. 3. Exceptioncoordination(i.e. “ t” t t as. a. ɑ m tɑ t ɑ mɑtm ɑ estsul is. – I want to go, but I don’t have any money. §2.3.5 Syntactic Focus The sentence-initial positionisusedtoindicate focus,andnominal constituentscanbe movedthere to add emphasistotheirrole inthe clause.  ‘ 'ɑw ŋrul is. – The farmer ate the apple.  ‘Aw ŋ‘ –It was the farmer that ate the apple.  ‘ ‘ɑw ŋ –Itwas the apple that the farmer ate.  Am ɑ mk –The tall girl isrunning around the park.  ɑ ɑm mk –It isthe tall girl who isrunning around the park.  mk ɑm ɑ – It’saround the park that the tall girl is running.  ‘ m kŋ ɑ’ ɑ ‘ m – The cup was brokenby the demon.  A’ ‘ m kŋ ɑ ‘ m –It was the cup that was brokenby the demon.  A ‘ m‘ m kŋ ɑ’ –It was by the demonthat the cup was broken. §2.3.6 Subordinate Clauses §2.3.6.1 Relative (Adjective)Clauses One of the mostcommonsubordinatingmethods usedisthe relativepronoun wrel.Itisusedto create relative clauses thatmodify nouns,pronouns,andadjectives. Wrelstandsinthe place of itsreferent ina relative clause,agreeingwithitinnumber.Inthe relative clause,itcantake whatevercase particle is neededinthe contextof thatclause,andit can alsobe governedbyanyrequiredprepositions. Examples:  ɑ ɑ m tɑɑ ɑm w t ‘ ɑm jænden. –I know the man you were speaking with.  Rɑw ɑ w is‘ t t m ‘ m t – Who was the woman that the two of us saw yesterday?
20 Brewer §2.3.6.2 Noun Clauses Anothercommonmethodistouse the conjunction naj,whichiscreatesaclause thatstandsin the place of a noun.  ɑ ɑ m tɑ ɑ m gædiri.–I know that you won’t be here tomorrow.  ‘ t t m ɑ ‘ ɑ ɑ m ɑ ɑromdrɑ – He saw that she was walking toward him.  Unlɑ m ɑ tɑ ɑ runtsul is. –She will think that you know nothing. Thisconjunctionisalsosometimesusedincombinationwiththe demonstrative no uanda preposition inorder to create a nounclause that isthe objectof a preposition.One of the mostcommonis the phrase ne no u dr , j t ‘ t t t t  ‘ m udrɑ ɑ ‘ ol morjob. –He leftbecause he was angry.  t mm ‘ ondenis ne no udrɑ ɑ ‘ skrɑ m We (exc.) hate you because you killedthe cat.  ‘ ɑm m ‘ onre no uwot,nɑ ‘ m ‘ t m t m k – We (exc.) were talking about how you (pl.) ran around the tree yesterday. §2.3.6.3 Adverbial Clauses Adverbial clausesare subordinate clausesusedtomodifythe verbinsome way.One of the more commontypesof adverbial clause isthe temporal,whichspecifiesthe timeframe of the action.  Dre ŋ m ‘ ɑ – Whenthe music plays, we (inc.) sing.  ‘ ɑm m ‘ ‘ ɑm w o.–They workedwhile it was raining.  m ɑ m usej,nɑ ‘ ɑ m ‘ hɑ m ɑ ‘ ensriwojol o.–Before we (exc.) got home it started to rain. Locative clausesare those usedtoindicate where anactiontakesplace,usinglocative adverbsand conjunctionslike hili(where), hilij ll (somewhere),andlilæhili (anywhere). l‘o llo i (everywhere) alsoperformsthe same function,thoughbecause itisapronominally-headedphrase,itusuallyappears as the objectof a preposition.  ‘ ɑm ŋ m ol.– He likeswhere he is.  ɑ’ɑtm ‘ onlilæhili,nɑ ‘ ɑm ’ –We (inc.) can eat anywhere you like.  ‘ m t tŋ ‘ t t – The food was strewn all about. Adverbialsof mannerare constructedthroughthe use of the word gruni(how).  ‘ gogrudinmoj tɑ n ‘ ɑ m –I acted like I wantedto. Comparative adverbialsclausesare alsoquite common,andthe complex systemof adverbial suffixes allowsformyriadshadesof meaning bymeansof a simple endingattachedtoan adjective.Thatwhichis t t t mp “t X” w the partitiveparticle. ’ position inthe mainclause isunrestricted,thoughisusually immediatelyfollowsthe subject.
Brewer 21  ol rom tɑ tɑ – He runs faster than me.  Amenærni jol æromtɑ ŋ m – She is speakinglessquickly than him.  m t p p w soljobɑwt –The blacksmithstrikes the iron very hard.  Ŋ ol tesri ɑ uimemos. - That swordmaster fightsmost well. A subtype of the comparative adverbialsutilizesthe adverb kæjrurtoindicate totwothingsare the m W t t tw mp … t is followedbythe partitive particlelo.Whenitistwo verbs (inthe same waythat / as),the conjunction n j isusedfollowingthe adverb.  Rom o k tɑ – He’s as tall as me.  ... mmɑ m ‘ onisɑ w k ɑ onɑ t k kæjrurnɑ mmɑ m m ‘ t jis,wrel eksomɑ ‘ p t on drɑ … – … and forgive us our debts,as we forgive those who sin against us … Anotheroft-seenadverbial clause usesthe verbal adverb,awordderivedfromaverbrootthat allows the speakertomodifyanotherverbbylinkingthe twoactions.  Mutɑ ɑ tɑ t ɑ ‘ tintse m ‘ onoromis. – Walkinginto the room, we (exc.) saw it.  Mu m ɑ k w k somɑ m ‘ ɑ t – Speakingmany languages,we (inc.) cannot understand each other.  Hɑwskrɑ ŋ w k ‘ wm rommɑ ‘ m.– Having killedall his enemies, he became king. §2.3.6.4 Causative Clauses Causative clausesuse the verb u j (push)toindicate thatsomeone orsomethingiscausedorforced intosome actionor state. The objectof the verb is followed bythe accusative particle,whichisinturn followedbyanotherverbwiththe supine particle.  ‘ m mɑ ɑtɑtɑ – My mother made me eat the food.  m ɑ k ɑ p t –The warlord will make you kill a puppy.  Am m m tɑtonnɑtɑissonrɑ – I’m making my son finda job. §2.3.6.5 Word Order Word orderin subordinate clausesisverb second, mostof the time followingwhateverrelativizerwas used.Wordorder followingarelativizerismuchstricter, andonlyallowsforvariationinthe positionof the subjectandobject in a subordinate nounclause. §2.3.7 Possession There are twolevelsof possessionin NærutN :alienable andinalienable.Eachusesadifferent verband isassociatedwithdifferentcase morphology. Alienable possessionisindicatedwiththe verb t t “t ,”but with m t “t p ”) andthe genitive case.Inalienable possessionusesthe verb rojæs t t “t ” t t t t p ssed,and inalienable possessiononlyappliestobodyparts ’ w andfamilymembers,andoften abstract conceptsconnectedtothese things.However,because these are veryfrequentlyreferenced,
22 Brewer these twogrammatical categoriesare robustandunlikelytobe confused.One areawhere thereissome overlapiswithanimals.Petsare veryfrequentlytreatedasinalienable possessions,butlivestockis almostalwaysspokenaboutasbeingalienablypossessed. Also,the word hæs j (house) canonlybe alienablypossessed,whereasthe word (home) canonlyinalienablypossessed.  dɑm t – John’schair (alienable)  m ɑ – John’scat (inalienable)  t t– John’scattle (alienable)  mɑ ɑ – John’s mother (inalienable)  hæsɑt t – John’shouse (alienable)  m ɑ – John’s home (inalienable)  t t – John’sship(alienable)  ɑ - John’sshadow (inalienable)  m t – John’s book (alienable)  w t ɑ- John’s marriage (inalienable) In some caseswhena nounwitha pronominal possessorfallsintoanon-subjectpositioninthe sentence,itcanbe markedin more thanone way:witheitherapossessivepronounorwiththe pronoun witheitheragenitive ordative case particle,dependingonthe alienablilityof the possessed.  The ball hit my head. – ‘ ’ɑ’ m ttupnɑtɑ ‘ ’ɑ’ m ttupis tɑ ɑ  The wall fell onhis bike.– ‘ w w k ɑ mɑ ‘ w w k m t W t p t pt ’ m t t t t particle usedwithinalienablepossessioncan alsomark an indirectobject.Therefore,itisdisallowed withditransitiveverbs.  She sentmy letter. – ‘ m‘ m ɑtɑ * ‘ m‘ m tɑ ɑ §2.3.8 Negation Negative concordisanimportantfeature of NærutN n .Itrequiresthatall constituentsinanoun phrase that are beingnegatedtake anegative form.Failingtoproperlynegateall necessaryconstituents yieldsanungrammatical statement.  I love everyone.– Uljɑ ɑm tɑ tɑ t I don’t love anyone. – Uljɑ ɑm tɑ ɑw  I will be there tomorrow. – m tɑ gædiri. I won’t be there tomorrow. – m tɑ  You (dual) were talking with someone. – ‘ ɑm ‘ ttɑ tɑɑ t You (dual) weren’ttalkingwith anyone. – ‘ ɑm ‘ ttɑ ɑw t  I always work with tools.– t m tɑ ( m t k‘ m k I neverwork with tools. – t m ul tɑ m t k‘ m k
Brewer 23 §2.3.9 Mood There are fourmoodsin Nærut N :indicative,subjunctive,conditional,andimperative. §2.3.9.1 The Indicative Mood The indicative moodisthe unmarkedformof the verb,andis usedinall factual statements. Itisthe mostcommon of the four moods. §2.3.9.2 The Subjunctive Mood The subjunctive moodisusedtomark counter-factual statements,andisobligatoryaftersome verbs, especiallythose thatmarkhopesandwishes.Itisrequiredin the independentclause of aconditional sentence,followingthe conditional moodinthe conditional clause (thoughthere canbe intervening clausesinthe indicative). Anotherimportantuse of the subjunctive isinvolitive sentences,which p w m t t p “ ” Whenusedwiththe conjunctiveparticle ,it indicateswhatthe speakerwishesanotherpersontodo,and isusuallyaccompaniedbythe future tense.  Mɑŋɑ m tɑ ɑ t e. – I hope (that) you (sg.) are happy.  m tɑ ɑ t ‘ hɑ m ɑ t t t – I wishthat he had come here with you (pl.).  Ti dre ste muwo esi gewɑrroltɑotti,wrel ek næ ‘ nærnirek kæ ‘ m ‘ ‘ el l is,wɑ t wo e ol uwun ɑ’ɑtsul ne el drɑruntsul,wrel isunwirɑ ‘ t el.–If as one people speakingthe same language theyhave begunto do this,then nothingthey plan to do will be impossible forthem.  ɑ m‘w – May she live long!  ɑ m tɑ ɑ t nden! – I want you to leave! §2.3.9.3 The Conditional Mood The conditional moodisusedonlyin conditionalclauses,and alwaysinconjunctionwiththe subjunctive ina connectedindependentclause.  t ‘ m tɑ t moj sul. –If I had eaten,I wouldn’tbe hungry.  t ‘ tm tɑ t ‘ ɑm tm –If I’d had time,I wouldhave finishedworking.  Ti ste un’ t ‘ romentsgædiri, t ɑ ‘ m ɑ‘ m – If theysee him tomorrow, they will give him the letter. §2.3.9.4 The Imperative Mood The imperative isusedtogive commands,andisformedbyaddingthe prefix du. Mostimperatives appearin the secondperson,andusually omitpersonmarking.Numbermarkingisalwaysobligatory. Whenusedinthe 1st - and3rd -person,all personmarkingisrequired. Most basic imperativesappearinthe perfective aspect.Whensomeonewishestoreinforceacommand that theyhave alreadygiven,theywill repeatitinthe imperfective. The progressive isusedtoinstruct someone toperformanactionfor a certainamountof time or at a certainpointin time.The inchoative and terminativeserve tocommandsomeone tostoporstart an action.  ‘ !–Go away (pl.)!  gogellɑ tɑ tɑ t –Let me in!
24 Brewer  wen m ‘ –Let’s start eating!  wɑm somɑ ‘ uwot t m t. – Let them think about that for a day. §2.3.10 Honorific Speech
Brewer 25 §2.4 Translations §2.4.1 The Tower of Babel – ik B bel ot Ennedon 11:1-9 1 Tɑ lorenekno uti sej ‘ rorojæ ’ t wɑrisnærnirek oturnærut welɑis. in time pl those loc , past.impfv.have 3 rd p.sg world whole one acc language gen and speech common acc . Now the whole world had one language and a common speech. 2 ‘ ɑm nel jol ‘ tɑti hɑ ‘ɑnel drɑ ‘ sonrɑjol ‘ el ɑ emistɑ inɑrsej urs l while past.prog.go 3 rd p pl person cltpl to east dat , past.pfv.find 3 rd p pl they plain acc in Shinar loc and there As the people movedeastward,they founda plain inShinar and settled ‘ ’ t ‘ past.pfv.settle 3 rd p pl there. 3 ‘ ol ‘ el soronlert l drɑ “ wæ m ‘ t k ekur d rɑsonmoj ‘ el is past.pfv.say 3 rd p pl they each other a , “i p make 1 st p pl brick acc pl and imp bake 1 st p pl they acc They said to each other,“Come,let’smake bricks and bake them m ”‘ bobɑsti jol ‘ el horterek ‘ m k tɑ‘ t sej dominotek,urme ‘ mtɑ ‘ t oo .a v .” pa .i pfv.u 3 rd p pl they brick inst pl in place loc stone gen pl , and tar inst in place loc thoroughly.” They usedbrick insteadof stone,and tar wɑt dot. mortar gen . for mortar. 4 Wɑ ‘ ol ‘ “ horte moj ‘ ne tor drɑ jɑnomis,murojæsi pɑ k is,wrel t n then past.pfv.say 3 rd p pl h y ,”i p build 1 st p pl for rflx dat city acc , have.vbadv tower acc , which.conj.nom subj Then theysaid, “Come,letus buildourselvesa city, with a tower undodɑrjol hɑ rɑ ɑ drɑ ek, ɑt n unældomoj ‘ ɑrune tor drɑ eŋ ɑis;ti lærsul, fut.impfv.climb 3 rd p sg to heaven dat pl , чтобы subj fut.pfv.make 1 st p pl we.inc for rflx dat name acc ; if thus not , that reachesto the heavens,so that we may make a name for ourselves;otherwise wɑnunhertotmoj ‘ ɑru tɑjnl so wis ’ t t ” then fut.pfv.scatter 1 st p pl we.inc across face acc world whole .” we will be scattered over the face of the whole earth.” 5 A ‘ neljol ‘ ɑDemresomt t r jɑnomisur pɑrikis,wrel ‘ ɑmehorte jol ‘ roltɑ but past.pfv.go 3 rd p pl downward Lord see.sup city acc and tower acc , which.conj acc past.prog.build 3 rd p pl person But the Lord came down to see the city and the towerthe people were ti. cltpl . building. 6 ‘ ol ‘ m m “ t m w esi gewɑrroltɑotti,wrel eknæ ‘ nærnirek past.pfv.say 3 rd p pl Lo ,”if h co b .vbadv one person gen cltpl , which.conj pl pres.impfv.speak3 rd p pl language The Lord said, “Ifas one people speakingthe same kæj ‘ m ‘ jol ‘ el l is,wɑnt unwo e ol uwun ɑ’ɑtsul ne el drɑ same inst , past.inch.do 3 rd p pl they this acc , then subj fut.impfv.be 3 rd p.sg actpart.fut.impfv.able.neg for they dat language they have begunto do this, then runtsul,wrel isunwirɑnjol ‘ jot el. what.neg , which.conj acc fut.impfv.plan 3 rd p pl do inf they . nothingthey plan to do will be impossible forthem.
26 Brewer 7 D nel moj ‘ ɑur d mentsomoj ‘ ærnireknɑ elɑis, ɑt nuntsosomɑ el jol‘ imp go 1 st p pl downward and imp.confuse 1 st p pl language their acc , чтобы subj fut.impfv.understand 3 rd p pl Come,letus go down and confuse theirlanguage so theywill not understand sul el soronlert l ” neg they each other acc .” each other.” 8 Lɑ ‘ t tjol ‘ mresom elis ress l tɑ ’ t ‘ ɑhorte jol ‘ el therefore past.pfv.scatter 3 rd p pl Lord they acc from.there acrossworld whole acc and past.term.build 3 rd p pl they So the Lord scattered them from there over all the earth, and they stoppedbuilding jɑnomis. city acc the city. 9 No uo e ol tedor,nɑ ‘ momɑsenjol ‘ elorom “Bɑ ”– ne no udrɑ, nɑj s l that pres.impfv.be 3 rd p.sg reason , that.conj past.impfv.call 3 rd p pl they it acc “Bab l” – for that dat , that.conj there That is why it was calledBabel – because there ‘ mentsojol ‘ m m æ k ’ t jot. ress ‘ t tjol ‘ Demresom el past.pfv.confuse 3 rd p pl Lord language acc world whole gen . from.there past.pfv.scatter 3 rd p pl Lord they the Lord confusedthe language of the whole world.From there the Lord scattered them istɑ l sowis ’ t jot. acc across face acc world whole gen . over the face of the whole earth. §2.4.2 The Poem of the Ring – e i onol k ot Mitɑ t k ne mɑ w k ɑ ek ine three.nom ring gen pl for king pl Elf dat pl under sky loc , Three Rings for the Elven-kingsunderthe sky, w tɑ ne demresekDwɑ ɑ ektɑ tome jekdominjob eknɑ elɑ ek, seven.nom for lord pl Dwarf dat pl in home pl stony pl their loc pl , Sevenfor the Dwarf-lordsin theirhalls of stone, Hojnɑ ne Arrɑm k m ɑ ek,wrel eksudɑ ŋ m nine.nom for man pl mortal dat pl , which.conj.nom pl doom 3p.pass die sup Nine for Mortal Mendoomed to die, Gewɑ ne m m ɑ mɑ ɑm t m ɑ mɑ One.nom for Lord Dark dat on throne dark his loc One for the Dark Lord on his dark throne Tɑ t t ‘ k in land loc Mordor gen , where lie 3 rd pl shadow.nom pl . In the Land of Mordor where the Shadows lie. Gewɑ t m wɑ t ɑ One.nom Ring get rule sup all acc they par , One.nom Ring gen find sup they acc , One Ring to rule them all,One Ring to findthem, Gewɑ t m tɑ t m m One.nom Ring gen bring sup all acc they par and in darkness loc bind sup they acc , One Ring to bring themall, and in the darknessbind them, Tɑ æsitsej Mor t ‘ k in land loc Mordor gen , where lie 3 rd pl shadow pl . In the Land of Mordor where the Shadows lie.
Brewer 27 § e o e – imin on em e ot Dɑ ɑ onɑ w k ‘ tɑrɑ ɑ Father.nom our.exc , which.conj.nom pl be 3 rd p pl in heaven loc , Our Father, who art in heaven, t ŋ ɑ ɑt ɑ holy subj be 3 rd p name.nom your.pl.nom hallowedbe thy name. ɑ mɑ w ɑt ɑ subj come 3 rd p kingdom.nom your.nom . Thy kingdom com. ŋ ɑ k ɑt ɑ k subj do 3 rd p.pass wish.nom pl your.nom pl Thy will be done od monersej kæjrur,nɑ ŋ tɑ rɑ ɑ on earth loc same.adv, that do 3 rd p.pass in heaven loc . on earth as it isin heaven. ɑ‘ on drɑ ɑw k kt m ɑ onɑ imp give pl we.exc dat today bread daily our.exc acc , Give us thisday our daily bread, mmɑ m ‘ onisɑ w k ɑ onɑ t k and imp forgive pl we.exc acc sin pl our.exc gen pl , and forgive us our trespasses kæjrurnɑ mmɑ m m ‘ t w k mɑ ‘ p t ondrɑ same.adv that forgive 1 st p pl those acc , which.conj.nom pl sin 3 rd p pl against we.exc dat , as we forgive those who trespass against us, w ‘ ul onis tɑ wilsdondrɑ i p l pl . xc in temptation dat , and lead us not into temptation t wɑ ‘ onis sowot. but/rather imp free pl we.exc acc from evil gen . but deliverus from evil. ol. subj thus be 3 rd p . Amen. §2.4.4 The Universal Declaration of Human Rights: Article One – el ol nn ti ob e b ot ek olt ot ti le t -het ɑm jol ‘ tɑ t m w wɑ k m ‘ m ɑ ‘ mek. pres.impfv.be.born 3 rd p pl all.nom person par cltpl be.vbadv free.nom and equal.nom dignity inst and right inst pl. All human beingsare born free and equal in dignityand rights. mɑt ‘ ɑ ɑwt w t ɑwt wis,ur jol ‘ æsrisotsoron pres.impfv.possess 3 rd p pl they.nom reason acc and conscience acc , and pres.impfv.be.obliged 3 rd p pl act inf each.nom They are endowedwithreason and conscience and should act towards one t drɑ ‘ m ossɑot. other dat spirit inst brotherhood gen . another in a spirit of brotherhood.
28 Brewer §2.4.5 e t o t e i t t – Besrek So ot ek ot Am t ŋ ɑŋ tɑ t ɑm ɑtɑ; pres.prog.rflx.gather.3 rd p sg night.nom and in hour this loc pres.prog.begin 3 rd p.sg watch.nom my.nom ; Night gathersand now my watch begins Unrorɑ m m ɑtɑdrɑ fut.impfv.end 3 rd p.sg neg it.nom until death my dat . It shall not enduntil my death Un o m tɑ ɑ ɑ t t fut.impfv.wed 1 st p.sg neg I.nom wife which.neg com , I shall take no wife Un o mɑtm w k t k t tɑ ɑ m w k t k fut.impfv.possess 1 st p.sg neg land pl which.neg acc pl , fut.impfv.father 1 st p.sg neg child pl which.neg acc pl ; Hold no lands, fatherno children Unt t ’ ’ m tɑ mɑ m k t k sro km t ɑ ɑm k t fut.impfv.rflx.wear 1 st p.sg neg I.nom crown pl which.neg acc pl and fut.impfv.win 1 st p.sg neg for rflx dat glory which.neg acc , I shall wear no crowns and win no glory Unhohæsɑt nelomormoj tɑ m w ɑtɑsej. fut.impfv.live and fut. pfv.die 1 st p.sg I.nom , stand.vbadv on assignment my acc . I shall live and die at my post ɑ esmoj ri ɑ tɑt m m I.nom pres.impfv.be 1 st p.sg sword.nom in darkness loc , I am the sword in the darkness ɑ m ŋ k I.nom pres.impfv.be 1 st p.sg on wall loc pl , I am the watcher on the walls Tɑ m ɑŋ ,wr tɑ ɑŋ p t nlejemodrɑ I.nom pres.impfv.be 1 st p.sg fire.nom , which.conj.nom pres.impfv.burn 3 rd p.sg against cold dat , I am the fire that burns against the cold A w ‘ɑ ɑŋ t light.nom , which.conj.nom pres.impfv.herald 3 rd p.sg sunrise gen , the lightthat bringsthe dawn ‘A k w t m k horn.nom , which.conj.nom pres.impfv.wake 3 rd p.sg sleeper acc pl , the horn that wakes the sleepers Sosrek,wrel so ol elhusisek roltɑ t t . shield.nom , which.conj.nom pres.impfv.guard 3 rd p.sg realm acc pl person gen cltpl . the shieldthat guards the realmsof men ’ m tɑ ŋ ɑ k ɑŋ t hæsɑtw turto nɑtɑ is pres.impfv.pledge 1 st p.sg I.nom Guard dat pl Night gen life and honor my acc I pledge my life and honor to the Night'sWatch ɑ ɑŋ l ishɑŋ k wɑm w k through night this acc and all acc night pl actpart.pres.prog.remain par pl yet . for this night and all the nights to come.
Brewer 29 §2.4.6 The Litany Against Fear – e el ol p ot b nt lp it ŋm tɑ w w t t t m. pres.impfv.ought 1 st p.sg neg I.nom feel inf fear inst . I must not fear. t t ol skrɑ ɑ t fear.nom pres.impfv.be 3 rd p.sg killer.nom mind gen . Fear is the mind-killer. t t m p t w ‘ɑ t w tɑ t fear.nom pres.impfv.be 3 rd p.sg death.nom little.nom , which.conj.nom pres.impfv.herald 3 rd p.sg annihilation complete gen . Fear is the little-deaththat bringstotal obliteration. Undɑ mm tɑ ɑ ɑ t t ɑtɑdrɑ fut.pfv.turn 1 st p.sg I.nom toward fear mydat . I will face my fear. Ungellɑ m tɑ ɑ t k ŋ tɑ tɑ fut.pfv.allow 1 st p.sg I.nom , that.conj subj fut.pfv.pass.over and fut.pfv.through.move 3 rd p.sg through I acc . I will permit it to pass over me and through me. p ŋ m wɑ tomlɑ m tɑtɑ ɑ t ɑ t t ŋ ɑ ɑ and when fut.pfv.move.past 3 rd p.sg it.nom , the.conj fut.pfv.look 1 st p.sg I.nom inward rflx dat see.sup wayits acc . And whenit has gone past I will turn the innereye to see its path. p ŋ t t w ol sul runtsul. there , where fut.pfv.move.past 3 rd p.sg fear.nom , fut.impfv.be 3 rd p.sg neg what.neg.nom . Where the fear has gone there will be nothing. t w m tɑ alone.adv fut.impfv.remain 1 st p.sg I.nom . Only I will remain.
30 Brewer Chapter 3: Migrationand Evolution §3.1 Fictional Setting §3.1.1 Linguistic Expansion NærutN anditsdescendantsare spokenona worldcalled Arnij inthe motherlanguage.The homelandof the language familyis centeredaroundthe portcityof u i j o i(GreatWaters),along the river i . The speakersof the language call themselvesthe l i,ano w “ ”w comesfromthe strongnautical traditionintheirculture.Itwasthistradition,alongwiththeirincredible militaryprowess,thatledtothe expansionof theirterritoryandthe foundationof their extensive empire. The area withinthe isoglossrepresentsthe originalareawhere NærutN wasthe predominantspokenlanguage. Thiswasnosmall areato beginwith,owingtothe fact that evenbefore it became the native language of thiszone,itwasa powerful trade language. Overtime,political expansionsspreadthe use of the language tothe northand the south, leadingtodialectdifferentiation.Later,asthe differencesinthe local speechbecame more pronounced, local standardswere established.The lingua franca of the empire remained NærutN ,thoughin each areathe local accentaffectedhowitwaspronounced.
Brewer 31 In the northand south,the dialectscame to be knownbytheir locationrelative tothe original homeland:nærutotmjóv (northernspeech) and nærütjul ób (southernspeech).Inthe environs surrounding u i j o i,the spokenlanguage startedtobe called Tifejóf,afterthe riveradjacentto the city.In all three areasalongthe formingdialectcontinuum, the olderspeechcame tobe called N b xé(lit.ourold).The pronunciationof the name variedaccordingtolocal pronunciation,butit reflectsthe soundchangesnative tothe areaaroundthe homeland.
32 Brewer §3.1.2 The Growth of an Empire Thislinguisticexpansionaccompaniedthe creationof avast empire.Thisempirewasdivided intothree large administrative unitsthatroughlycorrespondtothe boundariesof the three major dialectgroups,thoughnotprecisely.
Brewer 33 Chapter 4: Nærut Otmjóv – The Speech of the North §4.1 Phonological Changes 1. Cʰ  [ t ]  [ ] tɑ  ɑ t  2. Vᴮ  VF ˈ_C C i,j;[ɑɑ ]  [ ɛ ɛ]; verbal personendingsare affectedin the plural because of theirsecondarystress; (  ɑ  hænhili,ofe ’i  ofe ø ’ ) 3. Vʊ  VF ˈ_C(C)i,j;[ɑʊ ɑʊ ʊ ʊ æʊ ʊeʊ ʊ iʊ ʊ]  [æy ɛy ɛy ey yiy y] (ɑw  w mɑ øydimɑ 4. Vː[j ʊ]  V[j ʊ] / _C, _#; [ɑ ɑʊ ʊ j ʊ ʊ ʊ ]  [ɑ ɑʊ ʊ æj æʊ ej eʊiʊ æyøy] (tun  tunojd) 5. ʔ  #_ ‘ m m ‘ mmɑ hidemmɑ ‘ t  hontel) 6. ʔ  Ø / non- t w ’ɑ fweɑ ’ t  t ’ m  nejidem) 7. Unstressed Vᶫ(C)# ə(C)#;[ɑ ]  [ə] (fweɑ fweə,wossɑ wossə,sulæ  sulə,tɑ tə, ɑ  ə) 8. i#  ɪ#; (demjøli demjølɪ ŋ  ŋ ɪ) 9. ɑʊ  oː; (fenɑ ɑ ɑ  w ɑ w 10. ɑ  ɑː; ( ɑ  ɑ ɑ  runɑ m ɑ  menɑ ɑ  nɑ 11. Levelingof new[oːɑː] throughoutnominal,pronominal,adjectival,andverbal paradigms. 12. ˈVC(C)Vː VC C ˈVː ˈ  feˈn ˈ t  roˈt ˈ t  ˈt 13. VːC C ˈV  ˈVːC(C)V;(usuallyoccurswithverbal prefixes) 14. VːC C ˈVC C Vː ˈVːC(C)VC(C)Vː;(rare;usuallyoccurswithverbal prefixes) 15. V[l ʎr m n ɲ ŋ]#  [ m ŋ]#  lezń,gwɑ m gwɑ ,ɑ ɑm ɑ , hɑ  hɑ ľ ŋ ozŋ m ŋ  m ŋ) 16. Levelingof syllabicsonorantstothe oblique cases;(ɑ  ɑ ɑm ɑ ɑm  ɑ is, ɑ lo)
34 Brewer 17. [b d g]  [vð ɣ] / V_V,L_V, V_L; except[d] / [l n]_, [ ] [m]_ [ ] [ŋ]_;(rodi  roði,gwɑ  gwɑ ,reldus  reldus) 18. V  V C V  C V wɑ  gwɑ ŕm, gwɑ is gwɑ ŕmis) 19. Levelingof voicedand/orlenited consonantsfromobliqueformstothe root;(sonrɑ t hejð ɑ t zonrɑ t m t hejð ðemot ðemot,d d d ðis d ð) 20. Levelingof root-final fricativesthatcome fromformeraspiratedstops tothe nominative case or verbroot; (bist  bisþis bisþ,hertot hertoþmoj  hertoþ) 21. Whena non-initial fricativeprecedesastop,the stopislenited andassimilated,becoming identical tothe fricative.Thiscreatesageminate;(bist  biss,bæsti  bæssi,xrezg  xrezz ,xrestə xressə) 22. Final consonantsdevoice;(ð ð ð þ,sor ð þ  t ð þ,wɑþ ð wɑþ þ,tunojð tunojþ t nd t t) 23. ə#  Ø# (monosyllablesexcepted);(fweə fwe,rɑ ə rɑ ,wossə  woss,xettə xett, xressə xress,roltə t ŋ ə ŋ ə hex, þ ə þ m ə gemx,sixxə sixx, nɑ þə nɑ þ,nɑðenə nɑðen,lunə lun,hiðem hiðemmə hiðemm, sulə ɑðə ɑð ɲə  ɲ,howmə howm, itenə iten,ælə m mmə  mm ðimə øyðim) 24. #uː  #wu, #iː  # mŕn wumŕ ɑ ń  jirɑ ń) 25. VrlV  VrrV,VlrV  VllV;(tarlń tarrń,holrex  hollex) 26. (r)rVr (l)lVr;(rɑ m  lɑ m t  t 27. #wr  #r; (wrel  rel) 28. ʎ  lj, ɲ  nj; (þæle  þælje,enneðń ennjeðń) 29. ɪ#  Ø#; (ðemjølɪ  ðemjøl, ŋ ɪ  ŋŕ) §4.2 Phonological Inventory § 4.2.1 Consonants Bilabial Lab. Den. Interdental Dental Post-Alveolar Palatal Velar Glottal Plosive p[ː] b[ː] t[ː]d[ː] k[ː] ɡ[ː] Nasal m[ː] m n[ː] ŋ[ː] ŋ Fricative f[ː] v[ː] [ː] ð[ː] s[ː] z ʃ[ː] ʒ x[ː] ɣ[ː] h Affricate tʃ[ː] dʒ[ː] Tap ɾ [r] Approximant w[ː] j[ː] Lat. Approx. l[ː] § 4.2.2 Vowels: Monophthongs Front Central Back High i[ː] y[ː] u[ː] High-Mid e[ː] ø[ː] o[ː] Low-Mid ɛ[ː] ə Low æ[ː] ɑ[ː]
Brewer 35 § 4.2.3 Vowels: Diphthongs oj oʊ uj æj æʊej eʊ iʊ æyøj øy ɛj ɛy eyiy § 4.2.4 Orthography Symbol IPA A ɑ ɑ O o o U u u Æ æ æ E e e I i i ɑ ə Ё ɛ Ø ø ø Y y y P p p B b b Symbol IPA T t t D d d K k k G g g M m m N n n Ŋ ŋ ŋ F f f V v v Þ þ Đ ð ð S s s Symbol IPA Z z z ʃ ʒ X x x ɣ H h h tʃ dʒ R r r W w w J j j L l l  Long vowelsare indicatedby placinganacute accent(´) overthe vowel grapheme.  Long consonantsare indicatedbya doublingof the consonant grapheme.  Syllabicresonantsare indicatedbyplacing anacute accent overthe grapheme forthe consonant (e.g.n  ń, m  ,l  ľ). §4.3 Morphology §4.3.1 Grammatical Endings – Nominal, Pronominal and Adjectival Case Singular Plural Collective Plural Nominative Ø ek þ Accusative is izek isþ Genitive oþ (N) / ot (PN) oþek oþþ Partitive lo / ro lowek / rowek loþ / roþ Dative ðŕ / dŕ / zŕ ðrek / drek / zrek ðrɑþ / drɑþ / zrɑþ Locative sej / psej / tsej / ksej / zej sejek/ psejek / tsejek / ksejek / zejek sejþ / psejþ / tsejþ / ksejþ / zejþ Instrumental (e)m / (e)mek (e)mþ Comitative (e)nts (e)ntsek (e)ntsþ  While in NærutN the endingwasonlyattachedtothe final constituentof anoun phrase unlessmarkedforemphasis,in NærutOtmjóvall constituentsare marked.Overtime,the
36 Brewer meaningof multiple-constituentmarkingweakenedtothe pointthatitheldnospecial meaning, insteadonlyservingtotie eachnounphrase together.  The accusative case endings cantriggerfrontingof the rootvowel inmonosyllabicroots.  If the partitive endingfollowsarootendingin[r] or [ ],the initial [l] assimilates,producing{-ro}. §4.3.2 Pronominal Morphology Singular 1st Singular 2nd Singular 3rd Sing. Masc. 3rd Sing. Fem. 3rd Sing. Neu. Nominative þó den rom ær or Accusative þæ s denjis rømis ærmis ormis Genitive þót denot romot ærmot ormot Partitive þólo denlo romlo ær lo or lo Dative þóðŕ dendŕ romðŕ ær ðŕ or ðŕ Locative þózej dentsej rompsej ær psej or psej Instrumental þóm den romem ærmem ormem Comitative þówents denjents roments ærments orments Dual 1st Dual Inclusive 1st Dual Exclusive 2nd Dual 3rd Dual Nominative mor xett d þ Accusative w møris xettɑ d ðis Genitive w t morot xettɑ t d ðot Partitive morro xettɑ d ðlo Dative ðŕ morðŕ xettɑðŕ d ddŕ Locative morzej xettɑzej d tsej Instrumental m mor xettɑm d ð Comitative w t morents xettɑ t d ðents Plural 1st Plural Inclusive 1st Plural Exclusive 2nd Plural 3rd Plural Nominative nɑru on þælje el Accusative nɑ uwis ønis þæljejis eljis Genitive nɑ wot onot þæljejot elot Partitive nɑrulo onlo þæljelo ello Dative nɑ ðŕ ondŕ þæljeðŕ dŕ Locative nɑruzej ontsej þæljezej elzej Instrumental nɑ m on þæl el Comitative nɑ wents onents þæljejents eljents
Brewer 37 §4.3.3 Nominal and Adjectival Morphology ɑ – man Singular Plural Collective Plural Nominative ɑ ɑ mek ɑ þ Accusative ɑ mis ɑ mizek ɑ misþ Genitive ɑ moþ ɑ moþek ɑ moþþ Partitive ɑ lo ɑ lowek ɑ loþ Dative ɑ ðŕ ɑ ðrek ɑ ðrɑþ Locative ɑ psej ɑ psejek ɑ psejþ Instrumental ɑ mem ɑ memek ɑ memþ Comitative ɑ ments ɑ mentsek ɑ mentsþ dunoj – ceiling Singular Plural Collective Plural Nominative dunoj dunojek dunojþ Accusative dunojis dunojizek dunojisþ Genitive dunojoþ dunojoþek dunojoþþ Partitive dunojlo dunojlowek dunojloþ Dative dunojðŕ dunojðrek dunojðrɑþ Locative dunojzej dunojzejek dunojzejþ Instrumental dunojm dunojmek dunojmþ Comitative dunojents dunojentsek dunojentsþ bisþ– hour Singular Plural Collective Plural Nominative bisþ bisþek bisþþ Accusative bisþis bisþizek bisþisþ Genitive bisþoþ bisþoþek bisþoþþ Partitive bisþlo bisþlowek bisþloþ Dative bizzŕ bizzrek bizzrɑþ Locative bissej bissejek bissejþ Instrumental bisþ bisþmek bisþ þ Comitative bisþents bisþentsek bisþentsþ ɑ – cup Singular Plural Collective Plural Nominative ɑ ɑ k ɑheþ Accusative ɑ ɑ zek ɑhejisþ Genitive ɑ þ ɑ þek ɑ joþþ Partitive ɑ ɑhelowek ɑ þ Dative ɑ ðŕ ɑheðrek ɑ ð ɑþ Locative ɑhezej ɑ zejek ɑ zejþ Instrumental ɑhem ɑhemek ɑ mþ Comitative ɑhejents ɑhejentsek ɑ jentsþ
38 Brewer §4.3.4 Verbal Affixes and Particles Non-finite Forms–  Active Infinitive:-ot/ -jot/ -wot  Passive Infinitive:-su/ -zu  Supine:- - -  Imperfective Verbal Adverb:mu- / muw- (+ possible final voicingof fricatives andumlauteffectsinsingle- syllable roots)  Perfective Verbal Adverb:hó- / hów- (+ possible finalvoicingof fricativesand umlauteffectsinsingle-syllable roots) PersonSuffixes–  1st PersonSingular,Active: -moj  2nd PersonSingular, Active:-æn/ -ń  3rd PersonSingular, Active:-jľ/ -ľ  1st PersonDual/Plural, Active:-møj  2nd PersonDual/Plural, Active:- n  3rd PersonDual/Plural, Active: -jøl /-øl  1st Person,Passive:- / -  2nd Person,Passive:-owe  3rd Person,Passive:-ŋ Tense Prefixes–  Present:Ø-  Past: hej-  Future: un- / Ø- Superaspectual Prefixes –  Imperfective:Ø- (present)/ [C]o- /lo- / ho- / o- / w- / u- (pastand future)  Perfective:Ø-  Progressive:ɑm - Subaspectual Prefixes–  Inchoative:-en(n)- /-en(n)j-  Terminative:-rɑ- / -lɑ-  Momentane:- ew-  Semeliterative:-mɑ -/-mɑ -  Durative o Short: -læs- o Long: - es-  Protractive: -led- /-leð-  Habitual: -jis- /- -  Conative o Neutral:-zos- o Negative:-wil(j)- o Positive:-rem-  Reversionary:-fɑ - Moods –  Indicative:Ø  Conditional:tiste  Subjunctive:þæn  Imperative: - (+ n)  Third-personverbal suffixestriggerjod coalescenceinverbswhose rootsendin[sz t d].  Monosyllabicverbrootsexperience frontingof the rootvowel inthe thirdperson,unless affectedby jod coalescence.  The properorder of prefix affixationin(Imperative)-Tense-Superaspect-Subaspect-Root.  The inchoative andterminativehave beenreanalyzed assubaspects, reducingthe superaspectual categoriestothe imperfective,perfective,andprogressive.  The momentane andsemeliterativesubaspectsonlyappearinthe perfective andprogressive superaspectsandthe perfectivehabitualonly appearsinthe past.  Whena verb rootbeginswiththe phoneme /r/,thatphoneme morphsinto/l/inthe negative conative andreversionarysubaspectsdue tothe progressiveassimilationphenomenonthese soundsexperience whenadjacentto eachother.Conversely,whensuchverbstake the terminative orsemeliterative subaspectual markers,theychange from{-rɑ-}to{- ɑ-} and{- mɑ -} to{-mɑ -},respectively, due todissimilatoryeffects. Thisalsocauses the perfective
Brewer 39 superaspectual markertobecome {lo-} whenitappearsonitsown,withoutanysubaspect,or whenitappearswiththe positive conativemarkerbefore verbrootsbeginningwith/l/.  Vowel initial rootsyield{u-} inthe imperfectivesuperaspectbefore subaspectsthatare consonant-initialand{w-} before thosethatare vowel-initial. Rootsthatusedtohave an initial glottal stop/ʔ/nowtake {ho-} inthe neutral subaspectof the future,and{o-} inall othercases.  Onlythe {w-} and{o-} formsof the imperfective superaspectual markerare productive innewly formedwords.  Of the fourmoods,the conditional andsubjunctive are markedby separate wordsand the mp t t p -},withthe indicativebeingthe unmarkedformof the verb. §4.3.5 Verbal Morphology VerbRoot– reldus- (tosay) (This tablerepresentsthe indicativemood.Othermoodsareindicated through theuseof their prefixes.) Infinitive: relduzot Supine: relduz Imperfective Verbal Adverb: murelduz Perfective Verbal Adverb: hórelduz Past Present Future Active Voice Imperfective Superaspect Neutral (speak) 1st Person Sing. hejrorelduzmoj relduzmoj unrorelduzmoj 2nd Person Sing. hejrorelduzń relduzń unrorelduzń 3rd Person Sing. hejroreldu ľ reldu ľ unroreldu ľ 1st Person D & P hejrorelduzmøj relduzmøj unrorelduzmøj 2nd Person D &P hejrorelduz n relduz n unrorelduz n 3rd Person D & P hejroreldu øl reldu øl unroreldu øl Inchoative (start speaking) 1st Person Sing. hejrowenrelduzmoj enrelduzmoj unrowenrelduzmoj 2nd Person Sing. hejrowenrelduzń enrelduzń unrowenrelduzń 3rd Person Sing. hejrowenreldu ľ enreldu ľ unrowenreldu ľ 1st Person D & P hejrowenrelduzmøj enrelduzmøj unrowenrelduzmøj 2nd Person D &P hejrowenrelduz n enrelduz n unrowenrelduz n 3rd Person D & P hejrowenreldu øl enreldu øl unrowenreldu øl Terminative (stopspeaking) 1st Person Sing. hejrolɑrelduzmoj lɑrelduzmoj unrolɑrelduzmoj 2nd Person Sing. hejrolɑrelduzń lɑrelduzń unrolɑrelduzń 3rd Person Sing. hejrolɑreldu ľ lɑreldu ľ unrolɑreldu ľ 1st Person D & P hejrolɑrelduzmøj lɑrelduzmøj unrolɑrelduzmøj 2nd Person D &P hejrolɑrelduz n lɑrelduz n unrolɑrelduz n 3rd Person D & P hejrolɑreldu øl lɑreldu øl unrolɑreldu øl Durative, Short (speaka little) 1st Person Sing. hejrolæzrelduzmoj læzrelduzmoj unrolæzrelduzmoj 2nd Person Sing. hejrolæzrelduzń læzrelduzń unrolæzrelduzń 3rd Person Sing. hejrolæzreldu ľ læzreldu ľ unrolæzreldu ľ
40 Brewer 1st Person D & P hejrolæzrelduzmøj læzrelduzmøj unrolæzrelduzmøj 2nd Person D &P hejrolæzrelduz n læzrelduz n unrolæzrelduz n 3rd Person D & P hejrolæzreldu øl læzreldu øl unrolæzreldu øl Durative, Long (speakfor a while) 1st Person Sing. hejro ezrelduzmoj ezrelduzmoj unro ezrelduzmoj 2nd Person Sing. hejro ezrelduzń ezrelduzń unro ezrelduzń 3rd Person Sing. hejro ezreldu ľ ezreldu ľ unro ezreldu ľ 1st Person D & P hejro ezrelduzmøj ezrelduzmøj unro ezrelduzmøj 2nd Person D &P hejro ezrelduz n ezrelduz n unro ezrelduz n 3rd Person D & P hejro ezreldu øl ezreldu øl unro ezreldu øl Protractive (speakon and on) 1st Person Sing. hejroleðrelduzmoj leðrelduzmoj unroleðrelduzmoj 2nd Person Sing. hejroleðrelduzń leðrelduzń unroleðrelduzń 3rd Person Sing. hejroleðreldu ľ leðreldu ľ unroleðreldu ľ 1st Person D & P hejroleðrelduzmøj leðrelduzmøj unroleðrelduzmøj 2nd Person D &P hejroleðrelduz n leðrelduz n unroleðrelduz n 3rd Person D & P hejroleðreldu øl leðreldu øl unroleðreldu øl Habitual (usuallyspeak) 1st Person Sing. herow m jizrelduzmoj unrow m 2nd Person Sing. herow relduzń jizrelduzń unrow relduzń 3rd Person Sing. herow reldu ľ jizreldu ľ unrow reldu ľ 1st Person D & P herow relduzmøj jizrelduzmøj unrow relduzmøj 2nd Person D &P herow relduz n jizrelduz n unrow relduz n 3rd Person D & P herow reldu øl jizreldu øl unrow reldu øl Conative,Neutral (try to speak) 1st Person Sing. hejrozozrelduzmoj zozrelduzmoj unrozozrelduzmoj 2nd Person Sing. hejrozozrelduzń zozrelduzń unrozozrelduzń 3rd Person Sing. hejrozozreldu ľ zozreldu ľ unrozozreldu ľ 1st Person D & P hejrozozrelduzmøj zozrelduzmøj unrozozrelduzmøj 2nd Person D &P hejrozozrelduz n zozrelduz n unrozozrelduz n 3rd Person D & P hejrozozreldu øl zozreldu øl unrozozreldu øl Conative,Negative (try to speak [and fail]) 1st Person Sing. hejrowillelduzmoj willelduzmoj unrowillelduzmoj 2nd Person Sing. hejrowillelduzń willelduzń unrowillelduzń 3rd Person Sing. hejrowilleldu ľ willeldu ľ unrowilleldu ľ 1st Person D & P hejrowillelduzmøj willelduzmøj unrowillelduzmøj 2nd Person D &P hejrowillelduz n willelduz n unrowillelduz n 3rd Person D & P hejrowilleldu øl willeldu øl unrowilleldu øl Conative,Positive (try to speak [and succeed]) 1st Person Sing. hejloremrelduzmoj remrelduzmoj unloremrelduzmoj 2nd Person Sing. hejloremrelduzń remrelduzń unloremrelduzń 3rd Person Sing. hejloremreldu ľ remreldu ľ unloremreldu ľ 1st Person D & P hejloremrelduzmøj remrelduzmøj unloremrelduzmøj 2nd Person D &P hejloremrelduz n remrelduz n unloremrelduz n 3rd Person D & P hejloremreldu øl remreldu øl unloremreldu øl
Brewer 41 Reversionary(‘unsay’) 1st Person Sing. hejrofɑ m fɑ m unrofɑ m 2nd Person Sing. hejrofɑ elduzń fɑ elduzń unrofɑ elduzń 3rd Person Sing. hejrofɑ eldu ľ fɑ eldu ľ unrofɑ eldu ľ 1st Person D & P hejrofɑ relduzmøj fɑ elduzmøj unrofɑ elduzmøj 2nd Person D &P hejrofɑ elduz n fɑ elduz n unrofɑ elduz n 3rd Person D & P hejrofɑ eldu øl fɑ eldu øl unrofɑ eldu øl Perfective Superaspect Neutral (spoke) 1st Person Sing. hejrelduzmoj - unrelduzmoj 2nd Person Sing. hejrelduzń - unrelduzń 3rd Person Sing. hejreldu ľ - unreldu ľ 1st Person D & P hejreldumøj - unrelduzmøj 2nd Person D &P hejrelduz n - unrelduz n 3rd Person D & P hejreldu øl - unreldu øl Inchoative (started to speak) 1st Person Sing. hejenrelduzmoj - unenrelduzmoj 2nd Person Sing. hejenrelduzń - unenrelduzń 3rd Person Sing. hejenreldu ľ - unenreldu ľ 1st Person D & P hejenreldumøj - unenrelduzmøj 2nd Person D &P hejenrelduz n - unenrelduz n 3rd Person D & P hejenreldu øl - unenreldu øl Terminative (stoppedspeaking) 1st Person Sing. hejlɑrelduzmoj - unlɑrelduzmoj 2nd Person Sing. hejlɑrelduzń - unlɑrelduzń 3rd Person Sing. hejlɑreldu ľ - unlɑreldu ľ 1st Person D & P hejlɑreldumøj - unlɑrelduzmøj 2nd Person D &P hejlɑrelduz n - unlɑrelduz n 3rd Person D & P hejlɑreldu øl - unlɑreldu øl Momentane (spoke once) 1st Person Sing. hej ewrelduzmoj - un ewrelduzmoj 2nd Person Sing. hej ewrelduzń - un ewrelduzń 3rd Person Sing. hej ewreldu ľ - un ewreldu ľ 1st Person D & P hej ewreldumøj - un ewrelduzmøj 2nd Person D &P hej ewrelduz n - un ewrelduz n 3rd Person D & P hej ewreldu øl - un ewreldu øl Semeliterative (spoke once more) 1st Person Sing. hejmɑ erelduzmoj - unmɑ erelduzmoj 2nd Person Sing. hejmɑ erelduzń - unmɑlerelduzń 3rd Person Sing. hejmɑlereldu ľ - unmɑ ereldu ľ 1st Person D & P hejmɑ ereldumøj - unmɑ erelduzmøj 2nd Person D &P hejmɑ erelduz n - unmɑ erelduz n 3rd Person D & P hejmɑ ereldu øl - unmɑ ereldu øl Durative, Short (spoke a little) 1st Person Sing. hejlæzrelduzmoj - unlæzrelduzmoj
42 Brewer 2nd Person Sing. hejlæzrelduzń - unlæzrelduzń 3rd Person Sing. hejlæzreldu ľ - unlæzreldu ľ 1st Person D & P hejlæzreldumøj - unlæzrelduzmøj 2nd Person D &P hejlæzrelduz n - unlæzrelduz n 3rd Person D & P hejlæzreldu øl - unlæzreldu øl Durative, Long (spoke for a while) 1st Person Sing. hej ezrelduzmoj - un ezrelduzmoj 2nd Person Sing. hej ezrelduzń - un ezrelduzń 3rd Person Sing. hej ezreldu ľ - un ezreldu ľ 1st Person D & P hej ezreldumøj - un ezrelduzmøj 2nd Person D &P hej ezrelduz n - un ezrelduz n 3rd Person D & P hej ezreldu øl - un ezreldu øl Protractive (spoke on and on) 1st Person Sing. hejleðrelduzmoj - unleðrelduzmoj 2nd Person Sing. hejleðrelduzń - unleðrelduzń 3rd Person Sing. hejleðreldu ľ - unleðreldu ľ 1st Person D & P hejleðreldumøj - unleðrelduzmøj 2nd Person D &P hejleðrelduz n - unleðrelduz n 3rd Person D & P hejleðreldu øl - unleðreldu øl Habitual (usedto speak) 1st Person Sing. hej relduzmoj - - 2nd Person Sing. hej relduzń - - 3rd Person Sing. hej reldu ľ - - 1st Person D & P hej reldumøj - - 2nd Person D &P hej relduz n - - 3rd Person D & P hej reldu øl - - Conative,Neutral (triedto speak) 1st Person Sing. hejzozrelduzmoj - unzozrelduzmoj 2nd Person Sing. hejzozrelduzń - unzozrelduzń 3rd Person Sing. hejzozreldu ľ - unzozreldu ľ 1st Person D & P hejzozreldumøj - unzozrelduzmøj 2nd Person D &P hejzozrelduz n - unzozrelduz n 3rd Person D & P hejzozreldu øl - unzozreldu øl Conative,Negative (triedto speak [and fail]) 1st Person Sing. hejwillelduzmoj - unwillelduzmoj 2nd Person Sing. hejwillelduzń - unwillelduzń 3rd Person Sing. hejwilleldu ľ - unwilleldu ľ 1st Person D & P hejwilleldumøj - unwillelduzmøj 2nd Person D &P hejwillelduz n - unwillelduz n 3rd Person D & P hejwilleldu øl - unwilleldu øl Conative,Positive (triedto speak[and succeed]) 1st Person Sing. hejremrelduzmoj - unremrelduzmoj 2nd Person Sing. hejremrelduzń - unremrelduzń 3rd Person Sing. hejremreldu ľ - unremreldu ľ 1st Person D & P hejremreldumøj - unremrelduzmøj
Brewer 43 2nd Person D &P hejremrelduz n - unremrelduz n 3rd Person D & P hejremreldu øl - unremreldu øl Reversionary(‘unsaid’) 1st Person Sing. hejfɑ elduzmoj - unfɑ elduzmoj 2nd Person Sing. hejfɑ elduzń - unfɑ elduzń 3rd Person Sing. hejfɑ eldu ľ - unfɑ eldu ľ 1st Person D & P hejfɑ eldumøj - unfɑ elduzmøj 2nd Person D &P hejfɑ elduz n - unfɑ elduz n 3rd Person D & P hejfɑ eldu øl - unfɑ eldu øl Progressive Superaspect Neutral (be speaking) 1st Person Sing. hejɑm relduzmoj ɑm relduzmoj unɑm relduzmoj 2nd Person Sing. hejɑm relduzń ɑm relduzń unɑm relduzń 3rd Person Sing. hejɑm reldu ľ ɑm reldu ľ unɑm reldu ľ 1st Person D & P hejɑm relduzmøj ɑm relduzmøj unɑm relduzmøj 2nd Person D &P hejɑm relduz n ɑm relduz n unɑm relduz n 3rd Person D & P hejɑm reldu øl ɑm reldu øl unɑm reldu øl Inchoative (be starting to speak) 1st Person Sing. hejɑm jenrelduzmoj ɑm jenrelduzmoj unɑm jenrelduzmoj 2nd Person Sing. hejɑm jenrelduzń ɑm jenrelduzń unɑm jenrelduzń 3rd Person Sing. hejɑm jenreldu ľ ɑm jenreldu ľ unɑm jenreldu ľ 1st Person D & P hejɑm jenrelduzmøj ɑm jenrelduzmøj unɑm jenrelduzmøj 2nd Person D &P hejɑm jenrelduz n ɑm jenrelduz n unɑm jenrelduz n 3rd Person D & P hejɑm jenreldu øl ɑm jenreldu øl unɑm jenreldu øl Terminative (be stoppingspeaking) 1st Person Sing. hejɑm lɑrelduzmoj ɑm lɑrelduzmoj unɑm lɑrelduzmoj 2nd Person Sing. hejɑm lɑrelduzń ɑm lɑrelduzń unɑm lɑrelduzń 3rd Person Sing. hejɑm lɑreldu ľ ɑm lɑreldu ľ unɑm lɑreldu ľ 1st Person D & P hejɑm lɑrelduzmøj ɑm lɑrelduzmøj unɑm lɑrelduzmøj 2nd Person D &P hejɑm lɑrelduz n ɑm lɑrelduz n unɑm lɑrelduz n 3rd Person D & P hejɑm lɑreldu øl ɑm lɑreldu øl unɑm lɑreldu øl Momentane (be speakingonce) 1st Person Sing. hejɑm wrelduzmoj ɑme wrelduzmoj unɑm wrelduzmoj 2nd Person Sing. hejɑm wrelduzń ɑm wrelduzń unɑm wrelduzń 3rd Person Sing. hejɑm wreldu ľ ɑm wreldu ľ unɑm wreldu ľ 1st Person D & P hejɑm wrelduzmøj ɑm wrelduzmøj unɑm wrelduzmøj 2nd Person D &P hejɑm wrelduz n ɑm wrelduz n unɑm wrelduz n 3rd Person D & P hejɑm wreldu øl ɑm wreldu øl unɑm wreldu øl Semeliterative (be repeatingonce) 1st Person Sing. hejɑm mɑ relduzmoj ɑm mɑ relduzmoj unɑm mɑ relduzmoj 2nd Person Sing. hejɑm mɑ relduzń ɑm mɑ relduzń unɑm mɑ relduzń 3rd Person Sing. hejɑm mɑ reldu ľ ɑm mɑ reldu ľ unɑm mɑ reldu ľ 1st Person D & P hejɑm mɑ relduzmøj ɑm mɑ relduzmøj unɑm mɑ relduzmøj 2nd Person D &P hejɑm mɑ relduz n ɑm mɑ relduz n unɑm mɑ relduz n 3rd Person D & P hejɑm mɑ reldu øl ɑm mɑ reldu øl unɑm mɑ reldu øl
44 Brewer Durative, Short (be speakinga little) 1st Person Sing. hejɑm læzrelduzmoj ɑm læzrelduzmoj unɑm læzrelduzmoj 2nd Person Sing. hejɑm læzrelduzń ɑm læzrelduzń unɑm læzrelduzń 3rd Person Sing. hejɑm læzreldu ľ ɑm læzreldu ľ unɑm læzreldu ľ 1st Person D & P hejɑm læzrelduzmøj ɑm læzrelduzmøj unɑm læzrelduzmøj 2nd Person D &P hejɑm læzrelduz n ɑm læzrelduz n unɑm læzrelduz n 3rd Person D & P hejɑm læzreldu øl ɑmelæzreldu øl unɑm læzreldu øl Durative, Long (be speakingfor a while) 1st Person Sing. hejɑm ezrelduzmoj ɑm ezrelduzmoj unɑm ezrelduzmoj 2nd Person Sing. hejɑm ezrelduzń ɑm ezrelduzń unɑm ezrelduzń 3rd Person Sing. hejɑm ezreldu ľ ɑm ezreldu ľ unɑm ezreldu ľ 1st Person D & P hejɑm ezrelduzmøj ɑm ezrelduzmøj unɑm ezrelduzmøj 2nd Person D &P hejɑm ezrelduz n ɑm ezrelduz n unɑm ezrelduz n 3rd Person D & P hejɑm ezreldu øl ɑm ezreldu øl unɑm ezreldu øl Protractive (be speakingon and on) 1st Person Sing. hejɑm leðrelduzmoj ɑm leðrelduzmoj unɑm leðrelduzmoj 2nd Person Sing. hejɑm leðrelduzń ɑm leðrelduzń unɑm leðrelduzń 3rd Person Sing. hejɑm leðreldu ľ ɑm leðreldu ľ unɑm leðreldu ľ 1st Person D & P hejɑmeleðrelduzmøj ɑm leðrelduzmøj unɑm leðrelduzmøj 2nd Person D &P hejɑm leðrelduz n ɑm leðrelduz n unɑm leðrelduz n 3rd Person D & P hejɑm leðreldu øl ɑm leðreldu øl unɑm leðreldu øl Habitual (usuallybe speaking) 1st Person Sing. hejɑm relduzmoj ɑm relduzmoj unɑm relduzmoj 2nd Person Sing. hejɑm relduzń ɑm relduzń unɑm relduzń 3rd Person Sing. hejɑm reldu ľ ɑm reldu ľ unɑm reldu ľ 1st Person D & P hejɑm relduzmøj ɑm relduzmøj unɑm relduzmøj 2nd Person D &P hejɑm relduz n ɑm relduz n unɑm relduz n 3rd Person D & P hejɑm reldu øl ɑm reldu øl unɑm reldu øl Conative,Neutral (be trying to speak) 1st Person Sing. hejɑm zozrelduzmoj ɑm zozrelduzmoj unɑm zozrelduzmoj 2nd Person Sing. hejɑm zozrelduzń ɑm zozrelduzń unɑm zozrelduzń 3rd Person Sing. hejɑm zozreldu ľ ɑm zozreldu ľ unɑm zozreldu ľ 1st Person D & P hejɑm zozrelduzmøj ɑm zozrelduzmøj unɑm zozrelduzmøj 2nd Person D &P hejɑm zozrelduz n ɑm zozrelduz n unɑm zozrelduz n 3rd Person D & P hejɑm zozreldu øl ɑm zozreldu øl unɑm zozreldu øl Conative,Negative (be trying to speak [and failing]) 1st Person Sing. hejɑm willelduzmoj ɑm willelduzmoj unɑm willelduzmoj 2nd Person Sing. hejɑm willelduzń ɑm willelduzń unɑm willrelduzń 3rd Person Sing. hejɑm willeldu ľ ɑm willreldu ľ unɑm willeldu ľ 1st Person D & P hejɑm willelduzmøj ɑm willelduzmøj unɑm willelduzmøj 2nd Person D &P hejɑm willelduz n ɑm willelduz n unɑm willelduz n 3rd Person D & P hejɑm willeldu øl ɑm willeldu øl unɑm willeldu øl Conative,Positive (be trying to speak [and succeeding]) 1st Person Sing. hejɑm remrelduzmoj ɑm remrelduzmoj unɑm remrelduzmoj 2nd Person Sing. hejɑm remrelduzń ɑm remrelduzń unɑm remrelduzń
An Historical Grammar of Nærut Nɑnɑ́rɑ and Its Daughter Languages
An Historical Grammar of Nærut Nɑnɑ́rɑ and Its Daughter Languages
An Historical Grammar of Nærut Nɑnɑ́rɑ and Its Daughter Languages
An Historical Grammar of Nærut Nɑnɑ́rɑ and Its Daughter Languages
An Historical Grammar of Nærut Nɑnɑ́rɑ and Its Daughter Languages
An Historical Grammar of Nærut Nɑnɑ́rɑ and Its Daughter Languages
An Historical Grammar of Nærut Nɑnɑ́rɑ and Its Daughter Languages
An Historical Grammar of Nærut Nɑnɑ́rɑ and Its Daughter Languages
An Historical Grammar of Nærut Nɑnɑ́rɑ and Its Daughter Languages
An Historical Grammar of Nærut Nɑnɑ́rɑ and Its Daughter Languages
An Historical Grammar of Nærut Nɑnɑ́rɑ and Its Daughter Languages
An Historical Grammar of Nærut Nɑnɑ́rɑ and Its Daughter Languages
An Historical Grammar of Nærut Nɑnɑ́rɑ and Its Daughter Languages
An Historical Grammar of Nærut Nɑnɑ́rɑ and Its Daughter Languages
An Historical Grammar of Nærut Nɑnɑ́rɑ and Its Daughter Languages
An Historical Grammar of Nærut Nɑnɑ́rɑ and Its Daughter Languages
An Historical Grammar of Nærut Nɑnɑ́rɑ and Its Daughter Languages
An Historical Grammar of Nærut Nɑnɑ́rɑ and Its Daughter Languages
An Historical Grammar of Nærut Nɑnɑ́rɑ and Its Daughter Languages
An Historical Grammar of Nærut Nɑnɑ́rɑ and Its Daughter Languages
An Historical Grammar of Nærut Nɑnɑ́rɑ and Its Daughter Languages
An Historical Grammar of Nærut Nɑnɑ́rɑ and Its Daughter Languages
An Historical Grammar of Nærut Nɑnɑ́rɑ and Its Daughter Languages
An Historical Grammar of Nærut Nɑnɑ́rɑ and Its Daughter Languages
An Historical Grammar of Nærut Nɑnɑ́rɑ and Its Daughter Languages
An Historical Grammar of Nærut Nɑnɑ́rɑ and Its Daughter Languages
An Historical Grammar of Nærut Nɑnɑ́rɑ and Its Daughter Languages
An Historical Grammar of Nærut Nɑnɑ́rɑ and Its Daughter Languages
An Historical Grammar of Nærut Nɑnɑ́rɑ and Its Daughter Languages
An Historical Grammar of Nærut Nɑnɑ́rɑ and Its Daughter Languages
An Historical Grammar of Nærut Nɑnɑ́rɑ and Its Daughter Languages
An Historical Grammar of Nærut Nɑnɑ́rɑ and Its Daughter Languages
An Historical Grammar of Nærut Nɑnɑ́rɑ and Its Daughter Languages
An Historical Grammar of Nærut Nɑnɑ́rɑ and Its Daughter Languages
An Historical Grammar of Nærut Nɑnɑ́rɑ and Its Daughter Languages
An Historical Grammar of Nærut Nɑnɑ́rɑ and Its Daughter Languages
An Historical Grammar of Nærut Nɑnɑ́rɑ and Its Daughter Languages
An Historical Grammar of Nærut Nɑnɑ́rɑ and Its Daughter Languages
An Historical Grammar of Nærut Nɑnɑ́rɑ and Its Daughter Languages
An Historical Grammar of Nærut Nɑnɑ́rɑ and Its Daughter Languages
An Historical Grammar of Nærut Nɑnɑ́rɑ and Its Daughter Languages
An Historical Grammar of Nærut Nɑnɑ́rɑ and Its Daughter Languages
An Historical Grammar of Nærut Nɑnɑ́rɑ and Its Daughter Languages
An Historical Grammar of Nærut Nɑnɑ́rɑ and Its Daughter Languages
An Historical Grammar of Nærut Nɑnɑ́rɑ and Its Daughter Languages
An Historical Grammar of Nærut Nɑnɑ́rɑ and Its Daughter Languages
An Historical Grammar of Nærut Nɑnɑ́rɑ and Its Daughter Languages
An Historical Grammar of Nærut Nɑnɑ́rɑ and Its Daughter Languages
An Historical Grammar of Nærut Nɑnɑ́rɑ and Its Daughter Languages
An Historical Grammar of Nærut Nɑnɑ́rɑ and Its Daughter Languages
An Historical Grammar of Nærut Nɑnɑ́rɑ and Its Daughter Languages
An Historical Grammar of Nærut Nɑnɑ́rɑ and Its Daughter Languages
An Historical Grammar of Nærut Nɑnɑ́rɑ and Its Daughter Languages
An Historical Grammar of Nærut Nɑnɑ́rɑ and Its Daughter Languages
An Historical Grammar of Nærut Nɑnɑ́rɑ and Its Daughter Languages
An Historical Grammar of Nærut Nɑnɑ́rɑ and Its Daughter Languages
An Historical Grammar of Nærut Nɑnɑ́rɑ and Its Daughter Languages
An Historical Grammar of Nærut Nɑnɑ́rɑ and Its Daughter Languages
An Historical Grammar of Nærut Nɑnɑ́rɑ and Its Daughter Languages
An Historical Grammar of Nærut Nɑnɑ́rɑ and Its Daughter Languages
An Historical Grammar of Nærut Nɑnɑ́rɑ and Its Daughter Languages
An Historical Grammar of Nærut Nɑnɑ́rɑ and Its Daughter Languages
An Historical Grammar of Nærut Nɑnɑ́rɑ and Its Daughter Languages
An Historical Grammar of Nærut Nɑnɑ́rɑ and Its Daughter Languages
An Historical Grammar of Nærut Nɑnɑ́rɑ and Its Daughter Languages
An Historical Grammar of Nærut Nɑnɑ́rɑ and Its Daughter Languages
An Historical Grammar of Nærut Nɑnɑ́rɑ and Its Daughter Languages
An Historical Grammar of Nærut Nɑnɑ́rɑ and Its Daughter Languages
An Historical Grammar of Nærut Nɑnɑ́rɑ and Its Daughter Languages
An Historical Grammar of Nærut Nɑnɑ́rɑ and Its Daughter Languages
An Historical Grammar of Nærut Nɑnɑ́rɑ and Its Daughter Languages
An Historical Grammar of Nærut Nɑnɑ́rɑ and Its Daughter Languages
An Historical Grammar of Nærut Nɑnɑ́rɑ and Its Daughter Languages
An Historical Grammar of Nærut Nɑnɑ́rɑ and Its Daughter Languages
An Historical Grammar of Nærut Nɑnɑ́rɑ and Its Daughter Languages
An Historical Grammar of Nærut Nɑnɑ́rɑ and Its Daughter Languages
An Historical Grammar of Nærut Nɑnɑ́rɑ and Its Daughter Languages
An Historical Grammar of Nærut Nɑnɑ́rɑ and Its Daughter Languages
An Historical Grammar of Nærut Nɑnɑ́rɑ and Its Daughter Languages
An Historical Grammar of Nærut Nɑnɑ́rɑ and Its Daughter Languages

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An Historical Grammar of Nærut Nɑnɑ́rɑ and Its Daughter Languages

  • 1. Scott Brewer Universityof SouthCarolina 8/21/2015 An Historical Grammar of and Its Daughter Languages
  • 2.
  • 3. Brewer i Table of Contents Chapter 1: Phonological Bedrock..........................................................................................................................................1 §1.1 Initial Phonological Inventory................................................................................................................................1 §1.1.1 Consonants.............................................................................................................................................................1 §1.1.2 Vowels: Monophthongs....................................................................................................................................1 §1.1.3 Vowels: Diphthongs............................................................................................................................................1 §1.2 Sound Changes..............................................................................................................................................................1 §1.3 Phonotactics...................................................................................................................................................................2 Chapter 2:The MotherTongue..............................................................................................................................................3 §2.1 Post-Sound Change Phonology: Nærut N n .............................................................................................3 §2.1.1 Consonants.............................................................................................................................................................3 §2.1.2 Vowels: Monophthongs....................................................................................................................................3 §2.1.3 Vowels: Diphthongs............................................................................................................................................3 §2.2 Morphology....................................................................................................................................................................3 §2.2.1 Grammatical Particles – Nominal, Pronominal, and Adjectival......................................................3 §2.2.2 Pronominal Morphology..................................................................................................................................4 §2.2.3 Nominal Morphology.........................................................................................................................................5 §2.2.4 Grammatical Particles and Prefixes – Verbal..........................................................................................6 §2.2.5 Verbal Morphology.............................................................................................................................................7 §2.2.6 Numerals and Fraction Terms.......................................................................................................................9 §2.2.7 Methods of Derivation....................................................................................................................................10 §2.2.8 Honorifics.............................................................................................................................................................15 §2.3 Syntax.............................................................................................................................................................................16 §2.3.1 Basic Sentence Order......................................................................................................................................16 §2.3.2 Interrogatives.....................................................................................................................................................16 §2.3.3 Noun-Phrase Order..........................................................................................................................................18 §2.3.4 Prepositions........................................................................................................................................................18 §2.3.5 Coordination.......................................................................................................................................................18 §2.3.5 Syntactic Focus..................................................................................................................................................19 §2.3.6 Subordinate Clauses........................................................................................................................................19 §2.3.7 Possession ...........................................................................................................................................................21
  • 4. ii Brewer §2.3.8 Negation ...............................................................................................................................................................22 §2.3.9 Mood......................................................................................................................................................................23 §2.3.10 Honorific Speech............................................................................................................................................24 §2.4 Translations ................................................................................................................................................................25 §2.4.1 The Tower of Babel – P ik B bel ot.......................................................................................................25 e oem o t e in – e i onol k ot............................................................................................26 e o e – imin on em e ot .........................................................................................27 §2.4.4 The Universal Declaration of Human Rights: Article ne – el ol nn ti ob e b ot ek olt ot ti le t -het...................................................................................................................................27 e t o t e i t t – Be ek o ot ek ot ....................................................28 §2.4.6 The Litany Against Fear – M e el ol p ot b nt lp it .................................................29 Chapter 3: Migration andEvolution.................................................................................................................................30 §3.1 Fictional Setting.........................................................................................................................................................30 §3.1.1 Linguistic Expansion.......................................................................................................................................30 §3.1.2 The Growth of an Empire..............................................................................................................................32 Chapter 4: Nærut Otmjóv – The Speech of the North................................................................................................33 §4.1 Phonological Changes.............................................................................................................................................33 §4.2 Phonological Inventory..........................................................................................................................................34 § 4.2.1 Consonants.........................................................................................................................................................34 § 4.2.2 Vowels: Monophthongs................................................................................................................................34 § 4.2.3 Vowels: Diphthongs........................................................................................................................................35 § 4.2.4 Orthography ......................................................................................................................................................35 §4.3 Morphology.................................................................................................................................................................35 §4.3.1 Grammatical Endings – Nominal, Pronominal and Adjectival......................................................35 §4.3.2 Pronominal Morphology...............................................................................................................................36 §4.3.3 Nominal and Adjectival Morphology.......................................................................................................37 §4.3.4 Verbal Affixes and Particles.........................................................................................................................38 §4.3.5 Verbal Morphology..........................................................................................................................................39 §4.3.6 Numerals and Fraction Terms....................................................................................................................50 §4.3.7 Methods of Derivation....................................................................................................................................51 §4.3.8 Honorifics.............................................................................................................................................................55 §4.4 Syntax.............................................................................................................................................................................56
  • 5. Brewer iii §4.4.1 Subject Dropping..............................................................................................................................................56 §4.4.2 Basic Sentence Order......................................................................................................................................56 §4.4.3 Syntactic Focus..................................................................................................................................................56 §4.5 Translations ................................................................................................................................................................58 §4.5.1 The Tower of Babel – Pærik B vloþ.........................................................................................................58 e oem o t e in – e i on o ..............................................................................................59 e o e – Þ imin n em e oþ............................................................................................60 e nive l e l tion o m n i t ti le ne – el nn i óv e Fr vo ek olt o le -het ...........................................................................................................................60 e t o t e i t t – Be o o ek o ................................................................61 §4.5.6 The Litany Against Fear – M le el p t b nt l i ........................................................62 Chapter 5: Nærüt Jul ob – The Speech of the South................................................................................................63 §5.1 Phonological Changes.............................................................................................................................................63 §5.2 Phonological Inventory..........................................................................................................................................64 § 5.2.1 Consonants.........................................................................................................................................................64 § 5.2.2 Vowels: Monophthongs................................................................................................................................65 §5.2.3 Vowels: Diphthongs.........................................................................................................................................65 § 5.2.4 Orthography ......................................................................................................................................................65 §5.3 Morphology.................................................................................................................................................................66 §5.3.1 Grammatical Endings – Nominal, Pronominal, and Adjectival.....................................................66 §5.3.2 Pronominal Morphology...............................................................................................................................67 §5.3.3 Nominal and Adjectival Morphology.......................................................................................................69 §5.3.4 The Definite Article..........................................................................................................................................70 §5.3.5 Verbal Affixes.....................................................................................................................................................71 §5.3.6 Verbal Morphology..........................................................................................................................................72 §5.3.7 Numerals and Fraction Terms....................................................................................................................76 §5.3.8 Methods of Derivation....................................................................................................................................76 §5.3.9 Honorifics.............................................................................................................................................................81 §5.4 Syntax.............................................................................................................................................................................82 §5.5 Translations.................................................................................................................................................................83 §5.5.1 The Tower of Babel – P kno B bel t...................................................................................................83 §5.5.2 The Poem of the Ring – e i onolno k tno ..................................................................................84
  • 6. iv Brewer e o e – imin onno em e no............................................................................85 e nive l e l tion o m n i t ti le ne – nn t ob el olno e botek olt ti - et lest..........................................................................................................................86 e t o t e i t t – Be ekno o n ekno otno.......................................86 §5.5.6 The Litany Against Fear – M e el olno p ot b nt lpi tot................................................87 Chapter 6: Tifejóf – The Speechof the Homeland........................................................................................................88 §6.1 Phonological Changes.............................................................................................................................................88 §6.2 Phonological Inventory............................................................................................................................................90 § 6.2.1 Consonants.........................................................................................................................................................90 § 6.2.2 Vowels: Monophthongs................................................................................................................................90 §6.2.3 Vowels: Diphthongs.........................................................................................................................................90 § 6.2.4 Vowels: Nasals..................................................................................................................................................91 § 6.2.5 Orthography ......................................................................................................................................................92 §6.3 Morphology.................................................................................................................................................................92 §6.3.1 Grammatical Endings – Nominal, Pronominal and Adjectival......................................................92 §6.3.2 Pronominal Morphology...............................................................................................................................93 §6.3.3 Nominal Morphology......................................................................................................................................94 §6.3.4 Adjectival Morphology...................................................................................................................................94 §6.3.5 Verbal Affixes.....................................................................................................................................................95 §6.3.6 Verbal Morphology..........................................................................................................................................97 §6.3.7 Numerals and Fraction Terms.................................................................................................................104 §6.3.8 Methods of Derivation.................................................................................................................................105 §6.3.9 Honorifics..........................................................................................................................................................109 §6.4 Syntax..........................................................................................................................................................................110 §6.5 Translations .............................................................................................................................................................111 §6.5.1 The Tower of Babel – Pærek B vl t ....................................................................................................111 e oem o t e in – e i on t ..........................................................................................112 e o e – imin n em e t ...................................................................................113 e nive l e l tion o m n i t ti le ne – el nn t i ó e Fr vot k olt t e le t -het............................................................................................................................113 e t o t e i t t – Be o ot k t ............................................................114 – e it n in t e – e el p tep nt l i ................................................115
  • 7. Brewer v Chapter 7:The Wheel of Fire.............................................................................................................................................116
  • 9. Brewer 1 Chapter 1: PhonologicalBedrock §1.1 Initial Phonological Inventory The phonological startingpointhasbeenkeptrelativelysimple,asitallowsforafew soundchangesto be appliedearlyontothe structure of the language,providingitwithamore realisticcharacter. §1.1.1 Consonants Bilabial Dental Palatal Velar Glottal Plosive p[ː] pʰ[ː] b[ː] t[ː] tʰ[ː] d[ː] k[ː] kʰ[ː] ɡ[ː] ʔ[ː] Nasal m[ː] n[ː] ŋ[ː] Fricative s[ː] h Tap ɾ [r] Approximant w[ː] j[ː] Lat. Approx. l[ː] §1.1.2 Vowels: Monophthongs Front Back High i[ː] u[ː] Mid e o Low æ ɑ[ː] §1.1.3 Vowels: Diphthongs ɑ[ː]j, ɑ[ː]ʊ,oj,oʊ,u[ː]j,æj,æʊ,ej,eʊ,i[ː]ʊ These soundchangesare appliedtoall initial formsof lexical items.Because of the factthatthe syntacticparticlesare overtime beingreanalyzedaspartsof the wordstheymodify,the changesapply across the boundarybetweenwordandparticle. §1.2 Sound Changes 1. s  z / V_V 2. tj  tʃ 3. dj  dʒ 4. Ns  NCVS s (e.g.ens  ents) 5. VF nVF  VF ɲVF (e.g.tene  teɲe) 6. VF lVF  VF ʎVF  ʎæ) 7. sj  ʃ 8. #Vj  #jV 9. ɑː#  ɑw# 10. ʔː  ʔh ˑ 11. Cʰ#  C# 12. V[voicedconsonant]#Vː[voicedconsonant]# 13. VʃV  VʒV
  • 10. 2 Brewer 14. VF V  VF jV 15. VBR V  VBR wV §1.3 Phonotactics 1. [ɲ,ʎ] can onlyoccur betweenfrontvowels. 2. [ɑː] cannot occur wordfinally. 3. [s]  [z] whenintervocalic. 4. [ʃ]  [ʒ] whenintervocalic. 5. Aspiratedstopsdeaspiratewhen word-final. 6. Nasalscannotprecede [s].Anepentheticvoicelessstopmustbe insertedbetweenthe two phonemes. 7. Whena front vowel precedesanothervowel,anepenthetic[j] will be insertedbetween them. 8. Whena back roundedvowel precedesanothervowel,an epenthetic[w] will be inserted betweenthem. 9. Diphthongsof the type [Vj] cannotoccur initially. 10. Vowelsinwordfinal syllablesthatprecede voicedconsonantsare lengthened.Thiscreates longallophonesof [æ,e,o]. 11. All consonantscanbe geminatedexceptfor[h] and [ʔ];[ʔː] hasbecome [ʔh ˑ]. 12. Stressgenerallyfallsonthe firstsyllable of the root. (All of these rulesoperate acrossthe boundariesbetweenwordsandgrammatical particles.)
  • 11. Brewer 3 Chapter 2: The Mother Tongue §2.1 Post-Sound Change Phonology: §2.1.1 Consonants Bilabial Dental Post-Alveolar Palatal Velar Glottal Plosive p[ː] pʰ[ː] b[ː] t[ː] tʰ[ː] d[ː] k[ː] kʰ[ː] ɡ[ː] ʔ ʔh ˑ Nasal m[ː] n[ː] (ɲ[ː]) ŋ[ː] Fricative s[ː] (z) ʃ[ː] (ʒ) h Affricate tʃ[ː] dʒ[ː] Tap ɾ [r] Approximant w[ː] j[ː] Lat. Approx. l[ː] (ʎ[ː]) §2.1.2 Vowels: Monophthongs Front Back High i[ː] u[ː] Mid e(ː) o(ː) Low æ(ː) ɑ[ː] §2.1.3 Vowels: Diphthongs ɑ[ː]j, ɑ[ː]ʊ,o(ː)j,o(ː)ʊ,u[ː]j,æ(ː)j,æ(ː)ʊ,e(ː)j,e(ː)ʊ,i[ː]ʊ §2.2 Morphology §2.2.1 Grammatical Particles – Nominal, Pronominal, and Adjectival Case Particle – Basic Form Function Nominative Ø Subject Accusative is / wis / jis Direct Object Genitive t w t t Possession Partitive lo Part of a Whole Dative drɑ Indirect Object Locative sej / psej / tsej / ksej Location Instrumental ‘em Means/Instrument Comitative ents / wents / jents Together with p p t t t p p t t Case particlesare addedto the final constituentof the nounphrase.As NærutN isaheadinitial language,thismeanstheyare addedto the final adjective ordeterminerthatmodifiesanoun.However, whenemphasisisdesired,the particlescanbe addedtoeveryconstituentof the nounphrase. Pluralizersmustfollow every constituentof anominal phrase.
  • 12. 4 Brewer §2.2.2 Pronominal Morphology Singular 1st Singular 2nd Singular 3rd Sing. Masc. 3rd Sing. Fem. 3rd Sing. Neu. Nominative tɑ den rom ærom orom Accusative tɑ is den is rom is ærom is orom is Genitive tɑ ot den ot rom ot ærom ot orom ot Partitive tɑ lo den lo rom lo ærom lo orom lo Dative tɑ drɑ den drɑ rom drɑ ærom drɑ orom drɑ Locative tɑ sej den tsej rom psej ærom psej orom psej Instrumental tɑ ‘em den ‘em rom ‘em ærom ‘em orom ‘em Comitative tɑ ents den ents rom ents ærom ents orom ents Dual 1st Dual Inclusive 1st Dual Exclusive 2nd Dual 3rd Dual Nominative e o mor ttɑ dæd Accusative e o wis mor is ettɑ is dæd is Genitive e o wot mor ot ttɑ ot dæd ot Partitive e o lo mor lo ttɑ lo dæd lo Dative e o drɑ mor drɑ ttɑ drɑ dæd drɑ Locative e o sej mor sej ttɑ sej dæd sej Instrumental e o ‘em mor ‘em ttɑ ‘em dæd ‘em Comitative e o wents mor ents ttɑents dædents Plural 1st Plural Inclusive 1st Plural Exclusive 2nd Plural 3rd Plural Nominative nɑru on tæle Accusative nɑ wis on is tæle jis is Genitive nɑ wot on ot tæle jot ot Partitive nɑru lo on lo tæle lo lo Dative nɑ drɑ on drɑ tæle drɑ drɑ Locative nɑru sej on tsej tæle sej sej Instrumental nɑ ‘em on ‘em tæle ‘em ‘em Comitative nɑ wents on ents tæle jents ents
  • 13. Brewer 5 §2.2.3 Nominal Morphology ɑ ɑm - man Singular Plural Collective Plural Nominative ɑ ɑm ɑ ɑm ek ɑ ɑm t Accusative ɑ ɑm is ɑ ɑm ek ɑ ɑm t Genitive ɑ ɑm ot ɑ ɑm t ek ɑ ɑm t t Partitive ɑ ɑm lo ɑ ɑm wek ɑ ɑm t Dative ɑ ɑm drɑ ɑ ɑm drɑ ek ɑ ɑm drɑ t Locative ɑ ɑm psej ɑ ɑm p ek ɑ ɑm p t Instrumental ɑ ɑm ‘ m ɑ ɑm ‘ m ek ɑ ɑm ‘ m t Comitative ɑ ɑm ents ɑ ɑm t ek ɑ ɑm t t dunoj – ceiling Singular Plural Collective Plural Nominative dunoj dunoj ek dunoj t Accusative dunoj is dunoj is ek dunoj is t Genitive dunoj ot t ek dunoj ot t Partitive dunoj lo dunoj lo wek dunoj lo t Dative dunoj drɑ dunoj drɑ ek dunoj drɑ t Locative dunoj sej dunoj sej ek dunoj sej t Instrumental dunoj ‘ m ‘ m ek dunoj ‘ m t Comitative dunoj ents dunoj ents ek dunoj ents t t – hour Singular Plural Collective Plural Nominative bist t ek bist t Accusative t is t ek t t Genitive t ot t t ek t t t Partitive t lo t wek t t Dative t drɑ t drɑ ek t drɑ t Locative t sej t ek t t Instrumental t ‘ m t ‘ m ek t ‘ m t Comitative tents t t ek t t t ɑ’ – cup Singular Plural Collective Plural Nominative ɑ’ ɑ’ jek ɑ’ t Accusative ɑ’ jis ɑ’ ek ɑ’ t Genitive ɑ’ jot ɑ’ t ek ɑ’ t t Partitive ɑ’ lo ɑ’ wek ɑ’ t Dative ɑ’ drɑ ɑ’ drɑ ek ɑ’ drɑ t Locative ɑ’ sej ɑ’ ek ɑ’ t Instrumental ɑ’ ‘ m ɑ’ ‘ m ek ɑ’ ‘ m t Comitative ɑ’ jents ɑ’ t ek ɑ’ t t
  • 14. 6 Brewer §2.2.4 Grammatical Particles and Prefixes – Verbal Non-Finite Forms–  Active Infinitive: t t w t  Passive Infinitive:su  Supine:  Imperfective Verbal Adverb:mu- + -i  Perfective Verbal Adverb:hɑw- + -i PersonParticles –  1st Person,Active:moj  2nd Person,Active:æn  3rd Person,Active: jol / ol  1st Person,Passive: em  2nd Person,Passive: ’ ’ w ’  3rd Person,Passive:ŋ  Dual/Plural, Active:‘ Tense Prefixes–  Present:Ø-  Past: ‘ -  Future: un- Aspect Prefixes–  Imperfective:Ø- (present) /[C]o- /w- (pastand future)  Perfective:Ø-  Progressive:ɑm -  Inchoative:en(n)-  Terminative:rɑ- Mood Particles–  Conditional:ste  Subjunctive:t  Imperative:  The 3rd person active particle cantriggerfinal-consonantmutationinverbs,as yod-coalescence iscommon withdental consonants.Verbrootsendinginthe phonemes [tds z] have 3rd person formsthat e t t [tʃ ʒʃ ʒ]. Whenthishappens,the thirdpersonmarkeris reducedto{ol} and the final consonantof the root exhibitsthe mutation.  Infinitive,supine,person,andplural particlesall followthe verbtheymodify.Tense andaspect markersare prefixes,withtensecomingbefore aspect.The moodparticlesare all placedbefore the conjugatedverb.  Whenmore than one verboccurs in sequence,itisextremelycommonforonlythe lasttobe markedwithpersonandnumberparticles.  The imperfectiveaspectismarkedthroughreduplication inthe pastand future tenses. The initial consonant orconsonantclusterof the root isreduplicated,andisthenfollowedbythe vowel /o/. If the root-initial syllable isof the type CCCV,thenonlythe firsttwoconsonants participate inreduplication(skrɑskoskrɑ .If ittakesthe shape Ch CV,thenonlythe aspirated stopappearsin the reduplicatedsyllable  .If the wordbeginswithavowel,then the perfective markerissimply{w-}, fromearlier{o-}.  There isno presentperfective.  The passive voice ismarkedbya separate seriesof personmarkers fromthe active voice,butis not markedfornumber.  Personparticlesare markedwithsecondarystress.  Whena verb rootendinginan alveolartrill [r] appearsinthe supine,the supine particle is phoneticallyreducedto[iː] t t t p p t t m t m  The imperfectiveverbal adverbisusedtoindicate simultaneousactions,whereasthe perfective marks an actionthat has alreadybeencompleted.
  • 15. Brewer 7 §2.2.5 Verbal Morphology VerbRoot:reldus(say) (This tablerepresentsthe indicativemood.Othermoodsareindicated through theuseof their preposed particles.) Infinitive: reldus ot Supine: reldus Imperfective Verbal Adverb: mureldusi Perfective Verbal Adverb: hɑw Active Voice Past Present Future Imperfective 1st Person Sing. ‘ moj reldus moj unroreldus moj 2nd Person Sing. ‘ æn reldus æn unroreldus æn 3rd Person Sing. ‘ roreldu ol reldu ol unroreldu ol 1st Person D & P ‘ roreldus moj ‘ reldus moj ‘ unroreldus moj ‘ 2nd Person D &P ‘ roreldus æn ‘ reldus æn ‘ unroreldus æn ‘ 3rd PersonD & P ‘ roreldu ol ‘ reldu ol ‘ unroreldu ol ‘ Perfective 1st Person Sing. ‘ reldus moj - unreldus moj 2nd Person Sing. ‘ æn - unreldus æn 3rd Person Sing. ‘ reldu ol - unreldu ol 1st Person D & P ‘ reldus moj ‘ - unreldus moj ‘ 2nd Person D &P ‘ reldus æn ‘ - unreldus æn ‘ 3rd PersonD & P ‘ reldu ol ‘ - unreldu ol ‘ Progressive 1st Person Sing. ‘ ɑm reldus moj ɑm reldus moj unɑm reldus moj 2nd Person Sing. ‘ ɑm reldus æn ɑm reldus æn unɑm reldus æn 3rd Person Sing. ‘ ɑm reldu ol ɑm reldu ol unɑm reldu ol 1st Person D & P ‘ ɑm reldusmoj ‘ ɑm reldus moj ‘ unɑm reldus moj ‘ 2nd Person D &P ‘ ɑm reldus æn ‘ ɑm reldus æn ‘ unɑm reldus æn ‘ 3rd PersonD & P ‘ ɑm reldu ol ‘ ɑm reldu ol ‘ unɑm reldu ol ‘ Inchoative 1st Person Sing. ‘ reldus moj enreldus moj unenreldus moj 2nd Person Sing. ‘ reldus æn enreldus æn unenreldus æn 3rd Person Sing. ‘ reldu ol enreldu ol unenreldu ol 1st Person D & P ‘ reldus moj ‘ enreldus moj ‘ unenreldus moj ‘ 2nd Person D &P ‘ reldus æn ‘ enreldus æn ‘ unenreldus æn ‘ 3rd PersonD & P ‘ reldu ol ‘ enreldu ol ‘ unenreldu ol ‘ Terminative 1st Person Sing. ‘ ɑreldus moj rɑreldus moj unrɑreldus moj 2nd Person Sing. ‘ ɑreldus æn rɑreldus æn unrɑreldus æn 3rd Person Sing. ‘ ɑreldu ol rɑreldu ol unrɑreldu ol 1st Person D & P ‘ ɑreldus moj ‘ rɑreldus moj ‘ unrɑreldus moj ‘ 2nd Person D &P ‘ ɑreldus æn ‘ rɑreldus æn ‘ unrɑreldus æn ‘ 3rd PersonD & P ‘ ɑreldu ol ‘ rɑreldu ol ‘ unrɑreldu ol ‘
  • 16. 8 Brewer Participle Imperfective ’ roreldus reldus w roreldus Perfective ’ reldus - w reldus Progressive ’ ɑm reldus wɑm reldus w ɑm reldus Inchoative ’ reldus w reldus w reldus Terminative ’ rɑreldus rɑreldus w rɑreldus Passive Voice Past Present Future Imperfective 1st Person ‘ u em reldu em unroreldu em 2nd Person ‘ ’ ’ un ’ 3rd Person ‘ ŋ ŋ un ŋ Perfective 1st Person ‘ em - unreldu em 2nd Person ‘ ’ - unreldus ’ 3rd Person ‘ reldus ŋ - unreldus ŋ Progressive 1st Person ‘ ɑm reldu em ɑm reldu em unɑm reldu em 2nd Person ‘ ɑm reldus ’ ɑm reldus ’ unɑm reldus ’ 3rd Person ‘ ɑm reldus ŋ ɑm reldus ŋ unɑm reldus ŋ Inchoative 1st Person ‘ reldu em enreldu em unenreldu em 2nd Person ‘ reldus ’ enreldus ’ unenreldus ’ 3rd Person ‘ reldus ŋ enreldus ŋ unenreldus ŋ Terminative 1st Person ‘ ɑreldu em rɑreldu em unrɑreldu em 2nd Person ‘ ɑreldus o’ rɑreldus ’ unrɑreldus ’ 3rd Person ‘ ɑreldus ŋ rɑreldus ŋ unrɑreldus ŋ Participle Imperfective m’ roreldus hæmreldus hæmunroreldus Perfective m’ reldus - hæmunreldus Progressive m’ ɑm reldus hæmɑm reldus hæmunɑm reldus Inchoative m’ reldus hæmenreldus hæmunenreldus Terminative m’ rɑreldus hæmrɑreldus hæmunrɑreldus
  • 17. Brewer 9 §2.2.6 Numerals and Fraction Terms The numeralsone throughtengovernthe genitive case,singularwithone,pluralwithall the others.For numbershigherthanten,the final numberwilldetermine whetherthe genitive singularorplural is used. All numeralsdecline like nounsandadjectives,thoughinnumbershigherthantenonlythe last numbercombineswithacase particle. The numeralsone throughtenare stressedonthe second syllable of the root. The numeralsone throughtenare:  gewɑ  ɑ tw )  mitɑ t  ɑ tɑ  k ɑ  imɑ  rwetɑ  luksɑ t  hojnɑ  sre ɑ t The language alsohas a setof collective numeralsthatdescribeasetor group, similartothe terms pair, duo,or trio.These special numeralsare frequentlyusedalone todescribe agroupof people. Though they inherently describeaplural group,theytriggersingularagreementwithverbs. Whenusedinconjuctionwitha noun,the nounappearsinthe genitive case. Aswithregularnumerals, the collective numeralsare stressedonthe secondsyllable. While itistheoreticallypossibletouse a collective numeral withagroupof any size,inpractice theyare notusedfor groupslargerthan ten. Asthey by definitiondescribe groupslargerthanone,there isno singularcollective.However,buildingonthe patternusedtocreate the collective numerals,the word w t w t t m “ m t ”  p /duo)  m t t  ɑ t uartet)  k t t  m t t  rwet pt t  k t t  t  sre t Fractiontermsare alsostressedon the secondsyllable of the root anddecline inthe same fashionas nounand adjectives,justasnumeralsdo. Theygovernthe partitivecase,butunlikenumerals,the object determineswhich grammatical numberisused. The firsttenfractionsare:  getet(awhole)  t  mitet(athird)  ɑ t t t  k t t  imet(asixth)  rwetet(aseventh)  lukset(aneighth)  hojnet(aninth)  sre et(atenth) Withthe numeral rootsforone throughfive,the suffix - canbe addedtocreate frequentative adverbs (i.e.once,twice,etc.).
  • 18. 10 Brewer §2.2.7 Methods of Derivation §2.2.7.1 Nouns fromVerbs  Abstraction₁:verbroot+ don + (case/numberparticles) Examples:enne (begin)  ennedon(beginning),rɑ  rɑ  Abstraction₂:verbroot+ + (case/numberparticles) Example:howmɑ t  howmɑw t t t  Agent:verbroot + res + (case/numberparticles) Examples:dem(rule) m t [t] t w  t t p t  Patient:verbroot+ ol + (case/numberparticles) Examples:horte (build)  hortejol(building),irɑ p  irɑ p  Occupation:verb root+ juŋ + (case/numberparticles) mp m t w k  m ŋ t  t ŋ  Location:verbroot + sejn + (case/numberparticles) mp ’ t tt  ’ t tt m t m  romessejn(school)  Instrument:verbroot+ rek + (case/numberparticles) Examples:nærni (speak)  nærnirek(language),njæwr(spin)  njæwrrek(wheel)  Master: verbroot + rom + (case/numberparticles) Examples:horte (build)  horterom t t ŋ t  ŋ rrosrom(masterof combat) §2.2.7.2 Verbs fromNouns  Method1: ne + noun root+ (person/numberparticles) mp ‘ t p  ’ t tt t m  t m [ ]  Method2: som+ nounroot + (person/numberparticles) Examples:poro(iron)  somporo(forge), ɑ m  somɑ t  Method3: j + nounroot + (person/numberparticles) Examples:ɑŋ  tɑ ɑŋ ɑ m  tɑ ɑ k w §2.2.7.3 Adjectives from Verbs  Active Participle: u + (tense/aspectprefixes) +verbroot + (case/numberparticles) mp tɑ ɑŋ  tɑ ɑŋ [p mp ] p k  ’ nonærni (speaking[past impfv.])  Passive Participle:hæm+(tense/aspectprefixes) +verbroot+ (case/numberparticles) Examples:nærni (speak)  hæmnærni (spoken[pres. impfv.] ɑ t  m’ ɑ (created[pastimpfv.])  Capability:verbroot+ ‘ mp ‘ t pt  ‘ t’ɑt pt t  t ’ɑt §2.2.7.4 Adverbs fromAdjectives  Quality:adjectiveroot+ rur Examples:turi (whole)  t w t t  t t  Positive Comparative:adjective root+on Examples:tɑ t  tɑ m k m  imejon(better)  Negative Comparative:adjectiveroot+ liŋ Examples:tɑ t  tɑ ŋ k t t  t ŋ t
  • 19. Brewer 11  DiminutiveComparative:adjectiveroot+ in Examples:tɑ t  tɑ tt m k m (good)  imejin(alittle better)  AugmentativeComparative:adjectiveroot+ om Examples:tɑ t  tɑ m m m k m  imejom(muchbetter)  Positive Superlative:adjective root+ Examples:tɑ t  tɑ t t mostquickly),ime (good)  m t t t  Negative Superlative:adjective root+‘ Examples:tɑ t  tɑ ’ɑ t t k t t  t ’ɑ t t brightly)  Elative:adjectiveroot+ mos Examples:tɑ t  tɑ lemos(mostquickly),ime(good)  imemos(mostwell)  Enough:adjective root+ tos Examples:tɑ t  tɑ t t m  imetos(wellenough)  Very:adjective root+b Examples:tɑ t  tɑ ɑwt k m ood)  imebɑwt(verywell) §2.2.7.5 Verbs fromAdjectives  ro + adjective root+(person/numberparticles) Examples:stiri (important)  rostiri (matter), t  t  to become:‘ob + adjective root+ (person/numberparticles) Examples t t  ‘ t t e (happy)  ‘ m pp e (happier)  ‘ e(becomehappier),mostɑ [m t k t ]  ‘ m tɑ m m t k  make so: ne + adjective root+ (person/numberparticles) Examples:swɑ  neswɑ m k m  nejime (make good) §2.2.7.6 Nouns fromAdjectives  Quality:Adjective root+emo mp t m k  t m m k ime (good)  m m m (home)  mmɑ(homeless)  mmɑ m m  Personal Embodiment:Adjective root+ Examples:ser(brave)  ɑ ɑ m  ɑ m ɑ t §2.2.7.7 Verbal Adverbs (Gerunds)  Imperfective:mu +verbroot + i (verbrootsendingin/i/l t t w t Examples:rojæs(have) m  m w ,  Perfective:h +verbroot + i t t t w t nærni (speak)  hɑw havingspoken) ‘ɑ’ t  hɑw’ɑ’ havinghit m t w k  hɑwm t havingworked) §2.2.7.8 Nouns fromNouns  Augmentative:nounroot+ om Examples:ɑŋ  ɑŋ m[ t ] m  m m[ ] tɑ p  tɑ m el)
  • 20. 12 Brewer  Diminutive:nounroot+ in Examples:ɑ ɑm m  ɑ ɑm ɑ w m  ɑ m t  m (kitten),hæsɑt  hæsɑt tt  Elemental/Essential:nounroot+ sre Examples:ɑŋ  ŋ w t w t  w t w t  Abstract:noun root+ (o)ssa Examples:sor o(brother)  sor ossɑ t ’ t t  ’ t ɑ t  Master: tes + noun root Examples:ri ɑ w  tesri ɑ w m ter),poro(iron)  tesporo(blacksmith)  Decessive:verbroot+‘o + (case/numberparticles) Examples:mɑ k  mɑ ’ (former/deadking),dɑ t  dɑ ’ t  Falseness:nounroot+ o Examples:nærut(speech)  t ŋ ɑ m  ŋ ɑ  Nationality:nounroot+ru Examples:Jisrɑ’  Jisrɑ’ t  Simple nouncompoundsare usuallystressedonthe firstsyllableof the secondnominal element. Example:mɑ k + ɑm  mɑ ɑm t §2.2.7.9 Possessive Adjectives  n + 1st syllableof pronoun+ Examples: o 1st singular:tɑ tɑ  nɑtɑ o 2nd singular:den  nɑ ɑ o 3rd singular,masculine: rom  nɑ mɑ o 3rd singular,feminine:ærom  nɑ ɑ o 3rd singular,neuter: orom  nɑ ɑ o 1st dual,inclusive:  nɑ ɑ o 1st dual,exclusive: mor  nɑm ɑ o 2nd ttɑ nɑ tɑ o 3rd dual:dæd nɑ ædɑ o 1st plural,inclusive: nɑ  nɑ ɑ ɑ o 1st plural,exclusive: on  nɑ onɑ o 2nd p t  nɑt ɑ o 3rd plural:  nɑ elɑ §2.2.7.10 Adjectives from Nouns  SemblativeAdjectives:nounroot+ i i (epentheticvoicelessstopappearsafternasals) mp m t  mp i (catlike), ɑ ɑm m  ɑ ɑmp i (manly)  Adjectivesof Trait:nounroot + job Examples:otɑm t  otɑm t t t  t t  Abessive Adjectives:nounroot+ m mp ‘ m m  ‘ mmɑ m m m  mmɑ m  “- ”A t t+ w Examples:otɑm(north)  otɑmwɑ t ɑ ɑm m  ɑ ɑmwɑ m §2.2.7.11 Adjectives from Adjectives  “- ”A t t t+w Examples:ælɑ w  ælɑwɑ w ɑ m  ɑ mwɑ
  • 21. Brewer 13 §2.2.7.12 Degrees of Comparison  Positive Comparative:on + adjective root Examples:tɑ t  ontɑ t ɑ w  onælɑ w  DiminutiveComparative: in + adjective root Examples:tɑ t  intɑ alittle faster),ælɑ w  inælɑ tt w  Negative Comparative:liŋ + adjective root Examples:tɑ t  ŋtɑ t ɑ w  ŋ ɑ w  AugmentativeComparative: om+adjective root Examples:tɑ t  omtɑ m t ɑ w  omælɑ m w  Positive Superlative: + adjective root Examples:tɑ t  t tɑ t t ɑ w  t ɑ w t  Negative Superlative: ‘ + adjective root Examples:tɑ t  ‘ɑ tɑ t t t ɑ w  ‘ɑ ɑ t t w  Elative:mos+ adjective root Examples:tɑ t  mostɑ m t t ɑ w  mosælɑ m t w  Enough:tos + adjective root Examples:tɑ t  tostɑ t ɑ w  tosælɑ w  Very:b + adjective root Examples:tɑ t) bɑwttɑ t ɑ w  bɑwt ɑ w §2.2.7.13 Verbs from Verbs (Someof thesederivationalpatternsaregrammaticalized in the daughterlanguages,though in different ways,depending on thelanguage.Often,they arethefoundation of a morecomplicated aspectual system,forming a systemof subaspects.)  completeness: + verbroot mp t  m m  m m t  semeliterative:m + verbroot mp ɑm  mɑ orɑm m  mɑ m  durative (short):læs+ verbroot mp  t tt m  læsromes(tolearnalittle)  durative (long): es+verbroot Examples:entsori (play)  esenstori(playawhile),suljem(sleep) essuljem(sleepawhile)  protractive:led + verbroot mp  tɑ w t  tɑ w t  habitual (customaryaction): + verbroot Examples: moj (Irun)  m ‘ m jol (ruled[perfective])  ‘ mjol (usedtorule [perfective])  negative conative (attemptedaction implyingfailure):wil+ verbroot Examples: m mp over) wil m t t mp over[andfail]),romes(learn)  wilromes(trytolearn [andfail])  neutral conative (attemptedactionwithnoimpliedoutcome): sos+ verbroot Examples:ældo(make)  sosældo(trytomake),romes(learn)  sosromes(trytolearn)  positive conative(attempted actionimplyingsuccess): rem+ verbroot Examples:ældo(make)  remældo(trytomake [andsucceed]),romes(learn)  remromes(try to learn[andsucceed])
  • 22. 14 Brewer  reversionary: l+verb root Examples:rodi (do)  ɑlrodi (undo),ældo(make) ɑ m  momentane:gew +verbroot mp m mp  wm mp ilsos(annoy) gewilsos(momentarily annoy)  desiderative:dri+ verbroot mp resun(eat)  wm k  drinrowm(be thirsty)  reflexive: o +verbroot Examples:rojæs(have) t ŋ m k  t ŋ m w  motionaway: verb root Examples:runɑ w k  ɑ w k w  w  motiontoward: h +verbroot Examples:runɑ w k  hɑ ɑ w kt w  hɑ t w  motionaround/about: u +verbroot Examples:runɑ w k  ɑ w k   motionover: + verbroot Examples:runɑ w k  ɑ w k   motionunder: in(e) + verbroot Examples:runɑ w k  inerunɑ w k   motioninto:t( + verbroot Examples:runɑ w k  tɑ ɑ w k t  tɑ t  motionoutof: emi + verbroot Examples:runɑ w k  emirunɑ w k t  m t  motionthrough: e(r) + verbroot Examples:runɑ walk) errunɑ w kt  t  motionahead: ge(m) + verbroot Examples:runɑ w k  gerunɑ w k w  w  motiononto:o(d) + verbroot Examples:runɑ w k  orunɑ w k t  t  motionup: + verbroot Examples:runɑ w k  t ɑ w k p  t p  motiondown: he+ verbroot Examples:runɑ w k  herunɑ w k w  w  motionpast:pro + verbroot Examples:runɑ w k  prorunɑ w kp t  p p t
  • 23. Brewer 15 §2.2.8 Honorifics NærutN utilizesacomplex setof honorificparticles toindicate relative status. Honorific Relationship me peers, simple politeness or inferior to superior, respect to inferior to superior, deep respect t superior to inferior, respect min spouses ɑ children to parents parents to children student to teacher wes youngpersonto olderperson(age difference of 25 yearsor more) er oldpersonto youngerperson(age difference of 25 years or more) Honorificparticlesprecedecase particles,andare separatedfromthe rootbya hyphen.Theyare normallyonlyusedwithpersonalnames,personal pronouns,and possessiveadjectives andtheyalmost neverappearinthe 1st person.
  • 24. 16 Brewer §2.3 Syntax §2.3.1 Basic Sentence Order §2.3.1.1 Standard Word Order Standardword orderinactive voice isVerb-Subject-Object.Use of the syntacticcase particlesallows virtuallyanywordorder,butothersyntacticarrangements are markedforfocus.  t m tɑ – I see you. §2.3.1.2 Passive Voice Standardword orderinpassive voice isVerb-Subject-(Agent),andthe agent,whenpresent,ismarkedby the instrumental case.Otherwordordersare possible,andare usedto shiftfocus.  Am tɑ emtɑ ‘ m –I am beingwatched (by you).  tɑ emtɑ ‘ m –I am watched (bythem). §2.3.1.3 Stative Syntax In stative sentencesthatutilizethe verb o ot(tobe),syntax oftenbecomesSubject-Verb,since neitherthe subjectnoritspredicate descriptorismarkedforcase.  m t – He isold.  Arrɑm k ‘ tɑ k – The menare fast. §2.3.2 Interrogatives §2.3.2.1 Polar Interrogatives In polarinterrogative sentences,the defaultsentence orderisverb-second,withaclause-final interrogative particle o.Frontinganelementtoa clause-initialpositionfocusesthe discourseonthat element.  ɑ t t – Do you see me?  t t tɑ – Is it you that seesme? Whenthe speakerexpectsacertainanswer,positive ornegative,differentparticlesare used.Whenthe expectationisforapositive answer,thenthe particleis wej.Whenthe expectationisnegative, is used.  ɑ t t w –Do you see me? (positiveexpectation) Os. – Yea. – Nay.  m tɑ ɑ – Do you know her? (negative expectation) Aso. – Yes./ Mun. – No. Tag questionsare formedbyappendinga tp t t t t m t t “sulos ”(lit. not so?) inthe case of a negative tag “o os ” lit.be so?) inthe case of an affirmative.  He’s tall,right/isn’t he? – m  He isn’ttall, right/is he? – m
  • 25. Brewer 17 NærutN usesafive-formsystemforansweringpolarquestions.Itoperatesasfollows:  Positive question,affirmative answer: os o Are you a king? – Deno esænmɑ wej? Yes(yea),I am. – m tɑ  Positive question,negative answer: o Are you a king? – Den esænmɑ w No, I’m not. – m tɑ  Negative question,affirmativeanswer: o o Are you not a king?– Deno esænsul mɑ wej? Yes,I am. – A m tɑ  Negative question,negative answer: mun o Are you not a king?– Deno esænsul mɑ wej? o No (nay),I’m not. – m tɑ  The fifthresponse isusedinspecial caseswhere the personansweringthe questionwishesto expressdispleasure withthe premise of the questionitself.Itisusuallyusedwhensomeone has askeda ridiculousquestion, orwhen the questionermeanttorhetoricallytrapthe personbeing questioned.Itisneitherpositivenornegative,butratherstatesthatthe questiondoesnot deserve ananswer.Itcan be a fairlyrude,butisusuallyonlyusedinresponsetothe rudenessof another It takesthe form rr . o Are you a king? (askedtoa beggaron the street) – Deno esænmɑ w Are you serious?Freeze in hell,youshit. – Rrɑ ttɑ ollɑmp ɑtt §2.3.2.2 Choice Questions Choice questionsare usedtopresentoptions.There are three general strategies:  Usingthe word ur (and). Thiswordisusedto provide alistof options,all of whichare presented as a group. o Do you want bread and water? – k w t w ɑ  Usingthe word it (or).Thiswordis usedtoprovide discrete optionsforsomeone tochoose from. It explicitlyallowsforonlyonce choice fromthe availablechoices. If none of the options are desired,thenthere are three possible answers: (nay,positive inquiries), mun (no, negative inquiries),and æwosul(neither/none such). o Do you want bread or water? – k t w t w ɑ Water,please.– w t w t ‘ ɑm ’ Bread, please.– k t ‘ ɑm ’ Neither,thank you (informal).– w is,ŋ ɑ  The third optionisto use the word en. Thiswordfallssomewherebetween urandit, withthe m t pt t t “ ” Whenthe respondentwantsone option,theyanswerby repeatingthatoptionfollowedbythe appropriate case particle. If all available optionsare desired,thenthe respondentanswers lu (both) orr l (all).If neitheroptionisdesired,then there are three possible answers: (nay,positive inquiries), mun (no,negative inquiries),and o ul(neither/none such). o Do you want bread and/or water? – Keken w t w ɑ Both, please.– w t ‘ ɑm ’ Neither,thank you (informal). – w ŋ ɑ
  • 26. 18 Brewer §2.3.2.3 Wh-questions In wh-questions,the defaultpositionforthe questionwordisininitial position,withthe interrogative particle o inclause-final position. Responsestoquestionsplace the informationrelevanttothe inquiry ininitial position.  m tɑ – Where am I?  – What is this? §2.3.2.4 EchoQuestions Echo questionsare usedwhenthe hearerwishestoverifythe contentof the question.Thismaybe from uncertainty,orevenincredulity,the pointbeingtoensure thatall partiesare onthe same page.Echo questionsare usuallyverysimple,usuallyjustthe one wordorpiece of informationthatisthe focusof the inquiry,followedbythe particle te.If the word wasfollowedbyacase particle inthe original question,thenthatparticle isrepeatedinthe echoquestion.  Knɑ ɑ – Do you want some meat to eat? Knɑ t – Meat? Os. – Yes.  ol ekɑ tɑm –Where isthe northern border? ‘A t –The eastern(border)? tɑm – No, the northern.  ‘ sændenre tɑ t – What didyou say about me? Re denot te? – Aboutyou? Os,re tɑ t – Yes,about me. §2.3.3 Noun-Phrase Order Since NærutN isstronglyheadinitial,all nounphrasesstartwiththe noun. Anymodifierswill followthe head. Whenacase particle isused, itnormallyonlyappearsinphrase final position.In emphaticconversational speechitisverycommonto markall the constituentsof the nounphrase with the case particles,whichiseffectivelythe beginningof atrue nominal case system.  ‘ t t mɑ ɑmɑ m – She saw the bigman. (standardform)  ‘ t t mɑ ɑm ɑ m – She saw the big man. (emphaticconversational form) §2.3.4 Prepositions Prepositions serve asthe headsof theirphrases,andare therefore restrictedtophrase-initial position. Everyprepositiongovernsatleastone case,thoughsome can governmore to distinguishdifferent meanings.  ol rom tɑ ɑt t –He’sin the house.  ‘ tɑ romtɑ ɑt ɑ –He enteredthe room. §2.3.5 Coordination Whentwo or more verbsare coordinated,all butthe lastcan omitpersonandnumbermarking. However,if the verbsgoverndifferentobjectsorone ormore of themtakesan objectwhile the other(s) ’t ’t t m t markedforpersonandnumber.The subjectwill onlyappearonce if itis identical ineveryclause.
  • 27. Brewer 19 Clause coordinationisaccomplishedinthree differentways. 1. Simple coordination “ ” p t w t t t ur.Whentwoor more noun phrases that operate asthe subject are thus coordinated,the verbinthe associatedpredicateis inthe plural. a. Am rno ‘ ɑ ɑm ɑ – The man and the woman are running. b. Amej ɑm ɑ –The girl is runningand singing. c. Am m tɑkekisur ɑm wmm w t w – I’m eatingbread and drinking water. 2. Alternativecoordination “ ” usesthe conjunction it. a. Unnonemɑ t nelomormoj tɑ – I will rule or (I will) die. 3. Exceptioncoordination(i.e. “ t” t t as. a. ɑ m tɑ t ɑ mɑtm ɑ estsul is. – I want to go, but I don’t have any money. §2.3.5 Syntactic Focus The sentence-initial positionisusedtoindicate focus,andnominal constituentscanbe movedthere to add emphasistotheirrole inthe clause.  ‘ 'ɑw ŋrul is. – The farmer ate the apple.  ‘Aw ŋ‘ –It was the farmer that ate the apple.  ‘ ‘ɑw ŋ –Itwas the apple that the farmer ate.  Am ɑ mk –The tall girl isrunning around the park.  ɑ ɑm mk –It isthe tall girl who isrunning around the park.  mk ɑm ɑ – It’saround the park that the tall girl is running.  ‘ m kŋ ɑ’ ɑ ‘ m – The cup was brokenby the demon.  A’ ‘ m kŋ ɑ ‘ m –It was the cup that was brokenby the demon.  A ‘ m‘ m kŋ ɑ’ –It was by the demonthat the cup was broken. §2.3.6 Subordinate Clauses §2.3.6.1 Relative (Adjective)Clauses One of the mostcommonsubordinatingmethods usedisthe relativepronoun wrel.Itisusedto create relative clauses thatmodify nouns,pronouns,andadjectives. Wrelstandsinthe place of itsreferent ina relative clause,agreeingwithitinnumber.Inthe relative clause,itcantake whatevercase particle is neededinthe contextof thatclause,andit can alsobe governedbyanyrequiredprepositions. Examples:  ɑ ɑ m tɑɑ ɑm w t ‘ ɑm jænden. –I know the man you were speaking with.  Rɑw ɑ w is‘ t t m ‘ m t – Who was the woman that the two of us saw yesterday?
  • 28. 20 Brewer §2.3.6.2 Noun Clauses Anothercommonmethodistouse the conjunction naj,whichiscreatesaclause thatstandsin the place of a noun.  ɑ ɑ m tɑ ɑ m gædiri.–I know that you won’t be here tomorrow.  ‘ t t m ɑ ‘ ɑ ɑ m ɑ ɑromdrɑ – He saw that she was walking toward him.  Unlɑ m ɑ tɑ ɑ runtsul is. –She will think that you know nothing. Thisconjunctionisalsosometimesusedincombinationwiththe demonstrative no uanda preposition inorder to create a nounclause that isthe objectof a preposition.One of the mostcommonis the phrase ne no u dr , j t ‘ t t t t  ‘ m udrɑ ɑ ‘ ol morjob. –He leftbecause he was angry.  t mm ‘ ondenis ne no udrɑ ɑ ‘ skrɑ m We (exc.) hate you because you killedthe cat.  ‘ ɑm m ‘ onre no uwot,nɑ ‘ m ‘ t m t m k – We (exc.) were talking about how you (pl.) ran around the tree yesterday. §2.3.6.3 Adverbial Clauses Adverbial clausesare subordinate clausesusedtomodifythe verbinsome way.One of the more commontypesof adverbial clause isthe temporal,whichspecifiesthe timeframe of the action.  Dre ŋ m ‘ ɑ – Whenthe music plays, we (inc.) sing.  ‘ ɑm m ‘ ‘ ɑm w o.–They workedwhile it was raining.  m ɑ m usej,nɑ ‘ ɑ m ‘ hɑ m ɑ ‘ ensriwojol o.–Before we (exc.) got home it started to rain. Locative clausesare those usedtoindicate where anactiontakesplace,usinglocative adverbsand conjunctionslike hili(where), hilij ll (somewhere),andlilæhili (anywhere). l‘o llo i (everywhere) alsoperformsthe same function,thoughbecause itisapronominally-headedphrase,itusuallyappears as the objectof a preposition.  ‘ ɑm ŋ m ol.– He likeswhere he is.  ɑ’ɑtm ‘ onlilæhili,nɑ ‘ ɑm ’ –We (inc.) can eat anywhere you like.  ‘ m t tŋ ‘ t t – The food was strewn all about. Adverbialsof mannerare constructedthroughthe use of the word gruni(how).  ‘ gogrudinmoj tɑ n ‘ ɑ m –I acted like I wantedto. Comparative adverbialsclausesare alsoquite common,andthe complex systemof adverbial suffixes allowsformyriadshadesof meaning bymeansof a simple endingattachedtoan adjective.Thatwhichis t t t mp “t X” w the partitiveparticle. ’ position inthe mainclause isunrestricted,thoughisusually immediatelyfollowsthe subject.
  • 29. Brewer 21  ol rom tɑ tɑ – He runs faster than me.  Amenærni jol æromtɑ ŋ m – She is speakinglessquickly than him.  m t p p w soljobɑwt –The blacksmithstrikes the iron very hard.  Ŋ ol tesri ɑ uimemos. - That swordmaster fightsmost well. A subtype of the comparative adverbialsutilizesthe adverb kæjrurtoindicate totwothingsare the m W t t tw mp … t is followedbythe partitive particlelo.Whenitistwo verbs (inthe same waythat / as),the conjunction n j isusedfollowingthe adverb.  Rom o k tɑ – He’s as tall as me.  ... mmɑ m ‘ onisɑ w k ɑ onɑ t k kæjrurnɑ mmɑ m m ‘ t jis,wrel eksomɑ ‘ p t on drɑ … – … and forgive us our debts,as we forgive those who sin against us … Anotheroft-seenadverbial clause usesthe verbal adverb,awordderivedfromaverbrootthat allows the speakertomodifyanotherverbbylinkingthe twoactions.  Mutɑ ɑ tɑ t ɑ ‘ tintse m ‘ onoromis. – Walkinginto the room, we (exc.) saw it.  Mu m ɑ k w k somɑ m ‘ ɑ t – Speakingmany languages,we (inc.) cannot understand each other.  Hɑwskrɑ ŋ w k ‘ wm rommɑ ‘ m.– Having killedall his enemies, he became king. §2.3.6.4 Causative Clauses Causative clausesuse the verb u j (push)toindicate thatsomeone orsomethingiscausedorforced intosome actionor state. The objectof the verb is followed bythe accusative particle,whichisinturn followedbyanotherverbwiththe supine particle.  ‘ m mɑ ɑtɑtɑ – My mother made me eat the food.  m ɑ k ɑ p t –The warlord will make you kill a puppy.  Am m m tɑtonnɑtɑissonrɑ – I’m making my son finda job. §2.3.6.5 Word Order Word orderin subordinate clausesisverb second, mostof the time followingwhateverrelativizerwas used.Wordorder followingarelativizerismuchstricter, andonlyallowsforvariationinthe positionof the subjectandobject in a subordinate nounclause. §2.3.7 Possession There are twolevelsof possessionin NærutN :alienable andinalienable.Eachusesadifferent verband isassociatedwithdifferentcase morphology. Alienable possessionisindicatedwiththe verb t t “t ,”but with m t “t p ”) andthe genitive case.Inalienable possessionusesthe verb rojæs t t “t ” t t t t p ssed,and inalienable possessiononlyappliestobodyparts ’ w andfamilymembers,andoften abstract conceptsconnectedtothese things.However,because these are veryfrequentlyreferenced,
  • 30. 22 Brewer these twogrammatical categoriesare robustandunlikelytobe confused.One areawhere thereissome overlapiswithanimals.Petsare veryfrequentlytreatedasinalienable possessions,butlivestockis almostalwaysspokenaboutasbeingalienablypossessed. Also,the word hæs j (house) canonlybe alienablypossessed,whereasthe word (home) canonlyinalienablypossessed.  dɑm t – John’schair (alienable)  m ɑ – John’scat (inalienable)  t t– John’scattle (alienable)  mɑ ɑ – John’s mother (inalienable)  hæsɑt t – John’shouse (alienable)  m ɑ – John’s home (inalienable)  t t – John’sship(alienable)  ɑ - John’sshadow (inalienable)  m t – John’s book (alienable)  w t ɑ- John’s marriage (inalienable) In some caseswhena nounwitha pronominal possessorfallsintoanon-subjectpositioninthe sentence,itcanbe markedin more thanone way:witheitherapossessivepronounorwiththe pronoun witheitheragenitive ordative case particle,dependingonthe alienablilityof the possessed.  The ball hit my head. – ‘ ’ɑ’ m ttupnɑtɑ ‘ ’ɑ’ m ttupis tɑ ɑ  The wall fell onhis bike.– ‘ w w k ɑ mɑ ‘ w w k m t W t p t pt ’ m t t t t particle usedwithinalienablepossessioncan alsomark an indirectobject.Therefore,itisdisallowed withditransitiveverbs.  She sentmy letter. – ‘ m‘ m ɑtɑ * ‘ m‘ m tɑ ɑ §2.3.8 Negation Negative concordisanimportantfeature of NærutN n .Itrequiresthatall constituentsinanoun phrase that are beingnegatedtake anegative form.Failingtoproperlynegateall necessaryconstituents yieldsanungrammatical statement.  I love everyone.– Uljɑ ɑm tɑ tɑ t I don’t love anyone. – Uljɑ ɑm tɑ ɑw  I will be there tomorrow. – m tɑ gædiri. I won’t be there tomorrow. – m tɑ  You (dual) were talking with someone. – ‘ ɑm ‘ ttɑ tɑɑ t You (dual) weren’ttalkingwith anyone. – ‘ ɑm ‘ ttɑ ɑw t  I always work with tools.– t m tɑ ( m t k‘ m k I neverwork with tools. – t m ul tɑ m t k‘ m k
  • 31. Brewer 23 §2.3.9 Mood There are fourmoodsin Nærut N :indicative,subjunctive,conditional,andimperative. §2.3.9.1 The Indicative Mood The indicative moodisthe unmarkedformof the verb,andis usedinall factual statements. Itisthe mostcommon of the four moods. §2.3.9.2 The Subjunctive Mood The subjunctive moodisusedtomark counter-factual statements,andisobligatoryaftersome verbs, especiallythose thatmarkhopesandwishes.Itisrequiredin the independentclause of aconditional sentence,followingthe conditional moodinthe conditional clause (thoughthere canbe intervening clausesinthe indicative). Anotherimportantuse of the subjunctive isinvolitive sentences,which p w m t t p “ ” Whenusedwiththe conjunctiveparticle ,it indicateswhatthe speakerwishesanotherpersontodo,and isusuallyaccompaniedbythe future tense.  Mɑŋɑ m tɑ ɑ t e. – I hope (that) you (sg.) are happy.  m tɑ ɑ t ‘ hɑ m ɑ t t t – I wishthat he had come here with you (pl.).  Ti dre ste muwo esi gewɑrroltɑotti,wrel ek næ ‘ nærnirek kæ ‘ m ‘ ‘ el l is,wɑ t wo e ol uwun ɑ’ɑtsul ne el drɑruntsul,wrel isunwirɑ ‘ t el.–If as one people speakingthe same language theyhave begunto do this,then nothingthey plan to do will be impossible forthem.  ɑ m‘w – May she live long!  ɑ m tɑ ɑ t nden! – I want you to leave! §2.3.9.3 The Conditional Mood The conditional moodisusedonlyin conditionalclauses,and alwaysinconjunctionwiththe subjunctive ina connectedindependentclause.  t ‘ m tɑ t moj sul. –If I had eaten,I wouldn’tbe hungry.  t ‘ tm tɑ t ‘ ɑm tm –If I’d had time,I wouldhave finishedworking.  Ti ste un’ t ‘ romentsgædiri, t ɑ ‘ m ɑ‘ m – If theysee him tomorrow, they will give him the letter. §2.3.9.4 The Imperative Mood The imperative isusedtogive commands,andisformedbyaddingthe prefix du. Mostimperatives appearin the secondperson,andusually omitpersonmarking.Numbermarkingisalwaysobligatory. Whenusedinthe 1st - and3rd -person,all personmarkingisrequired. Most basic imperativesappearinthe perfective aspect.Whensomeonewishestoreinforceacommand that theyhave alreadygiven,theywill repeatitinthe imperfective. The progressive isusedtoinstruct someone toperformanactionfor a certainamountof time or at a certainpointin time.The inchoative and terminativeserve tocommandsomeone tostoporstart an action.  ‘ !–Go away (pl.)!  gogellɑ tɑ tɑ t –Let me in!
  • 32. 24 Brewer  wen m ‘ –Let’s start eating!  wɑm somɑ ‘ uwot t m t. – Let them think about that for a day. §2.3.10 Honorific Speech
  • 33. Brewer 25 §2.4 Translations §2.4.1 The Tower of Babel – ik B bel ot Ennedon 11:1-9 1 Tɑ lorenekno uti sej ‘ rorojæ ’ t wɑrisnærnirek oturnærut welɑis. in time pl those loc , past.impfv.have 3 rd p.sg world whole one acc language gen and speech common acc . Now the whole world had one language and a common speech. 2 ‘ ɑm nel jol ‘ tɑti hɑ ‘ɑnel drɑ ‘ sonrɑjol ‘ el ɑ emistɑ inɑrsej urs l while past.prog.go 3 rd p pl person cltpl to east dat , past.pfv.find 3 rd p pl they plain acc in Shinar loc and there As the people movedeastward,they founda plain inShinar and settled ‘ ’ t ‘ past.pfv.settle 3 rd p pl there. 3 ‘ ol ‘ el soronlert l drɑ “ wæ m ‘ t k ekur d rɑsonmoj ‘ el is past.pfv.say 3 rd p pl they each other a , “i p make 1 st p pl brick acc pl and imp bake 1 st p pl they acc They said to each other,“Come,let’smake bricks and bake them m ”‘ bobɑsti jol ‘ el horterek ‘ m k tɑ‘ t sej dominotek,urme ‘ mtɑ ‘ t oo .a v .” pa .i pfv.u 3 rd p pl they brick inst pl in place loc stone gen pl , and tar inst in place loc thoroughly.” They usedbrick insteadof stone,and tar wɑt dot. mortar gen . for mortar. 4 Wɑ ‘ ol ‘ “ horte moj ‘ ne tor drɑ jɑnomis,murojæsi pɑ k is,wrel t n then past.pfv.say 3 rd p pl h y ,”i p build 1 st p pl for rflx dat city acc , have.vbadv tower acc , which.conj.nom subj Then theysaid, “Come,letus buildourselvesa city, with a tower undodɑrjol hɑ rɑ ɑ drɑ ek, ɑt n unældomoj ‘ ɑrune tor drɑ eŋ ɑis;ti lærsul, fut.impfv.climb 3 rd p sg to heaven dat pl , чтобы subj fut.pfv.make 1 st p pl we.inc for rflx dat name acc ; if thus not , that reachesto the heavens,so that we may make a name for ourselves;otherwise wɑnunhertotmoj ‘ ɑru tɑjnl so wis ’ t t ” then fut.pfv.scatter 1 st p pl we.inc across face acc world whole .” we will be scattered over the face of the whole earth.” 5 A ‘ neljol ‘ ɑDemresomt t r jɑnomisur pɑrikis,wrel ‘ ɑmehorte jol ‘ roltɑ but past.pfv.go 3 rd p pl downward Lord see.sup city acc and tower acc , which.conj acc past.prog.build 3 rd p pl person But the Lord came down to see the city and the towerthe people were ti. cltpl . building. 6 ‘ ol ‘ m m “ t m w esi gewɑrroltɑotti,wrel eknæ ‘ nærnirek past.pfv.say 3 rd p pl Lo ,”if h co b .vbadv one person gen cltpl , which.conj pl pres.impfv.speak3 rd p pl language The Lord said, “Ifas one people speakingthe same kæj ‘ m ‘ jol ‘ el l is,wɑnt unwo e ol uwun ɑ’ɑtsul ne el drɑ same inst , past.inch.do 3 rd p pl they this acc , then subj fut.impfv.be 3 rd p.sg actpart.fut.impfv.able.neg for they dat language they have begunto do this, then runtsul,wrel isunwirɑnjol ‘ jot el. what.neg , which.conj acc fut.impfv.plan 3 rd p pl do inf they . nothingthey plan to do will be impossible forthem.
  • 34. 26 Brewer 7 D nel moj ‘ ɑur d mentsomoj ‘ ærnireknɑ elɑis, ɑt nuntsosomɑ el jol‘ imp go 1 st p pl downward and imp.confuse 1 st p pl language their acc , чтобы subj fut.impfv.understand 3 rd p pl Come,letus go down and confuse theirlanguage so theywill not understand sul el soronlert l ” neg they each other acc .” each other.” 8 Lɑ ‘ t tjol ‘ mresom elis ress l tɑ ’ t ‘ ɑhorte jol ‘ el therefore past.pfv.scatter 3 rd p pl Lord they acc from.there acrossworld whole acc and past.term.build 3 rd p pl they So the Lord scattered them from there over all the earth, and they stoppedbuilding jɑnomis. city acc the city. 9 No uo e ol tedor,nɑ ‘ momɑsenjol ‘ elorom “Bɑ ”– ne no udrɑ, nɑj s l that pres.impfv.be 3 rd p.sg reason , that.conj past.impfv.call 3 rd p pl they it acc “Bab l” – for that dat , that.conj there That is why it was calledBabel – because there ‘ mentsojol ‘ m m æ k ’ t jot. ress ‘ t tjol ‘ Demresom el past.pfv.confuse 3 rd p pl Lord language acc world whole gen . from.there past.pfv.scatter 3 rd p pl Lord they the Lord confusedthe language of the whole world.From there the Lord scattered them istɑ l sowis ’ t jot. acc across face acc world whole gen . over the face of the whole earth. §2.4.2 The Poem of the Ring – e i onol k ot Mitɑ t k ne mɑ w k ɑ ek ine three.nom ring gen pl for king pl Elf dat pl under sky loc , Three Rings for the Elven-kingsunderthe sky, w tɑ ne demresekDwɑ ɑ ektɑ tome jekdominjob eknɑ elɑ ek, seven.nom for lord pl Dwarf dat pl in home pl stony pl their loc pl , Sevenfor the Dwarf-lordsin theirhalls of stone, Hojnɑ ne Arrɑm k m ɑ ek,wrel eksudɑ ŋ m nine.nom for man pl mortal dat pl , which.conj.nom pl doom 3p.pass die sup Nine for Mortal Mendoomed to die, Gewɑ ne m m ɑ mɑ ɑm t m ɑ mɑ One.nom for Lord Dark dat on throne dark his loc One for the Dark Lord on his dark throne Tɑ t t ‘ k in land loc Mordor gen , where lie 3 rd pl shadow.nom pl . In the Land of Mordor where the Shadows lie. Gewɑ t m wɑ t ɑ One.nom Ring get rule sup all acc they par , One.nom Ring gen find sup they acc , One Ring to rule them all,One Ring to findthem, Gewɑ t m tɑ t m m One.nom Ring gen bring sup all acc they par and in darkness loc bind sup they acc , One Ring to bring themall, and in the darknessbind them, Tɑ æsitsej Mor t ‘ k in land loc Mordor gen , where lie 3 rd pl shadow pl . In the Land of Mordor where the Shadows lie.
  • 35. Brewer 27 § e o e – imin on em e ot Dɑ ɑ onɑ w k ‘ tɑrɑ ɑ Father.nom our.exc , which.conj.nom pl be 3 rd p pl in heaven loc , Our Father, who art in heaven, t ŋ ɑ ɑt ɑ holy subj be 3 rd p name.nom your.pl.nom hallowedbe thy name. ɑ mɑ w ɑt ɑ subj come 3 rd p kingdom.nom your.nom . Thy kingdom com. ŋ ɑ k ɑt ɑ k subj do 3 rd p.pass wish.nom pl your.nom pl Thy will be done od monersej kæjrur,nɑ ŋ tɑ rɑ ɑ on earth loc same.adv, that do 3 rd p.pass in heaven loc . on earth as it isin heaven. ɑ‘ on drɑ ɑw k kt m ɑ onɑ imp give pl we.exc dat today bread daily our.exc acc , Give us thisday our daily bread, mmɑ m ‘ onisɑ w k ɑ onɑ t k and imp forgive pl we.exc acc sin pl our.exc gen pl , and forgive us our trespasses kæjrurnɑ mmɑ m m ‘ t w k mɑ ‘ p t ondrɑ same.adv that forgive 1 st p pl those acc , which.conj.nom pl sin 3 rd p pl against we.exc dat , as we forgive those who trespass against us, w ‘ ul onis tɑ wilsdondrɑ i p l pl . xc in temptation dat , and lead us not into temptation t wɑ ‘ onis sowot. but/rather imp free pl we.exc acc from evil gen . but deliverus from evil. ol. subj thus be 3 rd p . Amen. §2.4.4 The Universal Declaration of Human Rights: Article One – el ol nn ti ob e b ot ek olt ot ti le t -het ɑm jol ‘ tɑ t m w wɑ k m ‘ m ɑ ‘ mek. pres.impfv.be.born 3 rd p pl all.nom person par cltpl be.vbadv free.nom and equal.nom dignity inst and right inst pl. All human beingsare born free and equal in dignityand rights. mɑt ‘ ɑ ɑwt w t ɑwt wis,ur jol ‘ æsrisotsoron pres.impfv.possess 3 rd p pl they.nom reason acc and conscience acc , and pres.impfv.be.obliged 3 rd p pl act inf each.nom They are endowedwithreason and conscience and should act towards one t drɑ ‘ m ossɑot. other dat spirit inst brotherhood gen . another in a spirit of brotherhood.
  • 36. 28 Brewer §2.4.5 e t o t e i t t – Besrek So ot ek ot Am t ŋ ɑŋ tɑ t ɑm ɑtɑ; pres.prog.rflx.gather.3 rd p sg night.nom and in hour this loc pres.prog.begin 3 rd p.sg watch.nom my.nom ; Night gathersand now my watch begins Unrorɑ m m ɑtɑdrɑ fut.impfv.end 3 rd p.sg neg it.nom until death my dat . It shall not enduntil my death Un o m tɑ ɑ ɑ t t fut.impfv.wed 1 st p.sg neg I.nom wife which.neg com , I shall take no wife Un o mɑtm w k t k t tɑ ɑ m w k t k fut.impfv.possess 1 st p.sg neg land pl which.neg acc pl , fut.impfv.father 1 st p.sg neg child pl which.neg acc pl ; Hold no lands, fatherno children Unt t ’ ’ m tɑ mɑ m k t k sro km t ɑ ɑm k t fut.impfv.rflx.wear 1 st p.sg neg I.nom crown pl which.neg acc pl and fut.impfv.win 1 st p.sg neg for rflx dat glory which.neg acc , I shall wear no crowns and win no glory Unhohæsɑt nelomormoj tɑ m w ɑtɑsej. fut.impfv.live and fut. pfv.die 1 st p.sg I.nom , stand.vbadv on assignment my acc . I shall live and die at my post ɑ esmoj ri ɑ tɑt m m I.nom pres.impfv.be 1 st p.sg sword.nom in darkness loc , I am the sword in the darkness ɑ m ŋ k I.nom pres.impfv.be 1 st p.sg on wall loc pl , I am the watcher on the walls Tɑ m ɑŋ ,wr tɑ ɑŋ p t nlejemodrɑ I.nom pres.impfv.be 1 st p.sg fire.nom , which.conj.nom pres.impfv.burn 3 rd p.sg against cold dat , I am the fire that burns against the cold A w ‘ɑ ɑŋ t light.nom , which.conj.nom pres.impfv.herald 3 rd p.sg sunrise gen , the lightthat bringsthe dawn ‘A k w t m k horn.nom , which.conj.nom pres.impfv.wake 3 rd p.sg sleeper acc pl , the horn that wakes the sleepers Sosrek,wrel so ol elhusisek roltɑ t t . shield.nom , which.conj.nom pres.impfv.guard 3 rd p.sg realm acc pl person gen cltpl . the shieldthat guards the realmsof men ’ m tɑ ŋ ɑ k ɑŋ t hæsɑtw turto nɑtɑ is pres.impfv.pledge 1 st p.sg I.nom Guard dat pl Night gen life and honor my acc I pledge my life and honor to the Night'sWatch ɑ ɑŋ l ishɑŋ k wɑm w k through night this acc and all acc night pl actpart.pres.prog.remain par pl yet . for this night and all the nights to come.
  • 37. Brewer 29 §2.4.6 The Litany Against Fear – e el ol p ot b nt lp it ŋm tɑ w w t t t m. pres.impfv.ought 1 st p.sg neg I.nom feel inf fear inst . I must not fear. t t ol skrɑ ɑ t fear.nom pres.impfv.be 3 rd p.sg killer.nom mind gen . Fear is the mind-killer. t t m p t w ‘ɑ t w tɑ t fear.nom pres.impfv.be 3 rd p.sg death.nom little.nom , which.conj.nom pres.impfv.herald 3 rd p.sg annihilation complete gen . Fear is the little-deaththat bringstotal obliteration. Undɑ mm tɑ ɑ ɑ t t ɑtɑdrɑ fut.pfv.turn 1 st p.sg I.nom toward fear mydat . I will face my fear. Ungellɑ m tɑ ɑ t k ŋ tɑ tɑ fut.pfv.allow 1 st p.sg I.nom , that.conj subj fut.pfv.pass.over and fut.pfv.through.move 3 rd p.sg through I acc . I will permit it to pass over me and through me. p ŋ m wɑ tomlɑ m tɑtɑ ɑ t ɑ t t ŋ ɑ ɑ and when fut.pfv.move.past 3 rd p.sg it.nom , the.conj fut.pfv.look 1 st p.sg I.nom inward rflx dat see.sup wayits acc . And whenit has gone past I will turn the innereye to see its path. p ŋ t t w ol sul runtsul. there , where fut.pfv.move.past 3 rd p.sg fear.nom , fut.impfv.be 3 rd p.sg neg what.neg.nom . Where the fear has gone there will be nothing. t w m tɑ alone.adv fut.impfv.remain 1 st p.sg I.nom . Only I will remain.
  • 38. 30 Brewer Chapter 3: Migrationand Evolution §3.1 Fictional Setting §3.1.1 Linguistic Expansion NærutN anditsdescendantsare spokenona worldcalled Arnij inthe motherlanguage.The homelandof the language familyis centeredaroundthe portcityof u i j o i(GreatWaters),along the river i . The speakersof the language call themselvesthe l i,ano w “ ”w comesfromthe strongnautical traditionintheirculture.Itwasthistradition,alongwiththeirincredible militaryprowess,thatledtothe expansionof theirterritoryandthe foundationof their extensive empire. The area withinthe isoglossrepresentsthe originalareawhere NærutN wasthe predominantspokenlanguage. Thiswasnosmall areato beginwith,owingtothe fact that evenbefore it became the native language of thiszone,itwasa powerful trade language. Overtime,political expansionsspreadthe use of the language tothe northand the south, leadingtodialectdifferentiation.Later,asthe differencesinthe local speechbecame more pronounced, local standardswere established.The lingua franca of the empire remained NærutN ,thoughin each areathe local accentaffectedhowitwaspronounced.
  • 39. Brewer 31 In the northand south,the dialectscame to be knownbytheir locationrelative tothe original homeland:nærutotmjóv (northernspeech) and nærütjul ób (southernspeech).Inthe environs surrounding u i j o i,the spokenlanguage startedtobe called Tifejóf,afterthe riveradjacentto the city.In all three areasalongthe formingdialectcontinuum, the olderspeechcame tobe called N b xé(lit.ourold).The pronunciationof the name variedaccordingtolocal pronunciation,butit reflectsthe soundchangesnative tothe areaaroundthe homeland.
  • 40. 32 Brewer §3.1.2 The Growth of an Empire Thislinguisticexpansionaccompaniedthe creationof avast empire.Thisempirewasdivided intothree large administrative unitsthatroughlycorrespondtothe boundariesof the three major dialectgroups,thoughnotprecisely.
  • 41. Brewer 33 Chapter 4: Nærut Otmjóv – The Speech of the North §4.1 Phonological Changes 1. Cʰ  [ t ]  [ ] tɑ  ɑ t  2. Vᴮ  VF ˈ_C C i,j;[ɑɑ ]  [ ɛ ɛ]; verbal personendingsare affectedin the plural because of theirsecondarystress; (  ɑ  hænhili,ofe ’i  ofe ø ’ ) 3. Vʊ  VF ˈ_C(C)i,j;[ɑʊ ɑʊ ʊ ʊ æʊ ʊeʊ ʊ iʊ ʊ]  [æy ɛy ɛy ey yiy y] (ɑw  w mɑ øydimɑ 4. Vː[j ʊ]  V[j ʊ] / _C, _#; [ɑ ɑʊ ʊ j ʊ ʊ ʊ ]  [ɑ ɑʊ ʊ æj æʊ ej eʊiʊ æyøy] (tun  tunojd) 5. ʔ  #_ ‘ m m ‘ mmɑ hidemmɑ ‘ t  hontel) 6. ʔ  Ø / non- t w ’ɑ fweɑ ’ t  t ’ m  nejidem) 7. Unstressed Vᶫ(C)# ə(C)#;[ɑ ]  [ə] (fweɑ fweə,wossɑ wossə,sulæ  sulə,tɑ tə, ɑ  ə) 8. i#  ɪ#; (demjøli demjølɪ ŋ  ŋ ɪ) 9. ɑʊ  oː; (fenɑ ɑ ɑ  w ɑ w 10. ɑ  ɑː; ( ɑ  ɑ ɑ  runɑ m ɑ  menɑ ɑ  nɑ 11. Levelingof new[oːɑː] throughoutnominal,pronominal,adjectival,andverbal paradigms. 12. ˈVC(C)Vː VC C ˈVː ˈ  feˈn ˈ t  roˈt ˈ t  ˈt 13. VːC C ˈV  ˈVːC(C)V;(usuallyoccurswithverbal prefixes) 14. VːC C ˈVC C Vː ˈVːC(C)VC(C)Vː;(rare;usuallyoccurswithverbal prefixes) 15. V[l ʎr m n ɲ ŋ]#  [ m ŋ]#  lezń,gwɑ m gwɑ ,ɑ ɑm ɑ , hɑ  hɑ ľ ŋ ozŋ m ŋ  m ŋ) 16. Levelingof syllabicsonorantstothe oblique cases;(ɑ  ɑ ɑm ɑ ɑm  ɑ is, ɑ lo)
  • 42. 34 Brewer 17. [b d g]  [vð ɣ] / V_V,L_V, V_L; except[d] / [l n]_, [ ] [m]_ [ ] [ŋ]_;(rodi  roði,gwɑ  gwɑ ,reldus  reldus) 18. V  V C V  C V wɑ  gwɑ ŕm, gwɑ is gwɑ ŕmis) 19. Levelingof voicedand/orlenited consonantsfromobliqueformstothe root;(sonrɑ t hejð ɑ t zonrɑ t m t hejð ðemot ðemot,d d d ðis d ð) 20. Levelingof root-final fricativesthatcome fromformeraspiratedstops tothe nominative case or verbroot; (bist  bisþis bisþ,hertot hertoþmoj  hertoþ) 21. Whena non-initial fricativeprecedesastop,the stopislenited andassimilated,becoming identical tothe fricative.Thiscreatesageminate;(bist  biss,bæsti  bæssi,xrezg  xrezz ,xrestə xressə) 22. Final consonantsdevoice;(ð ð ð þ,sor ð þ  t ð þ,wɑþ ð wɑþ þ,tunojð tunojþ t nd t t) 23. ə#  Ø# (monosyllablesexcepted);(fweə fwe,rɑ ə rɑ ,wossə  woss,xettə xett, xressə xress,roltə t ŋ ə ŋ ə hex, þ ə þ m ə gemx,sixxə sixx, nɑ þə nɑ þ,nɑðenə nɑðen,lunə lun,hiðem hiðemmə hiðemm, sulə ɑðə ɑð ɲə  ɲ,howmə howm, itenə iten,ælə m mmə  mm ðimə øyðim) 24. #uː  #wu, #iː  # mŕn wumŕ ɑ ń  jirɑ ń) 25. VrlV  VrrV,VlrV  VllV;(tarlń tarrń,holrex  hollex) 26. (r)rVr (l)lVr;(rɑ m  lɑ m t  t 27. #wr  #r; (wrel  rel) 28. ʎ  lj, ɲ  nj; (þæle  þælje,enneðń ennjeðń) 29. ɪ#  Ø#; (ðemjølɪ  ðemjøl, ŋ ɪ  ŋŕ) §4.2 Phonological Inventory § 4.2.1 Consonants Bilabial Lab. Den. Interdental Dental Post-Alveolar Palatal Velar Glottal Plosive p[ː] b[ː] t[ː]d[ː] k[ː] ɡ[ː] Nasal m[ː] m n[ː] ŋ[ː] ŋ Fricative f[ː] v[ː] [ː] ð[ː] s[ː] z ʃ[ː] ʒ x[ː] ɣ[ː] h Affricate tʃ[ː] dʒ[ː] Tap ɾ [r] Approximant w[ː] j[ː] Lat. Approx. l[ː] § 4.2.2 Vowels: Monophthongs Front Central Back High i[ː] y[ː] u[ː] High-Mid e[ː] ø[ː] o[ː] Low-Mid ɛ[ː] ə Low æ[ː] ɑ[ː]
  • 43. Brewer 35 § 4.2.3 Vowels: Diphthongs oj oʊ uj æj æʊej eʊ iʊ æyøj øy ɛj ɛy eyiy § 4.2.4 Orthography Symbol IPA A ɑ ɑ O o o U u u Æ æ æ E e e I i i ɑ ə Ё ɛ Ø ø ø Y y y P p p B b b Symbol IPA T t t D d d K k k G g g M m m N n n Ŋ ŋ ŋ F f f V v v Þ þ Đ ð ð S s s Symbol IPA Z z z ʃ ʒ X x x ɣ H h h tʃ dʒ R r r W w w J j j L l l  Long vowelsare indicatedby placinganacute accent(´) overthe vowel grapheme.  Long consonantsare indicatedbya doublingof the consonant grapheme.  Syllabicresonantsare indicatedbyplacing anacute accent overthe grapheme forthe consonant (e.g.n  ń, m  ,l  ľ). §4.3 Morphology §4.3.1 Grammatical Endings – Nominal, Pronominal and Adjectival Case Singular Plural Collective Plural Nominative Ø ek þ Accusative is izek isþ Genitive oþ (N) / ot (PN) oþek oþþ Partitive lo / ro lowek / rowek loþ / roþ Dative ðŕ / dŕ / zŕ ðrek / drek / zrek ðrɑþ / drɑþ / zrɑþ Locative sej / psej / tsej / ksej / zej sejek/ psejek / tsejek / ksejek / zejek sejþ / psejþ / tsejþ / ksejþ / zejþ Instrumental (e)m / (e)mek (e)mþ Comitative (e)nts (e)ntsek (e)ntsþ  While in NærutN the endingwasonlyattachedtothe final constituentof anoun phrase unlessmarkedforemphasis,in NærutOtmjóvall constituentsare marked.Overtime,the
  • 44. 36 Brewer meaningof multiple-constituentmarkingweakenedtothe pointthatitheldnospecial meaning, insteadonlyservingtotie eachnounphrase together.  The accusative case endings cantriggerfrontingof the rootvowel inmonosyllabicroots.  If the partitive endingfollowsarootendingin[r] or [ ],the initial [l] assimilates,producing{-ro}. §4.3.2 Pronominal Morphology Singular 1st Singular 2nd Singular 3rd Sing. Masc. 3rd Sing. Fem. 3rd Sing. Neu. Nominative þó den rom ær or Accusative þæ s denjis rømis ærmis ormis Genitive þót denot romot ærmot ormot Partitive þólo denlo romlo ær lo or lo Dative þóðŕ dendŕ romðŕ ær ðŕ or ðŕ Locative þózej dentsej rompsej ær psej or psej Instrumental þóm den romem ærmem ormem Comitative þówents denjents roments ærments orments Dual 1st Dual Inclusive 1st Dual Exclusive 2nd Dual 3rd Dual Nominative mor xett d þ Accusative w møris xettɑ d ðis Genitive w t morot xettɑ t d ðot Partitive morro xettɑ d ðlo Dative ðŕ morðŕ xettɑðŕ d ddŕ Locative morzej xettɑzej d tsej Instrumental m mor xettɑm d ð Comitative w t morents xettɑ t d ðents Plural 1st Plural Inclusive 1st Plural Exclusive 2nd Plural 3rd Plural Nominative nɑru on þælje el Accusative nɑ uwis ønis þæljejis eljis Genitive nɑ wot onot þæljejot elot Partitive nɑrulo onlo þæljelo ello Dative nɑ ðŕ ondŕ þæljeðŕ dŕ Locative nɑruzej ontsej þæljezej elzej Instrumental nɑ m on þæl el Comitative nɑ wents onents þæljejents eljents
  • 45. Brewer 37 §4.3.3 Nominal and Adjectival Morphology ɑ – man Singular Plural Collective Plural Nominative ɑ ɑ mek ɑ þ Accusative ɑ mis ɑ mizek ɑ misþ Genitive ɑ moþ ɑ moþek ɑ moþþ Partitive ɑ lo ɑ lowek ɑ loþ Dative ɑ ðŕ ɑ ðrek ɑ ðrɑþ Locative ɑ psej ɑ psejek ɑ psejþ Instrumental ɑ mem ɑ memek ɑ memþ Comitative ɑ ments ɑ mentsek ɑ mentsþ dunoj – ceiling Singular Plural Collective Plural Nominative dunoj dunojek dunojþ Accusative dunojis dunojizek dunojisþ Genitive dunojoþ dunojoþek dunojoþþ Partitive dunojlo dunojlowek dunojloþ Dative dunojðŕ dunojðrek dunojðrɑþ Locative dunojzej dunojzejek dunojzejþ Instrumental dunojm dunojmek dunojmþ Comitative dunojents dunojentsek dunojentsþ bisþ– hour Singular Plural Collective Plural Nominative bisþ bisþek bisþþ Accusative bisþis bisþizek bisþisþ Genitive bisþoþ bisþoþek bisþoþþ Partitive bisþlo bisþlowek bisþloþ Dative bizzŕ bizzrek bizzrɑþ Locative bissej bissejek bissejþ Instrumental bisþ bisþmek bisþ þ Comitative bisþents bisþentsek bisþentsþ ɑ – cup Singular Plural Collective Plural Nominative ɑ ɑ k ɑheþ Accusative ɑ ɑ zek ɑhejisþ Genitive ɑ þ ɑ þek ɑ joþþ Partitive ɑ ɑhelowek ɑ þ Dative ɑ ðŕ ɑheðrek ɑ ð ɑþ Locative ɑhezej ɑ zejek ɑ zejþ Instrumental ɑhem ɑhemek ɑ mþ Comitative ɑhejents ɑhejentsek ɑ jentsþ
  • 46. 38 Brewer §4.3.4 Verbal Affixes and Particles Non-finite Forms–  Active Infinitive:-ot/ -jot/ -wot  Passive Infinitive:-su/ -zu  Supine:- - -  Imperfective Verbal Adverb:mu- / muw- (+ possible final voicingof fricatives andumlauteffectsinsingle- syllable roots)  Perfective Verbal Adverb:hó- / hów- (+ possible finalvoicingof fricativesand umlauteffectsinsingle-syllable roots) PersonSuffixes–  1st PersonSingular,Active: -moj  2nd PersonSingular, Active:-æn/ -ń  3rd PersonSingular, Active:-jľ/ -ľ  1st PersonDual/Plural, Active:-møj  2nd PersonDual/Plural, Active:- n  3rd PersonDual/Plural, Active: -jøl /-øl  1st Person,Passive:- / -  2nd Person,Passive:-owe  3rd Person,Passive:-ŋ Tense Prefixes–  Present:Ø-  Past: hej-  Future: un- / Ø- Superaspectual Prefixes –  Imperfective:Ø- (present)/ [C]o- /lo- / ho- / o- / w- / u- (pastand future)  Perfective:Ø-  Progressive:ɑm - Subaspectual Prefixes–  Inchoative:-en(n)- /-en(n)j-  Terminative:-rɑ- / -lɑ-  Momentane:- ew-  Semeliterative:-mɑ -/-mɑ -  Durative o Short: -læs- o Long: - es-  Protractive: -led- /-leð-  Habitual: -jis- /- -  Conative o Neutral:-zos- o Negative:-wil(j)- o Positive:-rem-  Reversionary:-fɑ - Moods –  Indicative:Ø  Conditional:tiste  Subjunctive:þæn  Imperative: - (+ n)  Third-personverbal suffixestriggerjod coalescenceinverbswhose rootsendin[sz t d].  Monosyllabicverbrootsexperience frontingof the rootvowel inthe thirdperson,unless affectedby jod coalescence.  The properorder of prefix affixationin(Imperative)-Tense-Superaspect-Subaspect-Root.  The inchoative andterminativehave beenreanalyzed assubaspects, reducingthe superaspectual categoriestothe imperfective,perfective,andprogressive.  The momentane andsemeliterativesubaspectsonlyappearinthe perfective andprogressive superaspectsandthe perfectivehabitualonly appearsinthe past.  Whena verb rootbeginswiththe phoneme /r/,thatphoneme morphsinto/l/inthe negative conative andreversionarysubaspectsdue tothe progressiveassimilationphenomenonthese soundsexperience whenadjacentto eachother.Conversely,whensuchverbstake the terminative orsemeliterative subaspectual markers,theychange from{-rɑ-}to{- ɑ-} and{- mɑ -} to{-mɑ -},respectively, due todissimilatoryeffects. Thisalsocauses the perfective
  • 47. Brewer 39 superaspectual markertobecome {lo-} whenitappearsonitsown,withoutanysubaspect,or whenitappearswiththe positive conativemarkerbefore verbrootsbeginningwith/l/.  Vowel initial rootsyield{u-} inthe imperfectivesuperaspectbefore subaspectsthatare consonant-initialand{w-} before thosethatare vowel-initial. Rootsthatusedtohave an initial glottal stop/ʔ/nowtake {ho-} inthe neutral subaspectof the future,and{o-} inall othercases.  Onlythe {w-} and{o-} formsof the imperfective superaspectual markerare productive innewly formedwords.  Of the fourmoods,the conditional andsubjunctive are markedby separate wordsand the mp t t p -},withthe indicativebeingthe unmarkedformof the verb. §4.3.5 Verbal Morphology VerbRoot– reldus- (tosay) (This tablerepresentsthe indicativemood.Othermoodsareindicated through theuseof their prefixes.) Infinitive: relduzot Supine: relduz Imperfective Verbal Adverb: murelduz Perfective Verbal Adverb: hórelduz Past Present Future Active Voice Imperfective Superaspect Neutral (speak) 1st Person Sing. hejrorelduzmoj relduzmoj unrorelduzmoj 2nd Person Sing. hejrorelduzń relduzń unrorelduzń 3rd Person Sing. hejroreldu ľ reldu ľ unroreldu ľ 1st Person D & P hejrorelduzmøj relduzmøj unrorelduzmøj 2nd Person D &P hejrorelduz n relduz n unrorelduz n 3rd Person D & P hejroreldu øl reldu øl unroreldu øl Inchoative (start speaking) 1st Person Sing. hejrowenrelduzmoj enrelduzmoj unrowenrelduzmoj 2nd Person Sing. hejrowenrelduzń enrelduzń unrowenrelduzń 3rd Person Sing. hejrowenreldu ľ enreldu ľ unrowenreldu ľ 1st Person D & P hejrowenrelduzmøj enrelduzmøj unrowenrelduzmøj 2nd Person D &P hejrowenrelduz n enrelduz n unrowenrelduz n 3rd Person D & P hejrowenreldu øl enreldu øl unrowenreldu øl Terminative (stopspeaking) 1st Person Sing. hejrolɑrelduzmoj lɑrelduzmoj unrolɑrelduzmoj 2nd Person Sing. hejrolɑrelduzń lɑrelduzń unrolɑrelduzń 3rd Person Sing. hejrolɑreldu ľ lɑreldu ľ unrolɑreldu ľ 1st Person D & P hejrolɑrelduzmøj lɑrelduzmøj unrolɑrelduzmøj 2nd Person D &P hejrolɑrelduz n lɑrelduz n unrolɑrelduz n 3rd Person D & P hejrolɑreldu øl lɑreldu øl unrolɑreldu øl Durative, Short (speaka little) 1st Person Sing. hejrolæzrelduzmoj læzrelduzmoj unrolæzrelduzmoj 2nd Person Sing. hejrolæzrelduzń læzrelduzń unrolæzrelduzń 3rd Person Sing. hejrolæzreldu ľ læzreldu ľ unrolæzreldu ľ
  • 48. 40 Brewer 1st Person D & P hejrolæzrelduzmøj læzrelduzmøj unrolæzrelduzmøj 2nd Person D &P hejrolæzrelduz n læzrelduz n unrolæzrelduz n 3rd Person D & P hejrolæzreldu øl læzreldu øl unrolæzreldu øl Durative, Long (speakfor a while) 1st Person Sing. hejro ezrelduzmoj ezrelduzmoj unro ezrelduzmoj 2nd Person Sing. hejro ezrelduzń ezrelduzń unro ezrelduzń 3rd Person Sing. hejro ezreldu ľ ezreldu ľ unro ezreldu ľ 1st Person D & P hejro ezrelduzmøj ezrelduzmøj unro ezrelduzmøj 2nd Person D &P hejro ezrelduz n ezrelduz n unro ezrelduz n 3rd Person D & P hejro ezreldu øl ezreldu øl unro ezreldu øl Protractive (speakon and on) 1st Person Sing. hejroleðrelduzmoj leðrelduzmoj unroleðrelduzmoj 2nd Person Sing. hejroleðrelduzń leðrelduzń unroleðrelduzń 3rd Person Sing. hejroleðreldu ľ leðreldu ľ unroleðreldu ľ 1st Person D & P hejroleðrelduzmøj leðrelduzmøj unroleðrelduzmøj 2nd Person D &P hejroleðrelduz n leðrelduz n unroleðrelduz n 3rd Person D & P hejroleðreldu øl leðreldu øl unroleðreldu øl Habitual (usuallyspeak) 1st Person Sing. herow m jizrelduzmoj unrow m 2nd Person Sing. herow relduzń jizrelduzń unrow relduzń 3rd Person Sing. herow reldu ľ jizreldu ľ unrow reldu ľ 1st Person D & P herow relduzmøj jizrelduzmøj unrow relduzmøj 2nd Person D &P herow relduz n jizrelduz n unrow relduz n 3rd Person D & P herow reldu øl jizreldu øl unrow reldu øl Conative,Neutral (try to speak) 1st Person Sing. hejrozozrelduzmoj zozrelduzmoj unrozozrelduzmoj 2nd Person Sing. hejrozozrelduzń zozrelduzń unrozozrelduzń 3rd Person Sing. hejrozozreldu ľ zozreldu ľ unrozozreldu ľ 1st Person D & P hejrozozrelduzmøj zozrelduzmøj unrozozrelduzmøj 2nd Person D &P hejrozozrelduz n zozrelduz n unrozozrelduz n 3rd Person D & P hejrozozreldu øl zozreldu øl unrozozreldu øl Conative,Negative (try to speak [and fail]) 1st Person Sing. hejrowillelduzmoj willelduzmoj unrowillelduzmoj 2nd Person Sing. hejrowillelduzń willelduzń unrowillelduzń 3rd Person Sing. hejrowilleldu ľ willeldu ľ unrowilleldu ľ 1st Person D & P hejrowillelduzmøj willelduzmøj unrowillelduzmøj 2nd Person D &P hejrowillelduz n willelduz n unrowillelduz n 3rd Person D & P hejrowilleldu øl willeldu øl unrowilleldu øl Conative,Positive (try to speak [and succeed]) 1st Person Sing. hejloremrelduzmoj remrelduzmoj unloremrelduzmoj 2nd Person Sing. hejloremrelduzń remrelduzń unloremrelduzń 3rd Person Sing. hejloremreldu ľ remreldu ľ unloremreldu ľ 1st Person D & P hejloremrelduzmøj remrelduzmøj unloremrelduzmøj 2nd Person D &P hejloremrelduz n remrelduz n unloremrelduz n 3rd Person D & P hejloremreldu øl remreldu øl unloremreldu øl
  • 49. Brewer 41 Reversionary(‘unsay’) 1st Person Sing. hejrofɑ m fɑ m unrofɑ m 2nd Person Sing. hejrofɑ elduzń fɑ elduzń unrofɑ elduzń 3rd Person Sing. hejrofɑ eldu ľ fɑ eldu ľ unrofɑ eldu ľ 1st Person D & P hejrofɑ relduzmøj fɑ elduzmøj unrofɑ elduzmøj 2nd Person D &P hejrofɑ elduz n fɑ elduz n unrofɑ elduz n 3rd Person D & P hejrofɑ eldu øl fɑ eldu øl unrofɑ eldu øl Perfective Superaspect Neutral (spoke) 1st Person Sing. hejrelduzmoj - unrelduzmoj 2nd Person Sing. hejrelduzń - unrelduzń 3rd Person Sing. hejreldu ľ - unreldu ľ 1st Person D & P hejreldumøj - unrelduzmøj 2nd Person D &P hejrelduz n - unrelduz n 3rd Person D & P hejreldu øl - unreldu øl Inchoative (started to speak) 1st Person Sing. hejenrelduzmoj - unenrelduzmoj 2nd Person Sing. hejenrelduzń - unenrelduzń 3rd Person Sing. hejenreldu ľ - unenreldu ľ 1st Person D & P hejenreldumøj - unenrelduzmøj 2nd Person D &P hejenrelduz n - unenrelduz n 3rd Person D & P hejenreldu øl - unenreldu øl Terminative (stoppedspeaking) 1st Person Sing. hejlɑrelduzmoj - unlɑrelduzmoj 2nd Person Sing. hejlɑrelduzń - unlɑrelduzń 3rd Person Sing. hejlɑreldu ľ - unlɑreldu ľ 1st Person D & P hejlɑreldumøj - unlɑrelduzmøj 2nd Person D &P hejlɑrelduz n - unlɑrelduz n 3rd Person D & P hejlɑreldu øl - unlɑreldu øl Momentane (spoke once) 1st Person Sing. hej ewrelduzmoj - un ewrelduzmoj 2nd Person Sing. hej ewrelduzń - un ewrelduzń 3rd Person Sing. hej ewreldu ľ - un ewreldu ľ 1st Person D & P hej ewreldumøj - un ewrelduzmøj 2nd Person D &P hej ewrelduz n - un ewrelduz n 3rd Person D & P hej ewreldu øl - un ewreldu øl Semeliterative (spoke once more) 1st Person Sing. hejmɑ erelduzmoj - unmɑ erelduzmoj 2nd Person Sing. hejmɑ erelduzń - unmɑlerelduzń 3rd Person Sing. hejmɑlereldu ľ - unmɑ ereldu ľ 1st Person D & P hejmɑ ereldumøj - unmɑ erelduzmøj 2nd Person D &P hejmɑ erelduz n - unmɑ erelduz n 3rd Person D & P hejmɑ ereldu øl - unmɑ ereldu øl Durative, Short (spoke a little) 1st Person Sing. hejlæzrelduzmoj - unlæzrelduzmoj
  • 50. 42 Brewer 2nd Person Sing. hejlæzrelduzń - unlæzrelduzń 3rd Person Sing. hejlæzreldu ľ - unlæzreldu ľ 1st Person D & P hejlæzreldumøj - unlæzrelduzmøj 2nd Person D &P hejlæzrelduz n - unlæzrelduz n 3rd Person D & P hejlæzreldu øl - unlæzreldu øl Durative, Long (spoke for a while) 1st Person Sing. hej ezrelduzmoj - un ezrelduzmoj 2nd Person Sing. hej ezrelduzń - un ezrelduzń 3rd Person Sing. hej ezreldu ľ - un ezreldu ľ 1st Person D & P hej ezreldumøj - un ezrelduzmøj 2nd Person D &P hej ezrelduz n - un ezrelduz n 3rd Person D & P hej ezreldu øl - un ezreldu øl Protractive (spoke on and on) 1st Person Sing. hejleðrelduzmoj - unleðrelduzmoj 2nd Person Sing. hejleðrelduzń - unleðrelduzń 3rd Person Sing. hejleðreldu ľ - unleðreldu ľ 1st Person D & P hejleðreldumøj - unleðrelduzmøj 2nd Person D &P hejleðrelduz n - unleðrelduz n 3rd Person D & P hejleðreldu øl - unleðreldu øl Habitual (usedto speak) 1st Person Sing. hej relduzmoj - - 2nd Person Sing. hej relduzń - - 3rd Person Sing. hej reldu ľ - - 1st Person D & P hej reldumøj - - 2nd Person D &P hej relduz n - - 3rd Person D & P hej reldu øl - - Conative,Neutral (triedto speak) 1st Person Sing. hejzozrelduzmoj - unzozrelduzmoj 2nd Person Sing. hejzozrelduzń - unzozrelduzń 3rd Person Sing. hejzozreldu ľ - unzozreldu ľ 1st Person D & P hejzozreldumøj - unzozrelduzmøj 2nd Person D &P hejzozrelduz n - unzozrelduz n 3rd Person D & P hejzozreldu øl - unzozreldu øl Conative,Negative (triedto speak [and fail]) 1st Person Sing. hejwillelduzmoj - unwillelduzmoj 2nd Person Sing. hejwillelduzń - unwillelduzń 3rd Person Sing. hejwilleldu ľ - unwilleldu ľ 1st Person D & P hejwilleldumøj - unwillelduzmøj 2nd Person D &P hejwillelduz n - unwillelduz n 3rd Person D & P hejwilleldu øl - unwilleldu øl Conative,Positive (triedto speak[and succeed]) 1st Person Sing. hejremrelduzmoj - unremrelduzmoj 2nd Person Sing. hejremrelduzń - unremrelduzń 3rd Person Sing. hejremreldu ľ - unremreldu ľ 1st Person D & P hejremreldumøj - unremrelduzmøj
  • 51. Brewer 43 2nd Person D &P hejremrelduz n - unremrelduz n 3rd Person D & P hejremreldu øl - unremreldu øl Reversionary(‘unsaid’) 1st Person Sing. hejfɑ elduzmoj - unfɑ elduzmoj 2nd Person Sing. hejfɑ elduzń - unfɑ elduzń 3rd Person Sing. hejfɑ eldu ľ - unfɑ eldu ľ 1st Person D & P hejfɑ eldumøj - unfɑ elduzmøj 2nd Person D &P hejfɑ elduz n - unfɑ elduz n 3rd Person D & P hejfɑ eldu øl - unfɑ eldu øl Progressive Superaspect Neutral (be speaking) 1st Person Sing. hejɑm relduzmoj ɑm relduzmoj unɑm relduzmoj 2nd Person Sing. hejɑm relduzń ɑm relduzń unɑm relduzń 3rd Person Sing. hejɑm reldu ľ ɑm reldu ľ unɑm reldu ľ 1st Person D & P hejɑm relduzmøj ɑm relduzmøj unɑm relduzmøj 2nd Person D &P hejɑm relduz n ɑm relduz n unɑm relduz n 3rd Person D & P hejɑm reldu øl ɑm reldu øl unɑm reldu øl Inchoative (be starting to speak) 1st Person Sing. hejɑm jenrelduzmoj ɑm jenrelduzmoj unɑm jenrelduzmoj 2nd Person Sing. hejɑm jenrelduzń ɑm jenrelduzń unɑm jenrelduzń 3rd Person Sing. hejɑm jenreldu ľ ɑm jenreldu ľ unɑm jenreldu ľ 1st Person D & P hejɑm jenrelduzmøj ɑm jenrelduzmøj unɑm jenrelduzmøj 2nd Person D &P hejɑm jenrelduz n ɑm jenrelduz n unɑm jenrelduz n 3rd Person D & P hejɑm jenreldu øl ɑm jenreldu øl unɑm jenreldu øl Terminative (be stoppingspeaking) 1st Person Sing. hejɑm lɑrelduzmoj ɑm lɑrelduzmoj unɑm lɑrelduzmoj 2nd Person Sing. hejɑm lɑrelduzń ɑm lɑrelduzń unɑm lɑrelduzń 3rd Person Sing. hejɑm lɑreldu ľ ɑm lɑreldu ľ unɑm lɑreldu ľ 1st Person D & P hejɑm lɑrelduzmøj ɑm lɑrelduzmøj unɑm lɑrelduzmøj 2nd Person D &P hejɑm lɑrelduz n ɑm lɑrelduz n unɑm lɑrelduz n 3rd Person D & P hejɑm lɑreldu øl ɑm lɑreldu øl unɑm lɑreldu øl Momentane (be speakingonce) 1st Person Sing. hejɑm wrelduzmoj ɑme wrelduzmoj unɑm wrelduzmoj 2nd Person Sing. hejɑm wrelduzń ɑm wrelduzń unɑm wrelduzń 3rd Person Sing. hejɑm wreldu ľ ɑm wreldu ľ unɑm wreldu ľ 1st Person D & P hejɑm wrelduzmøj ɑm wrelduzmøj unɑm wrelduzmøj 2nd Person D &P hejɑm wrelduz n ɑm wrelduz n unɑm wrelduz n 3rd Person D & P hejɑm wreldu øl ɑm wreldu øl unɑm wreldu øl Semeliterative (be repeatingonce) 1st Person Sing. hejɑm mɑ relduzmoj ɑm mɑ relduzmoj unɑm mɑ relduzmoj 2nd Person Sing. hejɑm mɑ relduzń ɑm mɑ relduzń unɑm mɑ relduzń 3rd Person Sing. hejɑm mɑ reldu ľ ɑm mɑ reldu ľ unɑm mɑ reldu ľ 1st Person D & P hejɑm mɑ relduzmøj ɑm mɑ relduzmøj unɑm mɑ relduzmøj 2nd Person D &P hejɑm mɑ relduz n ɑm mɑ relduz n unɑm mɑ relduz n 3rd Person D & P hejɑm mɑ reldu øl ɑm mɑ reldu øl unɑm mɑ reldu øl
  • 52. 44 Brewer Durative, Short (be speakinga little) 1st Person Sing. hejɑm læzrelduzmoj ɑm læzrelduzmoj unɑm læzrelduzmoj 2nd Person Sing. hejɑm læzrelduzń ɑm læzrelduzń unɑm læzrelduzń 3rd Person Sing. hejɑm læzreldu ľ ɑm læzreldu ľ unɑm læzreldu ľ 1st Person D & P hejɑm læzrelduzmøj ɑm læzrelduzmøj unɑm læzrelduzmøj 2nd Person D &P hejɑm læzrelduz n ɑm læzrelduz n unɑm læzrelduz n 3rd Person D & P hejɑm læzreldu øl ɑmelæzreldu øl unɑm læzreldu øl Durative, Long (be speakingfor a while) 1st Person Sing. hejɑm ezrelduzmoj ɑm ezrelduzmoj unɑm ezrelduzmoj 2nd Person Sing. hejɑm ezrelduzń ɑm ezrelduzń unɑm ezrelduzń 3rd Person Sing. hejɑm ezreldu ľ ɑm ezreldu ľ unɑm ezreldu ľ 1st Person D & P hejɑm ezrelduzmøj ɑm ezrelduzmøj unɑm ezrelduzmøj 2nd Person D &P hejɑm ezrelduz n ɑm ezrelduz n unɑm ezrelduz n 3rd Person D & P hejɑm ezreldu øl ɑm ezreldu øl unɑm ezreldu øl Protractive (be speakingon and on) 1st Person Sing. hejɑm leðrelduzmoj ɑm leðrelduzmoj unɑm leðrelduzmoj 2nd Person Sing. hejɑm leðrelduzń ɑm leðrelduzń unɑm leðrelduzń 3rd Person Sing. hejɑm leðreldu ľ ɑm leðreldu ľ unɑm leðreldu ľ 1st Person D & P hejɑmeleðrelduzmøj ɑm leðrelduzmøj unɑm leðrelduzmøj 2nd Person D &P hejɑm leðrelduz n ɑm leðrelduz n unɑm leðrelduz n 3rd Person D & P hejɑm leðreldu øl ɑm leðreldu øl unɑm leðreldu øl Habitual (usuallybe speaking) 1st Person Sing. hejɑm relduzmoj ɑm relduzmoj unɑm relduzmoj 2nd Person Sing. hejɑm relduzń ɑm relduzń unɑm relduzń 3rd Person Sing. hejɑm reldu ľ ɑm reldu ľ unɑm reldu ľ 1st Person D & P hejɑm relduzmøj ɑm relduzmøj unɑm relduzmøj 2nd Person D &P hejɑm relduz n ɑm relduz n unɑm relduz n 3rd Person D & P hejɑm reldu øl ɑm reldu øl unɑm reldu øl Conative,Neutral (be trying to speak) 1st Person Sing. hejɑm zozrelduzmoj ɑm zozrelduzmoj unɑm zozrelduzmoj 2nd Person Sing. hejɑm zozrelduzń ɑm zozrelduzń unɑm zozrelduzń 3rd Person Sing. hejɑm zozreldu ľ ɑm zozreldu ľ unɑm zozreldu ľ 1st Person D & P hejɑm zozrelduzmøj ɑm zozrelduzmøj unɑm zozrelduzmøj 2nd Person D &P hejɑm zozrelduz n ɑm zozrelduz n unɑm zozrelduz n 3rd Person D & P hejɑm zozreldu øl ɑm zozreldu øl unɑm zozreldu øl Conative,Negative (be trying to speak [and failing]) 1st Person Sing. hejɑm willelduzmoj ɑm willelduzmoj unɑm willelduzmoj 2nd Person Sing. hejɑm willelduzń ɑm willelduzń unɑm willrelduzń 3rd Person Sing. hejɑm willeldu ľ ɑm willreldu ľ unɑm willeldu ľ 1st Person D & P hejɑm willelduzmøj ɑm willelduzmøj unɑm willelduzmøj 2nd Person D &P hejɑm willelduz n ɑm willelduz n unɑm willelduz n 3rd Person D & P hejɑm willeldu øl ɑm willeldu øl unɑm willeldu øl Conative,Positive (be trying to speak [and succeeding]) 1st Person Sing. hejɑm remrelduzmoj ɑm remrelduzmoj unɑm remrelduzmoj 2nd Person Sing. hejɑm remrelduzń ɑm remrelduzń unɑm remrelduzń