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KADUNA STATE UNIVERSITY
POSTGRADUATE SCHOOL
DEPARTMENT OF MASS COMMUNICATION
FACULTY OF SOCIAL SCIENCES
COURSE CODE: PGDMCM 706
COURSE TITLE:
Mass Media and Society
ASSIGNMENT
ON
Write on the two models of the communication process discussed in
class and derive two more that have emerged out of them.
Note: The two models discussed in class are cultural and Transition
models.
BY
ANTHONY RICHARD
KASU/PGDMCM/MCM/20/0024
COURSE LECTURER:
MRS. JAMIMAH SHUNA DOGO
DECEMBER, 2022
1
Introduction
Communication has always been part of human’s life. Such communication includes reading,
writing, listening, speaking and many more. Other subtle ways of communication can also be done
consciously or unconsciously such as gestures, expressions, and non-verbal sounds. These
activities are not just simply an exchange of information because it follows a distinct
communication process that exhibits the essential elements or components of communication.
Moreover, in order to further measure the effectiveness of communication, these
elements/components are presented through the communication models. Communication model is
a schematic description that seeks to represent the structure or key elements of a communication
process (Juneja, P., n.d.). In the book of Antonino et al (2016), five communication models were
identified. First was Aristotle’s model that focuses on public speaking; therefore, stressing the
importance of audience in the communication process. Second was Shannon-Weaver’s model. In
this model, effective communication is designed between the sender and the receiver. It also put
emphasis to noise as a factor affecting the communication.
Transaction model of communication
As the study of communication progressed, models expanded to account for more of the
communication process. Many scholars view communication as more than a process that is used
to carry on conversations and convey meaning. We don’t send messages like computers, and we
don’t neatly alternate between the roles of sender and receiver as an interaction unfolds. We also
can’t consciously decide to stop communicating because communication is more than sending and
receiving messages. The transaction model differs from the transmission and interaction models
2
in significant ways, including the conceptualization of communication, the role of sender and
receiver, and the role of context (Barnlund, 1970).
The transaction model of communication describes communication as a process in which
communicators generate social realities within social, relational, and cultural contexts. In this
model, which is shown in Figure 2.2.3, we don’t just communicate to exchange messages; we
communicate to create relationships, form intercultural alliances, shape our self-concepts, and
engage with others in dialogue to create communities.
The roles of sender and receiver in the transaction model of communication differ significantly
from the other models. Instead of labeling participants as senders and receivers, the people in a
communication encounter are referred to as communicators. Unlike the interactive model, which
suggests that participants alternate positions as sender and receiver, the transaction model suggests
that we are simultaneously senders and receivers. This is an important addition to the model
because it allows us to understand how we are able to adapt our communication—for example, a
verbal message—in the middle of sending it based on the communication we are simultaneously
receiving from our communication partner.
The transaction model also includes a more complex understanding of context. The interaction
model portrays context as physical and psychological influences that enhance or impede
communication. While these contexts are important, they focus on message transmission and
reception. Since the transaction model of communication views communication as a force that
shapes our realities before and after specific interactions occur, it must account for contextual
influences outside of a single interaction. To do this, the transaction model considers how social,
relational, and cultural contexts frame and influence our communication encounters.
3
Social context refers to the stated rules or unstated norms that guide communication. Norms are
social conventions that we pick up on through observation, practice, and trial and error. We may
not even know we are breaking a social norm until we notice people looking at us strangely or
someone corrects or teases us. Relational context includes the previous interpersonal history and
type of relationship we have with a person. We communicate differently with someone we just
met versus someone we’ve known for a long time. Initial interactions with people tend to be more
highly scripted and governed by established norms and rules, but when we have an established
relational context, we may be able to bend or break social norms and rules more easily. Cultural
context includes various aspects of identities such as race, gender, nationality, ethnicity, sexual
orientation, class, and ability. We all have multiple cultural identities that influence our
communication. Some people, especially those with identities that have been historically
marginalized, are regularly aware of how their cultural identities influence their communication
and influence how others communicate with them. Conversely, people with identities that are
dominant or in the majority may rarely, if ever, think about the role their cultural identities play in
their communication. Cultural context is influenced by numerous aspects of our identities and is
not limited to race or ethnicity.
Cultural model
First of all, what is culture anyway? It can be described in a number of different ways, but for our
purposes the definition most applicable states that culture is a way of life passed on to members of
a society through time that keeps the society together. This includes behaviors, beliefs, and values
that are learned. According to media scholar James Carey (1989), "Communication is a symbolic
process whereby reality is produced, maintained, repaired, and transformed." Communication is
about maintaining social order, a shared reality, and a sense of community; the language and
4
culture that we have affects the way we see reality. Furthermore, communication is the process of
producing new shared meanings out of historically shared meanings and individually created
meanings. As illustrated in the figure below, people learn culture from media and language, and
people create culture using media and language to gain this shared meaning.
1. Media influence people (socialization; internalize meaning; learn culture) 2. People make media
(externalize meaning; influence culture and society
Cultural model in a mobile world.
Once mobile devices became much more advanced than the original mobile phone call feature,
and mobile devices started to become part of the everyday lives of the majority of the public, they
began to relate to the cultural model much more clearly. James Katz, professor of communications
and director of Rutgers University's Center for Mobile Communication Studies, supports the
cultural model of communication when he states that "Cell phones are enabling people to create
their own micro-cultures; they are changing cultural norms and values, and demonstrating
consumers' ability to modify and reproduce technology for their own use." People have discovered
5
infinite ways to create shared meaning with others. Whether forming a community around a certain
video captured by a cell phone, a ring tone made and distributed by an inspiring artist, a picture
uploaded to Facebook from a cell phone camera, a mass text sent out inviting people to a rally, or
a "tweet" on Twitter sent from a mobile phone warning people of tragedy, we have found ways to
create individual meaning and form shared meaning from historically shared meaning with the
mobile phone-an important artefact of our culture.
Emerging theories in from Transaction model and Cultural model.
The Westley and Maclean communication model
The Westley and Maclean model is primarily used for explaining mass communication.
This model introduces environmental and cultural factors to the process of communication.
Namely, according to this model, the communication process does not start with the source/sender,
but rather with environmental factors.
The Westley and Maclean model also takes into account the object of the orientation (background,
culture, and beliefs) of the sender and the receiver of messages.
The very process of communication starts with environmental factors which influence the speaker
— the culture or society the speaker lives in, whether the speaker is in a public or private space,
etc.
Aside from that, the role of feedback is also significant.
This model consists of nine crucial components:
1. Environment (X)
2. Sensory experience (X¹)
6
3. Source/Sender (A)
4. The object of the orientation of the source (X²)
5. Receiver (B)
6. The object of the orientation of the receiver (X³)
7. Feedback (F)
8. Gatekeepers (C)
9. Opinion leaders
Schramm’s Interactive Model of Communication
In his Circular Model Schramm embodied idea that communication is a circular process by nature.
Schramm conceived of decoding and encoding as activities maintained simultaneously by sender
and receiver; he also made provisions for a two-way interchange of messages (Schramm, 1961: 5-
6). In this model, encoder is who originates and sends the message. Decoder is who receives the
message and interpreter could be any person trying to understand and analyze, perceive or
interpret. From the starting point of communication to the end an interpretation goes on. This
model breaks the traditional sender and receiver models; each person acts as both sender and
receiver and hence uses interpretation. Encoding, decoding and interpretation is going on
simultaneously. Semantic noise is a concept introduced here when sender and receiver apply
different meaning to the same message. It happens mostly because words and phrases are not
understandable, so certain words and phrases will cause you to deviate from the actual meaning of
communication.
7
Multiculturalism model
The man of a postmodern age has been rooted in new orders determining his/her everyday reality,
where existence involves answering many questions of primal nature, including communication.
Alicja Szerlag stresed the role communication into process of understanding and tolerating other
cultures (Szerlag, 2015: 137). The definition of culture has long been a controversy because culture
as a phenomenon on the object level is constructed in the discursive process by forming various
concepts (Budin, Vol.I) . Very popular United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural
Organization definition considers the culture as complex which includes knowledge, beliefs,
morals, laws, customs, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by a human as a member of
society. 1 Center for Advanced Research on Language Acquisition from University of Minnesota
for purpose of intercultural studies project defines culture as the shared patterns of behaviors and
interactions, cognitive constructs, and affective understanding that are learned through a process
of socialization.2 It means, the essence of culture is not artifacts, and different tangible cultural
elements but how the members of specific group interpret, use, and perceive them.
Osgood-Schramm communication model
In their book Communication Models for the Study of Mass Communications-Routledge, Denis
Mcquail and Sven Windahl say that the emergence of this model “meant a clear break with the
traditional linear/one-way picture of communication.”
This model is useful for describing interpersonal, synchronous communication, but less suitable
for cases with little or no feedback.
8
The Osgood-Schramm model is a circular model of communication, in which messages go in two
directions.
There are four principles in this model:
1. Communication iscircular— individuals involved in the communication process are
changing their roles as encoders and decoders.
2. Communication isequalandreciprocal— both parties are equally engaged as encoders and
decoders.
3. The message requiresinterpretation— the information needs to be properly interpreted to
be understood.
4. There arethree stepsin the process of communication:
 Encoding
 Decoding
 Interpreting
In this model, there is no difference between a sender and a receiver. Both parties are equally
encoding and decoding the messages. The interpreter is a person trying to understand the message.
9
Conclusion
The concepts of communication models are regarded as significant because they aid individuals in
effectively comprehending communication processes. The models of communication are also
thought to be important, along with the nature and idea of communication. The creation of
communication models has been the subject of extensive study. Individuals are able to determine
how the flow of information occurs between senders and receivers by effectively comprehending
these models. However, there are limitations in some instances. However, it is the responsibility
of the individuals to ensure that restrictions do not impede efficient communication. Last but not
least, it is possible to assert that well-organized communication models are facilitating
communication processes.
10
References
Antonino, M.T.M., et al. (2016). Oral communication in context. Malabon City, Philippines:
Mutya Publishing House, Inc.
Beqiri, G. (2018, September 05). Barriers to effective communication in the workplace. Retrieved
from https://virtualspeech.com/blog/barriers-to-communication
Croft, R. S. (2004). Communication theory. Eastern Oregon University, La Grande, OR. Retrieved
from https://cs.eou.edu/rcroft/MM350/CommunicationModels.pdf
Lunenburg, F. C. (2010). Communication: The process, barriers, and improving effectiveness.
Schooling, 1(1), 1-2. Retrieved from
http://www.nationalforum.com/Electronic%20Journal%20Volumes/Lunenburg,%20Fred
%20C,%20Communication%20Schooling%20V1%20N1%202010.pdf
Barnlund, D. C. (1970). A transactional model of communication in K.K. Sereno and C.D.
Mortenson (Eds.), Foundations of communication theory (pp. 83-92). New York, NY:
Harper and Row.
Ellis, R. and McClintock, A. (1990). You take my meaning: Theory into practice in human
communication. London: Edward Arnold.
Lasswell Communication Model. (2020). Retrieved September 18, 2020 from toolshero.com
Schramm, W. (1997). The beginnings of communication study in America. Thousand Oaks, CA:
Sage.
September 18, 2020 from nasonline.org
Shannon, C. and Weaver, W. (1949). The mathematical theory of communication. Urbana, IL:
University of Illinois Press.

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the two models of the communication process

  • 1. 0 KADUNA STATE UNIVERSITY POSTGRADUATE SCHOOL DEPARTMENT OF MASS COMMUNICATION FACULTY OF SOCIAL SCIENCES COURSE CODE: PGDMCM 706 COURSE TITLE: Mass Media and Society ASSIGNMENT ON Write on the two models of the communication process discussed in class and derive two more that have emerged out of them. Note: The two models discussed in class are cultural and Transition models. BY ANTHONY RICHARD KASU/PGDMCM/MCM/20/0024 COURSE LECTURER: MRS. JAMIMAH SHUNA DOGO DECEMBER, 2022
  • 2. 1 Introduction Communication has always been part of human’s life. Such communication includes reading, writing, listening, speaking and many more. Other subtle ways of communication can also be done consciously or unconsciously such as gestures, expressions, and non-verbal sounds. These activities are not just simply an exchange of information because it follows a distinct communication process that exhibits the essential elements or components of communication. Moreover, in order to further measure the effectiveness of communication, these elements/components are presented through the communication models. Communication model is a schematic description that seeks to represent the structure or key elements of a communication process (Juneja, P., n.d.). In the book of Antonino et al (2016), five communication models were identified. First was Aristotle’s model that focuses on public speaking; therefore, stressing the importance of audience in the communication process. Second was Shannon-Weaver’s model. In this model, effective communication is designed between the sender and the receiver. It also put emphasis to noise as a factor affecting the communication. Transaction model of communication As the study of communication progressed, models expanded to account for more of the communication process. Many scholars view communication as more than a process that is used to carry on conversations and convey meaning. We don’t send messages like computers, and we don’t neatly alternate between the roles of sender and receiver as an interaction unfolds. We also can’t consciously decide to stop communicating because communication is more than sending and receiving messages. The transaction model differs from the transmission and interaction models
  • 3. 2 in significant ways, including the conceptualization of communication, the role of sender and receiver, and the role of context (Barnlund, 1970). The transaction model of communication describes communication as a process in which communicators generate social realities within social, relational, and cultural contexts. In this model, which is shown in Figure 2.2.3, we don’t just communicate to exchange messages; we communicate to create relationships, form intercultural alliances, shape our self-concepts, and engage with others in dialogue to create communities. The roles of sender and receiver in the transaction model of communication differ significantly from the other models. Instead of labeling participants as senders and receivers, the people in a communication encounter are referred to as communicators. Unlike the interactive model, which suggests that participants alternate positions as sender and receiver, the transaction model suggests that we are simultaneously senders and receivers. This is an important addition to the model because it allows us to understand how we are able to adapt our communication—for example, a verbal message—in the middle of sending it based on the communication we are simultaneously receiving from our communication partner. The transaction model also includes a more complex understanding of context. The interaction model portrays context as physical and psychological influences that enhance or impede communication. While these contexts are important, they focus on message transmission and reception. Since the transaction model of communication views communication as a force that shapes our realities before and after specific interactions occur, it must account for contextual influences outside of a single interaction. To do this, the transaction model considers how social, relational, and cultural contexts frame and influence our communication encounters.
  • 4. 3 Social context refers to the stated rules or unstated norms that guide communication. Norms are social conventions that we pick up on through observation, practice, and trial and error. We may not even know we are breaking a social norm until we notice people looking at us strangely or someone corrects or teases us. Relational context includes the previous interpersonal history and type of relationship we have with a person. We communicate differently with someone we just met versus someone we’ve known for a long time. Initial interactions with people tend to be more highly scripted and governed by established norms and rules, but when we have an established relational context, we may be able to bend or break social norms and rules more easily. Cultural context includes various aspects of identities such as race, gender, nationality, ethnicity, sexual orientation, class, and ability. We all have multiple cultural identities that influence our communication. Some people, especially those with identities that have been historically marginalized, are regularly aware of how their cultural identities influence their communication and influence how others communicate with them. Conversely, people with identities that are dominant or in the majority may rarely, if ever, think about the role their cultural identities play in their communication. Cultural context is influenced by numerous aspects of our identities and is not limited to race or ethnicity. Cultural model First of all, what is culture anyway? It can be described in a number of different ways, but for our purposes the definition most applicable states that culture is a way of life passed on to members of a society through time that keeps the society together. This includes behaviors, beliefs, and values that are learned. According to media scholar James Carey (1989), "Communication is a symbolic process whereby reality is produced, maintained, repaired, and transformed." Communication is about maintaining social order, a shared reality, and a sense of community; the language and
  • 5. 4 culture that we have affects the way we see reality. Furthermore, communication is the process of producing new shared meanings out of historically shared meanings and individually created meanings. As illustrated in the figure below, people learn culture from media and language, and people create culture using media and language to gain this shared meaning. 1. Media influence people (socialization; internalize meaning; learn culture) 2. People make media (externalize meaning; influence culture and society Cultural model in a mobile world. Once mobile devices became much more advanced than the original mobile phone call feature, and mobile devices started to become part of the everyday lives of the majority of the public, they began to relate to the cultural model much more clearly. James Katz, professor of communications and director of Rutgers University's Center for Mobile Communication Studies, supports the cultural model of communication when he states that "Cell phones are enabling people to create their own micro-cultures; they are changing cultural norms and values, and demonstrating consumers' ability to modify and reproduce technology for their own use." People have discovered
  • 6. 5 infinite ways to create shared meaning with others. Whether forming a community around a certain video captured by a cell phone, a ring tone made and distributed by an inspiring artist, a picture uploaded to Facebook from a cell phone camera, a mass text sent out inviting people to a rally, or a "tweet" on Twitter sent from a mobile phone warning people of tragedy, we have found ways to create individual meaning and form shared meaning from historically shared meaning with the mobile phone-an important artefact of our culture. Emerging theories in from Transaction model and Cultural model. The Westley and Maclean communication model The Westley and Maclean model is primarily used for explaining mass communication. This model introduces environmental and cultural factors to the process of communication. Namely, according to this model, the communication process does not start with the source/sender, but rather with environmental factors. The Westley and Maclean model also takes into account the object of the orientation (background, culture, and beliefs) of the sender and the receiver of messages. The very process of communication starts with environmental factors which influence the speaker — the culture or society the speaker lives in, whether the speaker is in a public or private space, etc. Aside from that, the role of feedback is also significant. This model consists of nine crucial components: 1. Environment (X) 2. Sensory experience (X¹)
  • 7. 6 3. Source/Sender (A) 4. The object of the orientation of the source (X²) 5. Receiver (B) 6. The object of the orientation of the receiver (X³) 7. Feedback (F) 8. Gatekeepers (C) 9. Opinion leaders Schramm’s Interactive Model of Communication In his Circular Model Schramm embodied idea that communication is a circular process by nature. Schramm conceived of decoding and encoding as activities maintained simultaneously by sender and receiver; he also made provisions for a two-way interchange of messages (Schramm, 1961: 5- 6). In this model, encoder is who originates and sends the message. Decoder is who receives the message and interpreter could be any person trying to understand and analyze, perceive or interpret. From the starting point of communication to the end an interpretation goes on. This model breaks the traditional sender and receiver models; each person acts as both sender and receiver and hence uses interpretation. Encoding, decoding and interpretation is going on simultaneously. Semantic noise is a concept introduced here when sender and receiver apply different meaning to the same message. It happens mostly because words and phrases are not understandable, so certain words and phrases will cause you to deviate from the actual meaning of communication.
  • 8. 7 Multiculturalism model The man of a postmodern age has been rooted in new orders determining his/her everyday reality, where existence involves answering many questions of primal nature, including communication. Alicja Szerlag stresed the role communication into process of understanding and tolerating other cultures (Szerlag, 2015: 137). The definition of culture has long been a controversy because culture as a phenomenon on the object level is constructed in the discursive process by forming various concepts (Budin, Vol.I) . Very popular United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization definition considers the culture as complex which includes knowledge, beliefs, morals, laws, customs, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by a human as a member of society. 1 Center for Advanced Research on Language Acquisition from University of Minnesota for purpose of intercultural studies project defines culture as the shared patterns of behaviors and interactions, cognitive constructs, and affective understanding that are learned through a process of socialization.2 It means, the essence of culture is not artifacts, and different tangible cultural elements but how the members of specific group interpret, use, and perceive them. Osgood-Schramm communication model In their book Communication Models for the Study of Mass Communications-Routledge, Denis Mcquail and Sven Windahl say that the emergence of this model “meant a clear break with the traditional linear/one-way picture of communication.” This model is useful for describing interpersonal, synchronous communication, but less suitable for cases with little or no feedback.
  • 9. 8 The Osgood-Schramm model is a circular model of communication, in which messages go in two directions. There are four principles in this model: 1. Communication iscircular— individuals involved in the communication process are changing their roles as encoders and decoders. 2. Communication isequalandreciprocal— both parties are equally engaged as encoders and decoders. 3. The message requiresinterpretation— the information needs to be properly interpreted to be understood. 4. There arethree stepsin the process of communication:  Encoding  Decoding  Interpreting In this model, there is no difference between a sender and a receiver. Both parties are equally encoding and decoding the messages. The interpreter is a person trying to understand the message.
  • 10. 9 Conclusion The concepts of communication models are regarded as significant because they aid individuals in effectively comprehending communication processes. The models of communication are also thought to be important, along with the nature and idea of communication. The creation of communication models has been the subject of extensive study. Individuals are able to determine how the flow of information occurs between senders and receivers by effectively comprehending these models. However, there are limitations in some instances. However, it is the responsibility of the individuals to ensure that restrictions do not impede efficient communication. Last but not least, it is possible to assert that well-organized communication models are facilitating communication processes.
  • 11. 10 References Antonino, M.T.M., et al. (2016). Oral communication in context. Malabon City, Philippines: Mutya Publishing House, Inc. Beqiri, G. (2018, September 05). Barriers to effective communication in the workplace. Retrieved from https://virtualspeech.com/blog/barriers-to-communication Croft, R. S. (2004). Communication theory. Eastern Oregon University, La Grande, OR. Retrieved from https://cs.eou.edu/rcroft/MM350/CommunicationModels.pdf Lunenburg, F. C. (2010). Communication: The process, barriers, and improving effectiveness. Schooling, 1(1), 1-2. Retrieved from http://www.nationalforum.com/Electronic%20Journal%20Volumes/Lunenburg,%20Fred %20C,%20Communication%20Schooling%20V1%20N1%202010.pdf Barnlund, D. C. (1970). A transactional model of communication in K.K. Sereno and C.D. Mortenson (Eds.), Foundations of communication theory (pp. 83-92). New York, NY: Harper and Row. Ellis, R. and McClintock, A. (1990). You take my meaning: Theory into practice in human communication. London: Edward Arnold. Lasswell Communication Model. (2020). Retrieved September 18, 2020 from toolshero.com Schramm, W. (1997). The beginnings of communication study in America. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. September 18, 2020 from nasonline.org Shannon, C. and Weaver, W. (1949). The mathematical theory of communication. Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press.