101919, 728 PMThe Indoor Environment Designing and Organiz.docx

10/19/19, 7:28 PMThe Indoor Environment: Designing and
Organizing | VLS
Page 1 of 22https://www.virtuallabschool.org/infant-
toddler/learning-environments/lesson-2?module=4151
Infants & Toddlers Learning
Environments The Indoor
Environment: Designing and
Organizing
Just like adults, infant and toddlers get frustrated when they
cannot easily
move through an environment, or find what they need. It is our
job as
caregivers to make sure the classroom is thoughtfully designed
and
materials for play are well organized. This lesson highlights
how to design
your room for group activities, privacy, storage and display,
with attention to
all learners, including the adults. It provides an introduction to
design
elements that promote a sense of comfort and invite exploration
and
engagement. This lesson also examines how to organize
materials for
independence, easy use and learning.
Objectives:
Distinguish between spaces for group experiences, privacy,
storage,

and display.
Identify characteristics of a well-designed indoor learning
environment.
Learn ways to arrange an indoor learning environment to
promote
infant and toddler growth and development.
Describe how to organize materials for independence, easy use,
and
learning.
Learn
Know
https://www.virtuallabschool.org/infant-toddler
Organizing | VLS
What is Your Perspective?
Infant and toddler caregivers make many decisions each day:
which books
to read, what questions to ask a toddler’s family, which
experiences to offer,
which materials to place where, etc. In many instances, these
decisions are
the result of careful advanced consideration, in addition to a
personal
understanding of how an infant and toddler learning
environment should be,
feel and look.

Infants and toddlers, like most of us, are drawn to inviting and
engaging
environments. Thinking about the ways to create a safe,
flexible, and playful
indoor learning environment requires planning and exploring
ideas from
multiple perspectives.
Arranging the Indoor Learning Environment
The space and furnishings should come together to create an
indoor
learning environment that is tailored to meet the needs of
developing
infants and toddlers. They need close supervision, positive
guidance and
stimulating experiences during this period of rapid growth.
When considering the physical space of play areas, it is
important to create
a space that is not too open or too crowded. Young infants need
protected
areas with enough room to practice their growing abilities and
movements,
such as rolling over and crawling. Mobile infants and toddlers
need space as
they explore and learn to crawl, walk, dance, jump and build
with blocks.
Space is important for both active and quiet play. Well-designed
areas
provide both physical boundaries and visual cues that support
individual
and peer play.
Caregivers will need space for infant and toddler caregiving

routines:
greetings, departures, eating and feeding, sleeping, diapering
and toileting.
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Separate sleeping areas for young infants are recommended so
the children
can keep their individual schedules while still being monitored.
The
diapering and toileting area should contain changing tables,
sinks, and
storage for supplies. These caregiving spaces also provide
opportunities for
learning. For instance, a mobile placed above a changing table
can provide
visual stimulation and distraction for an infant during diapering.
In addition,
eating areas for toddlers who are able to feed themselves
encourage the
development of fine-motor skills. When planning these areas,
caregivers
must use preventative measures to ensure safe and healthy
learning. Please
see the Safety and Healthy course for further information.
When designing spaces for infants and toddlers, it’s also
important to
consider logistics, aesthetics, organization and the needs of all
children in

the space.
Designing for Logistics
There are several things to keep in mind as you design or
redesign your
learning space. We will distinguish between spaces for group
experiences,
privacy, places for adults, storage, and display, all of which are
critical for a
successful indoor learning space.
Places for Group Experiences
Although infants and toddlers learn primarily through
exploration and
interactions with caregivers, spending time in groups is an
excellent way to
begin to build an understanding of learning communities. For
instance, a
brief (5 minute or less) daily group time can encourage infants
and toddlers
to share their ideas and notice the ideas of others (e.g., a
caregiver notices
an infant kicking and encourages everyone to kick their feet
together, or a
toddler says “ice cream” and the caregiver suggests that
everyone pretend
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to eat ice cream together). Caregivers can also lead infants and
toddlers in
songs with corresponding motions that can help develop motor
skills and
awareness of the sounds and patterns of language (Lang et al.,
2010).
Having designated spaces for these experiences and designing
them to
minimize distractions can help you make the most of these
times. This
doesn’t mean you must have a spot that is used just for group
experiences.
The block area, or the book and language area can make a
natural home for
larger group experiences. Just think about having enough space
for all the
children to come comfortably together.
Places for Privacy
Constantly being with other people for a whole day can be
emotionally
draining for anyone, and especially so for infants and toddlers
who are still
developing the ability to regulate their emotions and calm
themselves. Just
like adults and older children, infants and toddlers sometimes
need time
and space to take a break from the group. You can help infants
and toddlers
meet this need by offering spaces that are limited to one or two
children. A
cozy corner with pillows and soft toys or books, or quiet play
area can help

children calm themselves. Remember you can create these
private spaces,
while still ensuring good visibility and children’s safety (see
the Safety
course; e.g., think about the use of sheer fabrics or creating
nooks that you
can easily see into).
Places and Ways to Support Adults
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Although the majority of your room should be designed with
infants and
toddlers in mind, as discussed in the introductory lesson,
caregivers and
children’s families are also an integral part of the learning
environment. The
physical environment should reflect this, by having at least
some spaces
that “speak to” the adults in the learning environment and make
them more
comfortable. For example, having one or two “adult sized”
chairs in the
room (e.g., a rocker or a sofa chair) can visually communicate
to family
members, who may be less comfortable in a kid-sized
environment, that
they are welcome too. These adult chairs can serve as a space
where family

members can read a book to their child during pick-up or drop-
off times, or
provide a space for mothers to visit and nurse, and helps to
build a home-
like atmosphere in the room. Remember, children’s own homes
are not all
child-sized!
In addition, you should have some communication or display
boards that
provide family members with important information about your
room (e.g.,
the weekly curriculum, special notes from the day, or upcoming
events).
Organizing | VLS
As discussed in the introductory lesson, caring for infants and
toddlers can
be exhausting work. The environment should also help support
caregivers’
well-being. Here are some ways to make the environment
supportive for
caregivers as well as for children:
Providing a glider or rocker for adults to use during feeding
times can
help provide a level of comfort and support. This can also help
nurture
relationships between caregivers and children. Close

relationships
reflect and promote knowledge of children’s needs, which
ultimately
makes the caregiver’s job easier.
Using carpeted risers not only supports infants’ and toddlers’
use of
motor skills but also helps caregivers get up and down during
floor play
more easily.
Adding steps to the changing table in the diapering area for
older
toddlers to walk up can reduce the number of times that
caregivers
need to lift heavier children, while also giving older toddlers a
sense of
autonomy.
Places for Storage and Display
Infant and toddler learning spaces require a lot of materials!
Toys, books,
and other resources are regularly rotated in and out of active
use. It is
important to plan for at least three kinds of storage in an infant
and toddler
learning space: open storage for children to access, closed
storage for
caregiver materials, and storage for personal belongings (Dodge
et al.,
2010). It is also important to plan for storing and displaying
children’s
assessment materials and artwork.
Open storage: For materials that are in active use, caregivers
should
carefully label and store them on open, easily accessible

shelves. This
will help children build independence, and toddlers can avoid
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frustration when they are able to find what they want and need.
Closed storage: Tools such as adult office supplies, cooking
utensils,
or cleaning fluids need to be stored securely when not in use.
Again, it
is important to designate and carefully label secure locations for
these
items. This will help you maintain inventory and ensure
children’s
safety.
Personal storage: Infants and toddlers also need individual
spaces for
their own things, such as diaper bags, clothing, supplies, and
creations. Space for favorite items (e.g., stuffed animal, favorite
blanket) can help infants and toddlers feel secure. When spaces
are
easily accessible for toddlers, they can retrieve personal items
when
needed. Even if young infants do not fully understand having
spaces
for their own things, providing these spaces makes the learning
environment more personal and will help parents feel confident
that

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their child is being treated and cared for as an individual with
unique
qualities and needs.
Child display: Storing and displaying artwork and portfolios
sends
powerful messages to children about the value of their work and
helps
you do your job more effectively.
There are many ways to design learning spaces. Watch this
video to see
examples of ways infant-toddler learning spaces have been
designed for
group experiences, privacy, and storage.
Designing Spaces for Learning
Learn about spaces for group experiences, privacy, and storage
and display.
Aesthetics
In the introductory lesson, we addressed that high-quality infant
and
toddler programs send numerous positive messages to children.
One of the
best ways you can communicate to children that your classroom
is “a good

place to be” is through the small touches you place throughout
the room
that express the personality of the class.
Home-like
Children are more likely to feel they can be themselves and
have a sense of
belonging when their classroom environment is like their
homes. There are
many ways you can add personal touches to your classroom to
create a
home-like feel (we will address this more in the Materials
lesson). For
example, you can include:
Soft furniture, such as a couch or large armchair
Nontoxic plants
Natural or soft lighting, through the use of window or lamps
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Throw pillows, cushions
Other decorative touches, such as area rugs or repurposed
furniture
Family photos from the children and staff
Inexpensive frames to hang children’s artwork on the walls
Neutral paint colors
Remember children may spend several hours a day in your

classroom.
Creating a relaxing, home-like environment is critical. It can be
overwhelming to spend eight or twelve hours in spaces that are
visually
overwhelming, with bright lights or bright colors. A home-like
environment,
in addition to places for privacy and quiet areas, offer children
the
opportunity to seek calm when they need it.
Including pictures of the children and their families, in
conjunction with
personal storage and displaying children’s artwork, is another
great way to
communicate that this spaces belongs to the children. When
displaying
pictures or adding decorative touches, remember to hang or
offer many
items at children’s eye level to reinforce that they are valued
members of
the classroom space. Consider taping pictures to the floor so
mobile infants
can see them as they move about.
Inviting Engagement: Provocations
You can also offer items of beauty or wonder in the classroom
that invite
infants’ and toddlers’ exploration and engagement using
provocations. A
provocation is a picture, experience or item that provokes
thought, interest,
questions or creativity (Edwards, 2002). In the Materials lesson
ahead, we
will address different considerations when selecting materials
for your

classroom. Provocations can help “provoke” young children to
use, think
about or see materials in new ways. When designing your
classroom, it can
be useful to think about how you will incorporate provocations.
Your
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inspiration for what provocations to offer will often come from
children’s
current interests, their emerging developmental skills (e.g.,
crawling or
grasping) or their learning goals. Provocations could be:
Pictures: Including pictures of their interests can help extend
exploration of certain concepts and send the message that
children’s
ideas are valued in your classroom. Use pictures of real items as
much
as possible.
An event or experience: For example, go on a nature walk
outdoors or
host a “picnic” in your classroom. You can also take pictures
during the
event to display later. Pictures like these, in conjunction with
personal
storage and children’s artwork, also communicate that this
space
belongs to the children.

Books: Strategically placing books relevant to children’s
current
interests around the room can change their play and
engagement. For
example, offer a book on construction sites next to the blocks,
or on
taking care of babies next to dramatic play.
Items from nature: This includes items you have collected from
outside, such as leaves or nuts, or a vase of fresh flowers.
Simple changes in display: For example, add a child-safe mirror
on
the floor for children to see themselves as they crawl over, or
set up
the doll babies in dramatic play with small bowls and spoons,
which
can invite the older infants and toddlers to “feed” the dolls. For
infants
and toddlers, changes in display can also include rearranging
climbing
equipment to offer new challenges or incorporating different
textures
and colors on the floor.
Consider the placement of your provocations. What are you
hoping infants
and toddlers will do within each area of your classroom? What
concepts are
you currently exploring, or developmental goals are you
working towards,
and how might a provocation in certain areas help extend or
focus children’s
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of 22https://www.virtuallabschool.org/infant-
play? Provocations are meant to be a guide or a point of
inspiration for how
infants and toddlers can engage with certain materials or spaces,
but
remember they are not meant to be an ultimatum for what
children are
supposed to do in each area or with the materials. For example,
perhaps
you set up some empty paper towel tubes and scarves for
children to
explore pushing the scarves through the tubes, but instead the
children
enjoy throwing the scarves in the air and watching them fall.
That is all right;
not every provocation will interest every infant or toddler or
provoke the
kind of play you expect.
Designing for All
When you look to design or redesign your classroom, you need
to consider
the needs and learning goals for all children. Each time a new
infant or
toddler enters your room, you should consider what adaptations
are needed
to best support their engagement and safety in the classroom.
For children
with special needs, it is important to speak with the child’s
family and your

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trainer, coach or supervisor so you know the child’s particular
needs and
what supports will help them. As we will discuss in the
Materials lesson,
assuring that your classroom is welcoming to children from
diverse cultural
backgrounds is also critical to supporting the success of all
children in your
room.
In terms of environmental design, you may need to consider the
physical
space within learning areas or pathways between areas to ensure
that
infants or toddlers with physical disabilities can easily move
around and
participate, or caregivers can comfortably move them
throughout spaces
and participate with them. In addition, all children, but
particularly children
with social or behavioral needs or certain developmental
disabilities, may
benefit from a designated “cool down” area, where they can
easily access
materials that help them soothe themselves and where they can
spend
some minutes alone. See this resource from eXtension about
adapting the
learning environment for children with special

needs: http://articles.extension.org/pages/61358/adapting-the-
child-care-
environment-for-children-with-special-needs.
Watch this video for more information on designing spaces and
selecting
appropriate materials for all children in your program space.
Listen as one
teacher reflects on how she adapts the environment and
experiences to
meet the needs of children in her classroom. Also review the
Learn
attachment for some visual examples of environmental supports,
adaptive
equipment and materials for children with special needs.
Infants & Toddlers: Cultivating Spaces for All Learners
Creating spaces for all infants and toddlers, discussing adaptive
equipment and environments.
Organization
http://articles.extension.org/pages/61358/adapting-the-child-
care-environment-for-children-with-special-needs
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Imagine walking into your familiar neighborhood grocery store
to quickly
grab one necessary ingredient for dinner, only to discover the

entire store
has been rearranged. What should have been a quick trip now
has turned
into a 30-minute scavenger hunt. You would feel frustrated and
discouraged. In a learning environment, caregivers and children
may also
feel frustrated when they cannot find what they need or when
materials for
play are unavailable.
As a caregiver, it is your responsibility to ensure materials are
easily
accessible and well organized. When organizing your materials,
you should
think about three goals: independence, easy use and learning.
Organize for Independence
First, as children develop we want them to learn that they can
find and use
materials on their own. The best way to accomplish this is to
store materials
on low, open shelves. This lets children see the materials
available, make a
choice, and return the item with less adult support. Keep in
mind, though,
that too many choices can be overwhelming. Low, open shelves
should
display the toys and materials in a simple and attractive way.
For young
infants who are not yet mobile, materials will have to be
brought directly to
them. But, as soon as children are able to creep or crawl to
materials, they
should be encouraged to select and access the materials they are
interested in playing with on their own.

Second, we want children to learn to use signs and symbols in
the
environment to support their independence. The major way we
help them
do this is by carefully labeling objects or the places the objects
belong. The
best labels use written words plus pictures or parts of the object
(like a
puzzle piece on a shelf that contains wooden puzzles). Labeling
not only
helps children learn to access toys and eventually clean up
independently, it
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also creates a print-rich environment. As an added benefit, you
may find
yourself giving fewer directions and reminders. When children
can engage
independently with materials, you have more time for
interacting and
expanding learning opportunities.
Organize for Easy Use
It is important to organize learning and play materials so that
you and the
children in your care can find what is needed. As infants
develop into

toddlers, this helps them realize “I can do things on my own.” It
also
empowers children to try out ideas and use new materials. When
organizing
for easy use, think about storing similar materials together.
Similar materials
are things that go together or materials that are necessary for
certain
activities. For example, baby dolls could be stored near
blankets, or other
dramatic play items like play dishes and spoons. Soft blocks
could be
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stored near other materials like nesting cups or stacking rings so
that
infants and toddlers can combine these materials in their
exploration.
The types of storage you choose, including bins, baskets and
containers,
can affect how easily children can access materials and put
them away. For
example, storing books on a shelving unit that allows children
to see the full
front covers of books may spark greater interest in reading and
make it
easier for children to choose a book in which they are
interested. Storing

simple wooden puzzles on a puzzle rack will also make it easier
for children
to choose a puzzle and return it to its place when finished
playing. Storage
bins should be open (without lids) for materials that you want
children to
access themselves. They should also be made of lightweight
material (e.g.,
plastic vs. metal) and not too large or too heavy so that children
can handle
them on their own. Clear plastic bins will allow children to
easily see the
materials that are inside. Use bins that are large enough to
accommodate
materials without tipping over. Baskets should be free of
material that could
poke or scratch children and should not be used to store
materials (e.g.,
crayons) that can fall out through the holes. Wheeled carts that
can
transport books or bins of materials may make it easier to rotate
materials,
just make sure the locking mechanisms on such carts are safe
for infants
and toddlers.
Organize for Learning
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It is important to keep the space clean, which involves both
adults and
children. The steps you take to organize for independence and
easy use will
also help you keep the space tidy. Children will know where
materials
belong, and they won’t have to carry materials far from their
storage
spaces. Furthermore, children will learn to respect materials and
the
learning environment.
As discussed previously with the concept of provocations, you
can organize
your space to spark or build upon children’s interests. Displays
(e.g.,
pictures, posters or wall hangings) can be arranged that help
children
explore ideas or try new things with the materials (e.g., pictures
of nearby
construction activity next to the blocks and plastic trucks).
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Displays should also reflect the backgrounds, knowledge,
interests and
experiences of the diverse children in your learning
environment. To
maintain children’s engagement in play and learning, you will
want to rotate

materials regularly so children have the chance to use different
kinds of
materials.
See
It’s important to organize your space and materials for
independence, easy
use and learning. Let’s look at a few ways infant and toddler
caregivers
organize their materials to meet these three goals.
Organizing Materials for Play
Watch how materials promote independence, easy use and
learning.
Do
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Learning space arrangement may seem like an art and a science.
It is an art
for you to make your room feel welcoming and like a home. It is
a science as
you use knowledge of developmentally appropriate practice to
plan your
room’s floor plan. Remember that developmentally appropriate
means that
the environment you create for children should fit their stage of

development, while still being flexible to allow for differences
between
children in skills, interests, and characteristics.
Make Safety A Priority: Be sure to supervise infants and
toddlers
closely. Check toys and materials for safety every day and
remove
broken toys or play materials. Make sure that you have secure
storage
for all items that are unsafe for children. This includes your
personal
belongings, cleaning supplies, office supplies, etc. Many of the
storage
recommendations already described (e.g., open storage labeled
with
words and pictures) will help ensure safety by providing
opportunities
for children to access their own toys and materials safely and
encouraging them to clean up after themselves. A well-designed
learning space will also keep children engaged in appropriate
play and
help prevent undesirable, unsafe behaviors (e.g., jumping,
running).
See Safety course for more information.
Make the Learning Space Feel Like Home: Use some of the
suggestions offered in this lesson. Make sure some of your
visual
displays are at the children’s eye level.
Plan Ahead: Consider how you will use spaces for group
experiences,
storage and display. Then identify the resources you need to
make
those spaces work. For example, enure you have storage for
items you
use every day in diaper and feeding areas. Think about how you

collect
and use child assessment information. You might be more likely
to
keep your records current if they are in a visible location. List
all the
materials you will need in each space based on the activities,
storage
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and displays that you are planning.
Organize Materials for Independence, Easy Use and Learning:
This
includes desired objects and materials as well as materials not
in use.
When materials are organized, it is easier to rotate toys on a
regular
basis and find just the right thing for an infant or toddler at just
the
right time. Infants and toddlers take cues from the way things
are
organized to help guide their interactions with the environment.
Place materials on child-size shelves with space between items
so
children can easily see each piece. Keep materials in single
rows
on shelf if possible.
Store like materials together on open shelves to help children
make connections, and to make clean up easier.

Store materials for a specific activity together so children can
easily find all the materials needed to complete the activity.
(e.g.,
puzzle pieces in the puzzle board to show a complete puzzle,
shape sorters with shape container).
Use small, clear containers to store like fine-motor pieces, such
as
rattles, teethers, connecting blocks (with each size and kind
having its own container).
Label shelves and containers with pictures of items for easy
clean
up and to support early literacy skills.
Explore
Using the information you have learned from this lesson,
examine your
environment while considering the question “If I were an infant
…
42
Prenatal Development
Now we turn our attention to prenatal development which is
divided into three periods: The
germinal period, the embryonic period, and the fetal period. The
following is an overview of
some of the changes that take place during each period.
The Germinal Period

The germinal period (about 14 days in
length) lasts from conception to implantation
of the fertilized egg in the lining of the
uterus (See Figure 2.5). At ejaculation
millions of sperm are released into the
vagina, but only a few reach the egg and
typically only one fertilizes the egg. Once a
single sperm has entered the wall of the egg,
the wall becomes hard and prevents other
sperm from entering. After the sperm has
entered the egg, the tail of the sperm breaks
off and the head of the sperm, containing the
genetic information from the father, unites
with the nucleus of the egg. It is typically
fertilized in the top section of the fallopian
tube and continues its journey to the uterus.
As a result, a new cell is formed. This cell,
containing the combined genetic information from both parents,
is referred to as a zygote.
During this time, the organism begins cell division through
mitosis. After five days of mitosis
there are 100 cells, which is now called a blastocyst. The
blastocyst consists of both an inner
and outer group of cells. The inner group of cells, or embryonic
disk will become the embryo,
while the outer group of cells, or trophoblast, becomes the
support system which nourishes the
developing organism. This stage ends when the blastocyst fully
implants into the uterine wall
(U.S. National Library of Medicine, 2015).
Mitosis is a fragile process and fewer than one half of all
zygotes survive beyond the first two

weeks (Hall, 2004). Some of the reasons for this include the
egg and sperm do not join properly,
thus their genetic material does not combine, there is too little
or damaged genetic material, the
zygote does not replicate, or the blastocyst does not implant
into the uterine wall. The failure rate
is higher for in vitro conceptions. Figure 2.5 illustrates the
journey of the ova from its release to
its fertilization, cell duplication, and implantation into the
uterine lining.
Figure 2.4
Sperm and Ovum at Conception
http://angel.southseattle.edu/AngelUploads/Files/9cc63e02-
ff82-4004-a25e-7d194b7ce500/Sperm-egg.jpg
43

The Embryonic Period
Starting the third week the blastocyst has
implanted in the uterine wall. Upon
implantation this multi-cellular organism is
called an embryo. Now blood vessels grow
forming the placenta. The placenta is a
structure connected to the uterus that
provides nourishment and oxygen from the
mother to the developing embryo via the
umbilical cord. During this period, cells
continue to differentiate. Growth during
prenatal development occurs in two major
directions: from head to tail called
cephalocaudal development and from the
midline outward referred to as
proximodistal development. This means
that those structures nearest the head develop before those
nearest the feet and those structures

nearest the torso develop before those away from the center of
the body (such as hands and
fingers). The head develops in the fourth week and the
precursor to the heart begins to pulse. In
the early stages of the embryonic period, gills and a tail are
apparent. However, by the end of this
stage they disappear and the organism takes on a more human
appearance. About 20 percent of
organisms fail during the embryonic period, usually due to
gross chromosomal abnormalities. As
Figure 2.6 The Embryo
Photo by Lunar Caustic
Figure 2.5 Germinal Period
"Human Fertilization" by Ttrue12 Source
ff82-4004-a25e-7d194b7ce500/800px-Human_Embryo_-
_Approximately_8_weeks_estimated_gestational_age.jpg
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Human_Fertilization.p
ng#/media/File:Human_Fertilization
44
in the case of the germinal period, often the mother does not yet
know that she is pregnant. It is
during this stage that the major structures of the body are taking

form making the embryonic
period the time when the organism is most vulnerable to the
greatest amount of damage if
exposed to harmful substances. Potential mothers are not often
aware of the risks they introduce
to the developing embryo during this time. The embryo is
approximately 1 inch in length and
weighs about 4 grams at the end of eight weeks. The embryo
can move and respond to touch at
this time.
The Fetal Period
From the ninth week until birth, the organism is referred to as a
fetus. During this stage, the
major structures are continuing to develop. By the third month,
the fetus has all its body parts
including external genitalia. In the following weeks, the fetus
will develop hair, nails, teeth and
the excretory and digestive systems will continue to develop.
The fetus is about 3 inches long
and weighs about 28 grams.
During the 4th - 6th months, the eyes become more sensitive to
light and hearing develops. The
respiratory system continues to develop, and reflexes such as
sucking, swallowing and
hiccupping, develop during the 5th month. Cycles of sleep and
wakefulness are present at this
time as well. The first chance of survival outside the womb,
known as the age of viability is
reached at about 24 weeks (Morgan, Goldenberg, & Schulkin,
2008). Many practitioners hesitate
to resuscitate before 24 weeks. The majority of the neurons in
the brain have developed by 24
weeks, although they are still rudimentary, and the glial or

nurse cells that support neurons
continue to grow. At 24 weeks the fetus can feel pain (Royal
College of Obstetricians and
Gynecologists, 1997).
Between the 7th - 9th months, the fetus is primarily
preparing for birth. It is exercising its muscles and its
lungs begin to expand and contract. The fetus gains
about 5 pounds and 7 inches during this last trimester
of pregnancy, and during the 8th month a layer of fat
develops under the skin. This layer of fat serves as
insulation and helps the baby regulate body
temperature after birth.
At around 36 weeks the fetus is almost ready for birth.
It weighs about 6 pounds and is about 18.5 inches
long. By week 37 all of the fetus’s organ systems are
developed enough that it could survive outside the
mother’s uterus without many of the risks associated
with premature birth. The fetus continues to gain
weight and grow in length until approximately 40
weeks. By then the fetus has very little room to move
around and birth becomes imminent. The progression
through the stages is shown in Figure 2.8.
Figure 2.7 Fetus
Source
https://www.flickr.com/photos/partick/4234868/in/photolist-
nGSY-dYmhKB-anoX4y-dYmhUi-5PTvCm-dYrZuf-4bDG6i-
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6tYQh-7ZD2Qn-jE835S-6bjdgK-9mcQiF-3oev2v-5xhs5s-6Uyyd
45
Prenatal Brain Development
Prenatal brain development begins in the third gestational week
with the differentiation of stem
cells, which are capable of producing all the different cells that
make up the brain (Stiles &
Jernigan, 2010). The location of these stem cells in the embryo
is referred to as the neural plate.
By the end of the third week, two ridges appear along the neural
plate first forming the neural
groove and then the neural tube. The open region in the center
of the neural tube forms the

brain’s ventricles and spinal canal. By the end of the embryonic
period, or week eight, the neural
tube has further differentiated into the forebrain, midbrain, and
hindbrain.
Brain development during the fetal period involves neuron
production, migration, and
differentiation. From the early fetal period until midgestation,
most of the 85 billion neurons
have been generated and many have already migrated to their
brain positions. Neurogenesis, or
the formation of neurons, is largely completed after five months
of gestation. One exception is
in the hippocampus, which continues to develop neurons
throughout life. Neurons that form the
neocortex, or the layer of cells that lie on the surface of the
brain, migrate to their location in an
Figure 2.8 Prenatal Development Age Milestones
Source
file://///fileserv/public/Psych%20text%20Book/Lifespan/1.%20I
ntroduction/at%20http:/cnx.org/content/col11629/latest/
46
orderly way. Neural migration is mostly completed by 29
weeks. Once in position neurons
begin to produce dendrites and axons that begin to form the
neural networks responsible for
information processing. Regions of the brain that contain the

cell bodies are referred to as the
Gray Matter because they look gray in appearance. The axons
that form the neural pathways
make up the White Matter because they are covered in myelin, a
fatty substance that is white in
appearance. Myelin aids in both the insulation and efficiency of
neural transmission. Although
cell differentiation is complete at birth, the growth of dendrites,
axons, and synapses continue for
years.
Teratogens
Good prenatal care is essential. The developing child is most at
risk for some of the most severe
problems during the first three months of development.
Unfortunately, this is a time at which
many mothers are unaware that they are pregnant. Today, we
know many of the factors that can
jeopardize the health of the developing child. The study of
factors that contribute to birth defects
is called teratology. Teratogens are environmental factors that
can contribute to birth defects,
and include some maternal diseases, pollutants, drugs and
alcohol.
Factors influencing prenatal risks: There are several
considerations in determining the type
and amount of damage that might result from exposure to a
particular teratogen (Berger,
2005). These include:
vulnerable to the most severe
damage when they are forming. If a substance is introduced

during a particular structure's
critical period (time of development), the damage to that
structure may be greater. For
example, the ears and arms reach their critical periods at about
6 weeks after conception.
If a mother exposes the embryo to certain substances during this
period, the arms and ears
may be malformed.
unless the amounts reach a
certain level. The critical level depends in part on the size and
metabolism of the mother.
teratogens typically have more
problems than those exposed to only one.
-up also plays a role on the impact a
particular teratogen might
have on the child. This is suggested by fraternal twins exposed
to the same prenatal
environment, but they do not experience the same teratogenic
effects. The genetic make-
up of the mother can also have an effect; some mothers may be
more resistant to
teratogenic effects than others.
damage due to teratogens
than are females. It is believed that the Y chromosome, which
contains fewer genes than
the X, may have an impact.
Figure 2.9 illustrates the timing of teratogen exposure and the

types of structural defects that can
occur during the prenatal period.
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file://///fileserv/public/Psych%20text%20Book/Lifespan/2.%20
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tent/col11629/latest/
ff82-4004-a25e-7d194b7ce500/hcriticaldev.gif
48
Tobacco: Another widely used teratogen is tobacco. According
to Tong et al. (2013) in
conjunction with the Centers for Disease Control and
Prevention, data from 27 sites in 2010
representing 52% of live births, showed that among women with
recent live births:
pregnancy.
the last 3 months of
pregnancy.
When comparing the ages of women who smoked:
<20, 13.6% smoked during pregnancy
–24 ,17.6% smoked during pregnancy
–34 , 8.8% smoked during pregnancy

The findings among racial and ethnic groups indicated that
smoking during pregnancy was
highest among American Indians/Alaska Natives (26.0%) and
lowest among Asians/Pacific
Islanders (2.1%).
When a pregnant woman smokes the fetus is exposed to
dangerous chemicals including nicotine,
carbon monoxide and tar, which lessen the amount of oxygen
available to the fetus. Oxygen is
important for overall growth and development. Tobacco use
during pregnancy has been
associated with low birth weight, ecotopic pregnancy (fertilized
egg implants itself outside of
the uterus), placenta previa (placenta lies low in the uterus and
covers all or part of the cervix),
placenta abruption (placenta separates prematurely from the
uterine wall), preterm delivery,
stillbirth, fetal growth restriction, sudden infant death syndrome
(SIDS), birth defects, learning
disabilities, and early puberty in girls (Center for Disease
Control, 2015d). A woman being
Figure 2.10 Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders
Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder Facial Features
Facial Feature Potential Effect of Fetal Alcohol
Head size Below-average head circumference

Eyes Smaller than average eye opening, skin
folds at corners of eyes
Nose Low nasal bridge, short nose
Midface Smaller than average midface size
Lip and philtrum Thin upper lip, indistinct philtrum
Source
ff82-4004-a25e-7d194b7ce500/fasfacejohn.gif
http://legacy.cnx.org/content/col11629/1.4
49
exposed to second-hand smoke during pregnancy has also been
linked to low-birth weight
infants.
Prescription/Over-the-counter Drugs: About 70% of pregnant
women take at least one
prescription drug (March of Dimes, 2016e). A woman should
not be taking any prescription drug
during pregnancy unless it was prescribed by a health care
provider who knows she is pregnant.
Some prescription drugs can cause birth defects, problems in
overall health, and development of
the fetus. Over-the-counter drugs are also a concern during the
prenatal period because they may
cause certain health problems. For example, the pain reliever

ibuprofen can cause serious blood
flow problems to the fetus during the last three months.
Illicit Drugs: Common illicit drugs include
cocaine, ecstasy and other club drugs,
heroin, marijuana, and prescription drugs
that are abused. It is difficult to completely
determine the effects of a particular illicit
drug on a developing child because most
mothers who use, use more than one
substance and have other unhealthy
behaviors. These include smoking, drinking
alcohol, not eating healthy meals, and being
more likely to get a sexually transmitted
disease. However, several problems seem
clear. The use of cocaine is connected with
low birth weight, stillbirths and spontaneous
abortion. Heavy marijuana use is associated
with problems in brain development (March
of Dimes, 2016c). If a baby’s mother used an addictive drug
during pregnancy that baby can
get addicted to the drug before birth and go through drug
withdrawal after birth, also known as
Neonatal Abstinence Syndrome (March of Dimes, 2015d).
Other complications of illicit drug
use include premature birth, smaller than normal head size,
birth defects, heart defects, and
infections. Additionally, babies born to mothers who use drugs
may have problems later in life,
including learning and behavior difficulties, slower than normal
growth, and die from Sudden
Infant Death Syndrome. Children of substance abusing parents
are also considered at high risk

for a range of biological, developmental, academic, and
behavioral problems, including
developing substance abuse problems of their own (Conners, et
al., 2003).
Figure 2.11
Source
ntroduction/National%20Institute%20of%20Health%20pictures
50
Box 2.3 Should Women Who Use Drugs During Pregnancy Be
Arrested and Jailed?
Women who use drugs or alcohol during pregnancy can cause
serious lifelong harm
to their child. Some people have advocated mandatory
screenings for women who
are pregnant and have a history of drug abuse, and if the women

continue using, to
arrest, prosecute, and incarcerate them (Figdor & Kaeser, 1998).
This policy was
tried in Charleston, South Carolina 20 years ago. The policy
was called the
Interagency Policy on Management of Substance Abuse During
Pregnancy and had
disastrous results.
The Interagency Policy applied to patients attending the
obstetrics clinic
at MUSC, which primarily serves patients who are indigent or
on
Medicaid. It did not apply to private obstetrical patients. The
policy
required patient education about the harmful effects of
substance abuse
during pregnancy. A statement also warned patients that
protection of
unborn and newborn children from the harms of illegal drug
abuse could
involve the Charleston police, the Solicitor of the Ninth Judicial
Court,
and the Protective Services Division of the Department of
Social Services
(DSS). (Jos, Marshall, & Perlmutter, 1995, pp. 120–121)
This policy seemed to deter women from seeking prenatal care,
deterred them
from seeking other social services, and was applied solely to
low-income women,
resulting in lawsuits. The program was canceled after 5 years,
during which 42
women were arrested. A federal agency later determined that the
program involved
human experimentation without the approval and oversight of an

institutional review
board (IRB).
In July 2014, Tennessee enacted a law that allows women who
illegally use a
narcotic drug while pregnant to be prosecuted for assault if her
infant is harmed or
addicted to the drug (National Public Radio, 2015). According
to the National
Public Radio report, a baby is born dependent on a drug every
30 minutes in
Tennessee, which is a rate three times higher than the national
average. However,
since the law took effect the number of babies born having drug
withdrawal
symptoms has not diminished. Critics contend that the criminal
justice system
should not be involved in what is considered a healthcare
problem. What do you
think? Is the issue of mothers using illicit drugs more of a legal
or medical
concern?
Pollutants: There are more than 83,000 chemicals used in the
United States with little
information on the effects of them during pregnancy (March of
Dimes, 2016b). An
environmental pollutant of significant concern is lead
poisoning, which is connected with low
birth weight and slowed neurological development. The
chemicals in certain pesticides are also
potentially damaging and may lead to birth defects, learning
problems, low birth weight,
miscarriage, and premature birth (March of Dimes, 2014).
Prenatal exposure to bisphenol A

(BPA), a chemical commonly used in plastics and food and
beverage containers, may disrupt the
action of certain genes contributing to certain birth defects
(March of Dimes, 2016b). Radiation
is another environmental hazard. If a mother is exposed to
radiation, it can get into the
51
bloodstream and pass through the umbilical cord to the baby.
Radiation can also build up in
body areas close to the uterus, such as the bladder. Exposure to
radiation can slow the baby’s
growth, cause birth defects, affect brain development, cause
cancer, and result in a miscarriage.
Mercury, a heavy metal, can cause brain damage and affect the
baby’s hearing and vision. This is
why women are cautioned about the amount and type of fish
they consume during pregnancy.
Toxoplasmosis: The tiny parasite, toxoplasma gondii,
causes an infection called Toxoplasmosis. According
to the March of Dimes (2012d), toxoplasma gondii
infects more than 60 million people in the United
States. A healthy immune system can keep the
parasite at bay producing no symptoms, so most
people do not know they are infected. As routine
prenatal screening frequently does not test for the
presence of this parasite, pregnant women may want to
talk to their health-care provider about being tested.
Toxoplasmosis can cause premature birth, stillbirth,
and can result in birth defects to the eyes and brain.

While most babies born with this infection show no
symptoms, ten percent may experience eye infections,
enlarged liver and spleen, jaundice, and pneumonia. To avoid
being infected, women should
avoid eating undercooked or raw meat and unwashed fruits and
vegetables, touching cooking
utensils that touched raw meat or unwashed fruits and
vegetables, and touching cat feces, soil or
sand. If women think they may have been infected during
pregnancy, they should have their
baby tested.
Sexually Transmitted Diseases: Gonorrhea, syphilis, and
chlamydia are sexually transmitted
infections that can be passed to the fetus by an infected mother.
Mothers should be tested as early
as possible to minimize the risk of spreading these infections to
their unborn child. Additionally,
the earlier the treatment begins, the better the health outcomes
for mother and baby (CDC,
2016d). Sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) can cause
premature birth, premature rupture of
the amniotic sac, an ectopic pregnancy, birth defects,
miscarriage, and still births (March of
Dimes, 2013). Most babies become infected with STDS while
passing through the birth canal
during delivery, but some STDs can cross the placenta and
infect the developing fetus.
Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV): One of the most
potentially devastating teratogens is
HIV. HIV and Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS)
are leading causes of illness and
death in the United States (Health Resources and Services
Administration, 2015). One of the
main ways children under age 13 become infected with HIV is

via mother-to-child transmission
of the virus prenatally, during labor, or by breastfeeding (CDC,
2016c). There are some
measures that can be taken to lower the chance the child will
contract the disease. HIV positive
mothers who take antiviral medications during their pregnancy
greatly reduce the chance of
passing the virus to the fetus. The risk of transmission is less
than 2 percent; in contrast, it is 25
percent if the mother does not take antiretroviral drugs (CDC,
2016b). However, the long-term
risks of prenatal exposure to the medication are not known. It is
recommended that women with
HIV deliver the child by c-section, and that after birth they
avoid breast feeding.
Figure 2.12
Source
ntroduction/By%20Tom%20Thai%20%5bCC%20BY%202.0%20
(http:/creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0)%5d,%20via%20Wi
kimedia%20Commons
52
German measles (or rubella): Rubella, also called German
measles, is an infection that causes
mild flu-like symptoms and a rash on the skin. However, only
about half of children infected

have these symptoms, while others have no symptoms (March of
Dimes, 2012a). Rubella has
been associated with a number of birth defects. If the mother
contracts the disease during the first
three months of pregnancy, damage can occur in the eyes, ears,
heart or brain of the unborn
child. Deafness is almost certain if the mother has German
measles before the 11th week of
prenatal development and can also cause brain damage. Women
in the United States are much
less likely to be afflicted with rubella, because most women
received childhood vaccinations that
protect her from the disease.
Maternal Factors
Mothers over 35: Most women over 35 who become pregnant
are in good health and have
healthy pregnancies. However, according to the March of
Dimes (2016d), women over age 35
are more likely to have an increased risk of:
Because a woman is born with all her eggs, environmental
teratogens can affect the quality of the
eggs as women get older. Also, a woman’s reproductive system

ages which can adversely affect
the pregnancy. Some women over 35 choose special prenatal
screening tests, such as a maternal
blood screening, to determine if there are any health risks for
the baby.
Although there are medical concerns associated
with having a child later in life, there are also
many positive consequences to being a more
mature parent. Older parents are more confident,
less stressed, and typically married providing
family stability. Their children perform better on
math and reading tests, and they are less prone to
injuries or emotional troubles (Albert, 2013).
Women who choose to wait are often well
educated and lead healthy lives. According to
Gregory (2007), older women are more stable,
demonstrate a stronger family focus, possess
greater self-confidence, and have more money.
Having a child later in one’s career equals overall higher wages.
In fact, for every year a woman
delays motherhood, she makes 9% more in lifetime earnings.
Lastly, women who delay having
Figure 2.13
Source
http://nobaproject.com/modules/evolutionary-theories-in-
psychology
http://nobaproject.com/modules/evolutionary-theories-in-
psychology

53
children actually live longer. Sun et al. (2015) found that
women who had their last child after
the age of 33 doubled their chances of living to age 95 or older
than women who had their last
child before their 30th birthday. A woman’s natural ability to
have a …
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bergland
https://twitter.com/ckbergland
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bergland
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bergland
way/201810/aerobic-exercise-has-clinically-tested-
antidepressant-powers
way/201810/fear-being-laughed-could-sabotage-your-love-life

way/201810/the-unconscious-mind-perpetuates-us-vs-them-bias
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way/201810/the-unconscious-mind-perpetuates-us-vs-them-bias
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mental-illness/201810/are-we-labeling-normal-development-
pathology
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behavior/201810/why-do-indians-succeed-more-in-the-us-in-
india
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experience/201110/not-everyone-conducts-inner-speech

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