curriculum development

1. PSYCHOLOGICAL
FOUNDATIONS OF
CURRICULUM
COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY
PHENOMENOLOGY AND HUMANISTIC PSYCHOLOGY

2. TOPIC OUTLINE
COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY
◦ Lev Vygotsky’s Theories
◦ IQ Thinking and Learning
◦ Constructivism
◦ Brain Research and Learning
◦ The Impact of Technology on the Brain and Learning
◦ Problem Solving and Creative Thinking
◦ Innovation and Technology
◦ Cognition and Curriculum

3. PHENOMENOLOGY AND HUMANISTIC PSYCHOLOGY
◦ Gestalt Theory
◦ Maslow: Self-actualizing Individuals
◦ Rogers: Nondirective and Therapeutic Learning
TOPIC OUTLINE

4. Lev Vygotsky’s Theories
◦ He primarily addressed the social origins and cultural bases of individual
development. In his view, children developed their potential via enculturation
into society’s mores and norms.
◦ According to Vygotsky, child development is a sociogenetic process shaped by
the individual’s interactions, “dialogue,” and “play” with the culture.

5. IQ Thinking and Learning
IQ AND BIRTH ORDER
◦ IQ research by Northwestern psychologist Dan McAdams indicates that the
eldest children in families tend to develop higher IQs than their siblings—
averaging about 3 points higher than second-born children and 4 points
higher than third-born children.

6. IQ Thinking and Learning
IQ AND CONTAMINANTS
◦ Children—and fetuses in the womb—remain particularly vulnerable. Pollutants
like asbestos penetrate children’s still-developing nervous systems more easily
and thin the cortex in the brain. In a recent report, scientists listed 12 industrial
chemicals—including lead, arsenic, manganese, and fluoride—that have led to
neurodevelopmental disabilities like autism, attention deficit/hyperactivity
disorder (ADHD), dyslexia, and other cognitive impairments in children.

7. IQ Thinking and Learning
IQ AND MALNUTRITION
◦ Malnutrition develops when the body is deprived of vitamins, minerals, and
other nutrients, and it is the largest single contributor to disease in the
world, according to the United Nations Standing Committee on Nutrition.

8. IQ Thinking and Learning
IQ AND STIMULANTS
◦ Prescription stimulants, like Adderall and Vyvanse, have been shown to
be relatively safe and effective in managing symptoms of ADHD, by
helping students focus, control their impulse, and increase academic
productivity. However, some research indicates that these stimulants do
not improve cognitive performance or IQ.

9. IQ Thinking and Learning
Multiple Intelligences
◦ Howard Gardner postulated multiple intelligences. He contends that
there are different mental operations associated with intelligence, and
there are many different types of intelligence. Too often our society
overemphasizes verbal ability.

10. IQ Thinking and Learning
GUILFORD’S INFLUENCE ON GARDNE
◦ Guilford formulated a theory of intelligence around a three-dimensional
model called the structure of intellect. It consisted of six products (units,
classes, relations, systems, transformations, and implications), five
operations (knowledge, memory, divergent thinking, convergent
thinking, and evaluation), and four contents (figured, symbolic,
semantic, and behavioral).

11. Constructivism
◦ Constructivism addresses the nature of knowledge and the nature of
learning. Individuals who fail to distinguish between these two realms
leave themselves and others open to confusion.

12. Brain Research and Learning
◦ The malleability of the brain and intelligence has since gained
acceptance among cognitive and developmental psychologists.
Emerging research even revealed that certain cognitive exercises can
actually improve working memory and problem solving the same way
that training can improve our mental habits and physical exercises can
improve our health.

13. The Impact of Technology on the Brain
and Learning
◦ According to Pew research, 95 percent of teens between the ages of 12
and 17 are online now, with three in four using their cell phones,
tablets, and other mobile devices to access the Internet—compared
with only 55 percent of adults.
◦ Experts believe this proliferating technology is altering our brains and
their development in both positive and negative ways.

14. Problem Solving and Creative Thinking
◦ Problem solving, in this second view, is conducive to rational and
scientific thinking and is the method of arriving at a solution or correct
answer, whereas creativity is conducive to artistic and literary thinking
and is a quality of thought. There is no right solution or answer when
creativity is the goal.

15. Problem Solving and Creative Thinking
INTUITIVE THINKING
◦ The good thinker has not only knowledge, but also an intuitive grasp of
the subject. Intuitive thinking is part of a discovery process that is
similar to the scholar-specialists’ engaging in hunches, playing with
ideas, and understanding relationships so that they can make
discoveries or add to the storehouse of knowledge.

16. Problem Solving and Creative Thinking
DISCOVERY LEARNING
◦ Bruner, who is well known for elaborating the idea of discovery, defined
discovery as the learning that occurs when students are not presented
with subject matter in its final form, when students rather than teachers
organize subject matter.
◦ Discovery is the formation of a coding system whereby students
discover relationships among presented data. Successful discovery
experiences make the learner more capable of discovering new
experiences and more willing to learn.

17. Problem Solving and Creative Thinking
◦ Lipman distinguishes between ordinary thinking and critical thinking.
Ordinary thinking is simple and lacks standards; critical thinking is more
complex and is based on standards of objectivity, utility, or consistency.

18. Problem Solving and Creative Thinking
◦ Sternberg seeks to foster many of the same intellectual skills, albeit in a
very different way. He points out three mental processes that enhance
critical thinking: (1) meta components— higher-order mental processes
used to plan, monitor, and evaluate action; (2) performance
components—the actual steps or strategies taken; and (3) knowledge-
acquisition components— processes used to relate old material to new
material and to apply and use new material.

19. Problem Solving and Creative Thinking
CREATIVE THINKING
◦ Creative students often puzzle teachers. They are difficult to characterize; their novel
answers frequently seem threatening to teachers, and their behavior often deviates from
what is considered normal. Sometimes teachers discourage creativity and punish creative
students.
◦ Curriculum specialists also tend to ignore them in their curriculum plans (subject matter or
course descriptions, subject guides, and subject materials and activities) because they
represent only a small proportion (about 2 to 5 percent, depending on the definition of
creativity) of the student population.

20. Innovation and Technology
◦ Experts agree that play, in general, is fundamental to creative
thinking,103 and that technology may not provide the full sensorial
experience. The fear is that children will lose their creativity as they
spend more time immersed in digital technology. More research is
needed, however, to reveal the direct connection between technology
and creativity.
◦ Despite these concerns, many researchers believe technology can
improve certain skills. It helps the brain process new ideas quickly to
improve their reasoning and decision-making process, which can
facilitate innovation. As neuroscientist Gary Small suggested, searching
on Google is in fact making us smarter.

21. Cognition and Curriculum
◦ Most curriculum specialists, and learning theorists and teachers, are
cognitive oriented because
◦ (1) the cognitive approach constitutes a logical method for organizing
and interpreting learning, (2) the approach is rooted in the tradition of
subject matter, and (3) educators have been trained in cognitive
approaches and understand them.

22. Phenomenology and Humanistic
Psychology
◦ The label humanism should not be used to mask generalizations based
on little knowledge and “soft” research. Nonetheless, some observers
have viewed phenomenology, sometimes called humanistic psychology,
as a “third force” learning theory—after behaviorism and cognitive
development.

23. Phenomenology and Humanistic
Psychology
GESTALT THEORY
◦ This relationship is considered the field-ground relationship, and how the
individual perceives this relationship determines behavior. Perception alone is
not crucial to learning; rather, the crucial factor is structuring and restructuring
field relationships to form evolving patterns.

24. Rogers: Nondirective and Therapeutic
Learning
◦ Rogers views therapy as a learning method to be used by the curriculum worker and
teacher. He believes that positive human relationships enable people to grow;
therefore, interpersonal relationships among learners are as important as cognitive
scores.
◦ The counseling method assumes that students are willing to be responsible for their
own behavior and learning, that they can make intelligent choices, and that they can
share ideas with the teacher and communicate honestly as people who are confronted
with decisions about themselves and about life in general.

25. SOCIAL
FOUNDATIONS OF
CURRICULUM
SOCIETY, EDUCATION AND SCHOOLING
MORAL/CHARACTER EDUCATION
THE CULTURE OF THE SCHOOL
CULTURE OF THE CLASSROOM

26. TOPIC OUTLINE
SOCIETY, EDUCATION AND SCHOOLING
◦ Society and Modal Personality
◦ Social and Developmental Theories
◦ Changing American Society
◦ Postmodern Society
◦ Postindustrial Society: Bits and Bytes
◦ Postnuclear Family
◦ New Family Types

27. TOPIC OUTLINE
MORAL/CHARACTER EDUCATION
◦ Moral Conduct and Controversy
◦ Moral Teaching
◦ Moral Character
◦ Performance Character
◦ Binary Bits and Eating Habits

28. TOPIC OUTLINE
THE CULTURE OF THE SCHOOL
◦ Conformity in Class
◦ Coping and Caring

29. TOPIC OUTLINE
CULTURE OF THE CLASSROOM
◦ The Peer Group
◦ Peer Culture and the School
◦ Peer and Racial Groups
◦ Social Class and Academic Achievement
◦ Global Achievement

30. Society, Education and Schooling
◦ Education can be used for constructive or destructive ends, to promote
one type of political institution, or ism, or another. The kind of
education our young receive determines the extent of freedom and
equality within our society. The transmission of culture is the primary
task of society’s educational system. Society’s values, beliefs, and norms
are maintained and passed to the next generation not merely by
teaching about them, but also by embodying them in the educational
system’s very operation.

31. ◦ Society and Modal Personality
◦ When social scientists speak of modal personality, they do not mean
that all members of a particular society are exactly alike. As Ruth
Benedict wrote, “No culture yet observed has been able to eradicate the
differences in temperament of the persons who composed it.”
Society, Education and Schooling

32. Changing American Society
◦ The Renaissance, the Reformation, the Age of Enlightenment, and the
commercial and Industrial revolutions ushered in discovery, innovation,
change—and a new dynamism characterized by the landing of the
pilgrims and America’s Declaration of Independence (and the French
Revolution), followed by America’s 19th century westward expansion,
Darwinist thinking, the Robber Barons, and early 20th century colonial
expansion. Conformity to the past no longer dominated intellectual
thinking or predetermined the behavior of men and women.
Experimentation and progress (including American pragmatism and
progressive educational thought) became important patterns of
conduct and behavior.
Society, Education and Schooling

33. Postmodern Society
◦ In postmodern society, according to David Elkind, language is used to
“challenge universal and regular laws that govern the physical and
social worlds” with which we are familiar.15 For the past 400 years,
universal principles (such as Newtonian physics) and rational thought
(such as Descartes’s reasoning) have guided and transformed our
scientific and social thinking. Now, all these fundamental concepts are
labeled as technological rationality and viewed as machine theory.
Society, Education and Schooling

34. Postindustrial Society: Bits and Bytes
◦ Postmodern society includes what Daniel Bell called postindustrial
society, which is produced by information and technology. The singular
feature of this new society is the importance of knowledge (including
the transmission, storage, and retrieval of it) as the source of
production, innovation, career advancement, and policy information.
Knowledge becomes a form of power, and those individuals or nations
with more knowledge have more power.
Society, Education and Schooling

35. Postnuclear Family
◦ Today, cohabitation—living with a partner without marrying—is
increasingly common in the United States. Three out of four women
have lived with a partner without being married by the age of 30.20
Changing views of marriage partly fuel this trend. Young adults believe
that marriage is either risky or reserved for those who have money.
Many see cohabitation as the better way to “test-drive” a relationship.
Society, Education and Schooling

36. Society, Education and Schooling
New Family Types
◦ Today, the notion of family is very different. Given the popularity of
diversity, pluralism, and irregularity, the nuclear family is an anomaly.
Overall, about half the youth under age 18 have been in a single-parent
family for some part of their childhood. The nuclear family has been
replaced by many different family forms.

37. Moral/Character Education
◦ As students move up the grade levels and their reading improves, a
greater range of authors is available to them. No doubt, community
mores will influence book selection. Virtues such as hard work, honesty,
integrity, civility, and caring are widespread. Educators must find such
common values.

38. Moral/Character Education
Moral Conduct and Controversy
◦ According to Philip Phenix, the most important sources of moral knowledge are
society’s laws and customs, which can be taught in courses dealing with law, ethics,
and sociology. However, moral conduct cannot be taught; rather, it is learned by
“participating in everyday life of society according to recognized standards of society”
(such as the Ten Commandments or the Golden Rule).

39. Moral Teaching
◦ The way we translate moral content into moral conduct defines the kind
of people we are. It is not our moral knowledge that counts, but our
moral behavior in everyday affairs. This distinction between knowledge
and behavior should be taught to all students as a basis for envisioning
the kind of people and society we are now and wish to become.
Moral/Character Education

40. Moral/Character Education
Moral Character
◦ Moral character entails helping people; accepting their weaknesses
without exploiting them; seeing the best in people and building on
their strengths; acting civilly and courteously toward classmates, friends,
or colleagues; and acting as a responsible individual even if doing so
means being different from the crowd.

41. Moral/Character Education
Performance Character
◦ Over the past decade, there has been an emerging focus on character—particularly in
public charter schools—that has little to do with morality, ethics, or values. It has more
to do with the internal traits of habit and mind that drive oneself to perform well,
rather than attitudes and behaviors toward others.
◦ Students are taught to recognize volatile situations and use techniques like “self-talk,”
where they put an immediate crisis in perspective by reminding themselves of the
larger context. These skills and traits would help at-risk students in particular, since
they tend to garner less support in school and at home

42. Moral/Character Education
Binary Bits and Reading Habits
◦ In an overly connected digital world, reading books has become a chore
for most of us, especially for children and youths. It is much easier, and
more fashionable, to blog, tweet, or text—free from contemplation,
analysis, or logic.

43. THE CULTURE OF THE SCHOOL
Conformity in Class
◦ Students are told when and where to sit, when to stand, how to walk
through hallways, when they can have lunch in the cafeteria, and when
and how to line up and exit the school at the end of the day. The
emphasis is on the teacher controlling the behavior of students. It is the
teacher who decides in class who speaks and when, who goes to the
front of the line and the back of the line, and who receives what grade.
To be sure, grades can be used as an instrument for controlling
behavior in class—at least for students who are grade oriented.

44. THE CULTURE OF THE SCHOOL
Coping and Caring
◦ Another solution focuses on re-engaging students to counter growing
apathy over schoolwork and learning, a problem that increases as
students get older. Schools are not doing a good job developing
students’ motivation or giving them autonomy to direct their own
learning.

45. CULTURE OF THE CLASSROOM
The Peer Group
◦ Peer groups increase in importance as the child grows up and
reaches maximum influence in adolescence, by which time
they sometimes dictate much of a young person’s behavior
both in and out of school.
◦ Some researchers believe that peer groups are more
important now than in earlier periods, partly because many
children have little close contact with their parents and other
adults and few strong linkages with the larger society.

46. CULTURE OF THE CLASSROOM
Peer Culture and the School
◦ The classroom is the place where children and youths must learn to get
along with peers and learn the rudiments of socialization and
democracy. A student learns his or her own needs are not the only
needs that must be met, and his or her own views are one of many.

47. Peer and Racial Groups
◦ The dominant norm and behaviors of the peer group put pressure on
others to reject White behavior and act Black—even if it is self-
destructive. This preference, or attitude, is referred to as cultural
inversion—a tendency for minorities who feel at odds with the larger
society to regard certain attitudes, norms, and events as inappropriate
for them because these are representative of the dominant culture of
White Americans. Thus, what is appropriate or rational behavior for the
in-group (Black) members in a particular community may be defined in
opposition to out-group (White) members’ practices.
CULTURE OF THE CLASSROOM

48. CULTURE OF THE CLASSROOM
Social Class and Academic Achievement
◦ While the debate over whether schools can overcome socioeconomic
disadvantage remains far from settled, there appears to be some consensus
that the growing income gap must be addressed—whether through policy or
school reform.

49. Global Achievement
◦ Over the 21st century, the United States faces increasing global competition,
particularly as it relates to innovation and the economy. Only through
education will the nation develop a technologically savvy and innovative
workforce, leaders believe. Yet, if international achievement tests are to be
believed, the United States is falling behind.
◦ Collectively, it ranks 36th across math, reading, and science in the Program for
International Student Assessment (PISA), a widely known benchmark test.
Education systems in the Organization for Economic Co-operation and
Development (OECD)—like Shanghai, Singapore, Finland, and South Korea—
are performing at the top, according to the latest 2012 assessments.
CULTURE OF THE CLASSROOM

50. THANK YOU
FOR
LISTENING!