1. Correction Strategies for Reading Difficulties
Notes from Locating and Correcting Reading Difficulties (Eldon Ekwall)
Reading Difficulty Correction Strategy
1 Word-by-word reading
may be caused by
overdependence on phonics,
failure to recognize sight
words, failure to comprehend,
or bad habit (check student
with much lower level to see if
reading improves to rule out
bad habit)
• use material less difficult, or so familiar that vocabulary
presents no difficulty
• write own stories and read them aloud
• read with tape of another student so is comfortable for
student to follow
• practice choral reading; mechanical devise to maintain
reading speed
• pace the reading with their hands
• series of timed silent reading exercises
• student-chosen story to read aloud; read and dramatize
conversation
• re-read poetry until comfortable
• children’s talk recorded as dialogue to read aloud
• Plays for Echo Reading or other commercial materials
designed to develop expressive fluent oral reading
2 Incorrect phrasing
often ignores punctuation,
especially commas; fails to
pause or take a breath in the
proper place; may be
insufficient word recognition
or comprehension, or poor
reading habits;
• increase sight vocabulary if that is the problem
• practice reading prepositional phrases
• listen to recording of properly phrased material while
following same written material
• use material presenting no vocabulary problem to practice
phrasing without experiencing difficulty in word attack
• teacher model proper phrasing during Read-Aloud
• review meaning of punctuation marks and how they affect
phrasing
• reproduce passages with large spaces where pauses should
be
• mechanical device set to comfortable speed with whole
phrases shown on screen at once
• read and dramatize conversation
• choral reading with students who phrase properly
• write sentences using crayons or colored pencils, making
each phrase a different color
• read song lyrics without the music
• graduate students from reading orally one phrase per line,
then one that carries over to another line, but with large
space between words, then to normal print

2. 3 Poor pronunciation
may be weak on knowledge of
phonics, or may possess
knowledge, and not use it; may
have a hearing deficit; may not
understand diacritical
markings; may be a careless
reader; may have a speech
deficit; may have an accent;
• teach phonics skills if this is the weakness indicated by
phonics survey
• make lists of certain letter combinations that sound the
same (ex: tion, ance) and students keep their own lists
• lists of affixes to pronounce
• individual word cards for frequently mispronounces words
• create real and nonsense words using vowel or consonant
blends after an example is given (ex: ash...crash, slash,
scash, scrash
• use of diacritical marks found in the dictionary
• correct mispronunciation with little fuss; ignoring it
reinforces incorrect pronunciation
• set up pairs of words with only one sound difference (ex:
hit…heat), work on recognizing the differences. and use in
sentences
• read aloud difficult material before a student reads it aloud
• hold throats to feel the difference in vibrations between
different letters or words
• play guessing games that deal with sounds
4 Omissions
may omit letters, words, or
phrases; insufficient word
recognition or word analysis
skills (deliberate), or habit of
omitting certain words
(nondeliberate); omissions are
2nd
most common miscue; see
if student can pronounce
omitted word to check for
carelessness; test to see if
student lacks skills in phonics,
structural analysis, context
clues, or comprehension in
order to use strategies to help
with these specific difficulties;
accompanying strategies
should help with nondeliberate
omissions
• call attention to omissions when they occur to make
immediate correction
• use a paper guide to help younger readers, and discarded as
soon as possible
• if whole words or phrases are consistently skipped, try
picking up finger and bringing it down on each word as it
is read (to keep from pointing ahead)
• choral reading or reading with a tape recorder
• ask detailed questions that require thorough reading, asking
about only one sentence or paragraph at a time; students
often omit adjectives, so ask questions that can be
answered by using the adjectives in the passage
• help with word middles or word endings if this is where
omissions occur
• make lists of common letter combinations
• record student reading orally, play back as he follows
along, circling all the omitted words; discuss possibilities
for omissions and the importance of reading all the words

3. 5 Repetitions
poor word recognition, word
analysis, or bad habit; test to
see if student lacks skills in
phonics, structural analysis,
context clues, or
comprehension in order to use
strategies to help with these
specific difficulties;
accompanying strategies
should help with students with
bad habits to give them
confidence to help break the
habit
• call student’s attention to the repetition
• read with tape recording
• choral reading
• mechanical device designed to project certain words per
minute; prevent reader from regressing (emphasis is not on
speed itself, and should not move too quickly)
• set a pace with the hand, and eyes keep up with the hand
(do not let the eyes pace the hand)
• record student reading orally, play back as he follows
along, circling all the repeated words; discuss possibilities
for repetitions
• provide easier or more familiar material where vocabulary
presents no problem
• read material silently before attempting to read orally
6 Inversions or reversals
partial reversals within words
(ant/tan); whole word reversals
(nat/ant); letter reversals (b/d);
words within sentences (rat
chased cat, not cat chased rat);
may have failed to develop
left-to-right eye movement or
reading pattern; might be
neurological impairment; may
not understand importance of
order may be immaturity
(more prevalent in younger
students)
• call attention to context so student can self-correct
• use window marker and covering words to encourage left-
to-right reading pattern
• underline word as they are being read
• pace with hand, practicing left-to-right eye movement
• draw arrows pointing right under troublesome words
• troublesome word cards to trace with two fingers
• troublesome word flashcards
• type troublesome words to see left-to-right pattern forming
• pair troublesome letter pairs to “two-finger trace” as they
are being sounded out
• whole-word reversal: trace word and write it from memory
• 3-dimensional letters to form words commonly reversed
• point to was or saw as it is used in a sentence
• use colored letter at beginning of words that are confused
• close eyes, trace 3-dimensional letter with finger while you
trace it on his back (be sure to coordinate!)
• discuss importance of sequence of letters and words
• assign numbers to letters and use them side-by-side with
words commonly reversed
7 Insertions
3rd
most common miscue; oral
language may surpass reading
level, or might anticipate what
is coming rather than reading
what’s written; strategies may
help with these; if insertions
don’t make sense, assume
comprehension problems
• call attention to insertions
• ask questions that require an exact answer to focus on
descriptions as material is being read
• read with tape recorder or choral reading
• pick up finger and bring it down on each word as it is read
• tape record student oral reading to play back as student
follows along, writing insertion as they are made; use
student-corrected passages as a basis for discussion of the

4. might be present and look to
those strategies
problem
8 Substitutions
most common type of miscue
in oral reading; if minor, may
be best to ignore; if consistent,
steps should be taken; if
substitution is not in proper
context, may be word
recognition difficulty; check to
see if it is carelessness
• troublesome word flashcards
• work on beginning syllables or sounds that cause difficulty
• use troublesome words in multiple choice questions
• use words in sentences where student completes word to
make it sensible (ex: Tell me wh__ they will be home.)
• assure students they have ample time for word attack, so
they will be less likely to finish the word with whatever
comes to mind
• call attention to error and correct it when it occurs
• choral reading to reading with tape recorder
• ask questions reflecting errors so corrections can be made
• have student follow written copy as he listens to tape
recording of his reading, circling substitutions
• if student feels pressure to read rapidly, encourage him to
slow down
9 Basic sight words not known • troublesome word flashcards; use cards to form sentences
and “fill in the blank” exercises
• underline troublesome words in sentences
• create picture dictionaries using troublesome words
• act out troublesome words when using flashcards
• use commonly confuses words in multiple choice questions
• read entire sentence, looking at beginning and ending of
word to pronounce using context and configuration
• form words with letters cut from sandpaper or velvet
• trace words as student says them
• games such as Concentration reinforce sight words
10 Sight vocabulary not up to
grade level
• read widely on many subjects on independent level
• keep card file for new words; review them often
• read stories aloud while student follows along prior to
reading independently, discussing new vocabulary
• build on student’s background of experience using films,
pictures, etc., to build on listening-speaking vocabulary
• use picture-words cards; use word in sentence as well as by
itself
• pantomime words as they are shown on cards
• teach student to rely on a consistent method for learning
new words

5. 11 guesses at words
may lack knowledge of
phonics or structural analysis;
may not be using context
clues; ask why student is
guessing; test using a phonics
survey
• call attention to errors and give help in systematic analysis
of the word
• as student reads, underlines or circles guessed words;
replace with blank spaces for student to fill in with correct
words
• practice reading up to unknown word, sound out beginning
and read a few words after it to try to figure out the word
• practice analyzing clue words to find synonyms and
antonyms when reading to help use context rather than
guessing
12 Consonant sounds not known • flashcards with picture of word using that consonant
• small cards with consonants are laid out; student picks up
card as corresponding sound is made; graduate to
beginning and then ending sounds heard in words spoken
• have students write letter that stands for beginning, ending,
or both beginning and ending sounds as words are said
aloud
• make lists of words given a beginning or ending sound
•
13 Vowel sounds not known • flashcards with pictures using that vowel sound along with
the word marked long or short
• circle or underline words in the line with the same vowel
sound as the first word
• small cards with vowels (use breve or macron to indicate
short or long vowel sound) are laid out; student picks up
card as corresponding vowel sound is made in a word
14 Vowel pairs and/or
consonant clusters not
known (digraphs,
diphthongs, blends)
• flashcards with vowel pair, blend, digraph, or diphthong
shown along with a picture illustrating a word using that
letter combination
• small cards with letter combinations are laid out; student
picks up card as corresponding sound is made in a word
15 Lacks desirable structural
analysis (morphology)
• make lists of common word endings and have students
underline the endings and pronounce their sounds
• use multiple choice questions requiring students to choose
the word with the correct ending
• flashcards with common affixes; use to form new words
• flashcards to make compound words
• make lists of words that can be made from certain roots
• identify words with different prefixes that mean the same
thing; ask students to underline them and add to the list
• make a list of words to which students add suffixes to give

6. a certain meaning to the words (ex: one who dies or one
which does work…working)
• fill in the blanks with correct word form (give root form)
• practice dividing words into syllables
16 Unable to use context clues • use unknown words in sentences to show how meaning can
be derived by the context (other “clue” words)
• construct sentences with missing words with only the first
letter present; graduate to whole words missing
• “fill in the blank” exercises with multiple choice answers
• make tape recordings with key words omitted; students fill
in blank spaces on script as tape is played (start by using
multiple choice, then graduate to blank spaces)
• practice reading up to unknown word, sound out beginning
and read a few words after it to try to figure out the word
• sentences that can be completed using multiple choice
pictures
• sentences in which only part of a word missing from
context is spelled
• pictures to illustrate certain words omitted from tape
recording
• sentences using words that are spelled alike but have
different meanings or pronunciations such as lead or read
17 Contractions not known • write two words next to contracted form; students make up
sentences using both forms
• matching exercises
• Concentration game using both forms to match
• students underline words to be contracted, rewriting
paragraphs using the appropriate contractions
• contracting races between two student: who can call out
contractions first when two words are given
• use newspapers to find contractions or words that could be
contracted
• “transcribe” conversations using contractions and the
words used to form them
18 Comprehension inadequate •
19 Vocabulary inadequate •
20 Unaided recall scanty •
21 Response poorly organized •
22 Unable to locate information •

7. 23 Inability to skim •
24 Inability to adjust rate to
difficulty of material
•
25 Low rate of speed •
26 High rate at expense of
accuracy
•
27 Voicing-lip movement
“pronounces” each word as it
is read; not likely to gain any
speed; may be “voicing” words
while reading silently
• hum a familiar tune while reading
• pace reading with hands, faster than they normally speak
(not effective with younger students)
• mechanical device set too fast for reading orally (not
effective with younger students)
• hold tongue at roof of mouth with teeth and lips closed
during reading
28 Lacks knowledge of the
alphabet
• learning the alphabet song
• present a few letters each day, discussing their
characteristics, height, etc.
• practice looking at, saying, pointing to, and writing a letter
• trace letters cut from sandpaper or velvet while saying the
letter
• trace letters in sand or salt
• teach one-fourth or one-third of the alphabet rather than the
entire alphabet at once
29 Written recall limited by
spelling ability
•
30 Undeveloped dictionary
skills
•