Meat hygiene and inspection

COURSE : LCHEH 452
Food Hygiene and
Inspection
LECTURE NOTE PREPARED BY
N. I. BARDA

INTRODUCTION
ORIGINOFMEATQUALITYCONTROLMEASURES
Meat has traditionally been viewed as a vehicle for a significant
proportion of human food-borne disease. Although the spectrum of
meat-borne diseases of public health importance has changed with
changing production and processing systems, continuation of the
problem has been well illustrated in recent years by human
surveillance studies of specific meat-borne pathogens such as
Escherichia coli O157:H7, Salmonella spp., Campylobacter spp. and
Yersinia enterocolitica. In addition to existing biological, chemical and
physical hazards, new hazards are also appearing e.g. the agent of
bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE). Furthermore consumers
have expectations about suitability issues which are not necessarily
of human health significance

A contemporary risk-based approach to meat hygiene requires that hygiene
measures should be applied
at those points in the food chain where they will be of greatest value in reducing
food-borne risks to consumers.
This should be reflected in application of specific measures based on science and
risk assessment, with a
greater emphasis on prevention and control of contamination during all aspects
of production of meat and its
further processing. . The measure of success of contemporary programmes is an
objective demonstration of levels of hazard control in food that are correlated
with required levels of consumer protection, rather than by concentrating on
detailed and prescriptive measures that give an unknown outcome

At the national level the activities of the CompetentAuthority
having jurisdiction at the slaughterhouse (usuallyVeterinary
Administrations) very often serve animal health as well as
public health objectives.
This is particularly the case in relation to ante- and post-
mortem inspection where the slaughterhouse is a key point in
animal health surveillance, including zoonoses.
Regardless of jurisdictional arrangements, it is important
that this duality of functions is recognized and relevant public
health and animal health activities are integrated

DEFINITION OF TERMS
•Meat : All parts of an animal that are intended for, or have been judged as safe and suitable for, human
consumption
•Meat hygiene : All conditions and measures necessary to ensure the safety and suitability of meat at all
stages of the food chain.
•Carcass: The body of an animal after dressing
•Inedible: Inspected and judged by a competent person, or otherwise determined by the competent
authority to be unsuitable for human consumption.
•Safe for human consumption: Means and include Safe for human consumption according to the
following criteria:
a) has been produced by applying all food safety requirements appropriate to its intended end-use;
b) meets risk-based performance and process criteria for specified hazards; and
c) does not contain hazards at levels that are harmful to human health
Post-mortem inspection1 Any procedure or test conducted by a competent person on all relevant parts of
slaughtered/killed animals for the purpose of judgement of safety and suitability and disposition

DEFINITION OF TERMS
•Dressing : The progressive separation of the body of an animal into a carcass and other edible and inedible
parts
•Contaminant : Any biological or chemical agent, foreign matter, or other substance not intentionally added
to food that may compromise food safety or suitability
•Ante-mortem inspection: Any procedure or test conducted by a competent person on live animals for the
purpose of judgement of safety and suitability and disposition
•Abattoir: Any establishment where specified animals are slaughtered and dressed for human
consumption and that is approved, registered and/or listed by the competent authority for such purposes.
•Hazard: A biological, chemical or physical agent in, or condition of, food with the potential to cause an
adverse health effect.
•Veterinary Inspector : An official inspector who is professionally qualified as a veterinarian and carries out
official meat hygiene activities21 as specified by the competent authority
•Wholesome meat: Meat free from diseases, having good color & palatable taste is known as wholesome
meat
•Beef: Meat of large ruminants i.e. cattle, buffalo, camel
•Edible products: are defined as products that are fit for human consumption. This would include meat,
certain offal, casings, etc. from animals which have been examined and passed by an inspector:

MEAT INSPECTION
Definition:- It is a professional examination of meat and meat products for its
fitness for human consumption.
Meat inspection is mandatory when meat is slaughtered and processed for
sale and its includes;
a) Review of plan for slaughtering
b) Construction of slaughtering house
c) Collection
d) Laws for gentle slaughtering
e) Storage and sale
f) Provision of disease-free and wholesome meat to the consumer

PRINCIPLES OF MEAT INSPECTION
1.Meat must be safe and suitable for human consumption and all interested parties including
government, industry and consumers have a role in achieving this outcome.
2. The competent authority should have the legal power to set and enforce regulatory meat
hygiene requirements, and have final responsibility for verifying that regulatory meat hygiene
requirements are met. It should be the responsibility of the establishment operator to produce
meat that is safe and suitable in accordance with regulatory meat hygiene requirements. There
should be a legal obligation on relevant parties to provide any information and assistance as may
be required by the competent authority.
3. Meat hygiene programmes should have as their primary goal the protection of public health
and should be based on a scientific evaluation of meat-borne risks to human health and take into
account all relevant food safety hazards, as identified by research, monitoring and other relevant
activities

4.The principles of food safety risk analysis should be incorporated wherever possible and
appropriate in the design and implementation of meat hygiene programmes.23
5. Wherever possible and practical, competent authorities should formulate food safety
objectives (FSOs) according to a risk-based approach so as to objectively express the level of
hazard control that is required to meet public health goals.
6. . Meat hygiene requirements should control hazards to the greatest extent practicable
throughout the entire food chain. Information available from primary production should be
taken into account so as to tailor meat hygiene requirements to the spectrum and prevalence of
hazards in the animal population from which the meat is sourced.
7. . The establishment operator should apply HACCP principles. To the greatest extent
practicable, the HACCP principles should also be applied in the design and implementation of
hygiene measures throughout the entire food chain.
8. The competent authority should define the role of those personnel involved in meat hygiene
activities where appropriate, including the specific role of the veterinary inspector.
.

9. The range of activities involved in meat hygiene should be carried out by personnel with the
appropriate training, knowledge, skills and ability as and where defined by the competent
authority.
10. The competent authority should verify that the establishment operator has adequate
systems in place to trace and withdraw meat from the food chain. Communication with
consumers and other interested parties should be considered and undertaken where
appropriate.
11. As appropriate to the circumstances, the results of monitoring and surveillance of animal and
human populations should be considered with subsequent review and/or modification of meat
hygiene requirements whenever necessary.
12. Competent authorities should recognise the equivalence of alternative hygiene measures
where appropriate, and promulgate meat hygiene measures that achieve required outcomes in
terms of safety and suitability and facilitate fair practices in the trading of meat.

OBJECTIVES OF MEAT INSPECTION
The Objectives of meat inspection programme can be broadly
classified into two:
i) To ensure that only apparently healthy, physiologically normal
animals are slaughtered for human consumption and that abnormal
animals are separated and dealt with accordingly.
ii) To ensure that meat from animals is free from disease, wholesome
and of no risk to human health

SPECIFICALLY, THE PURPOSES INCLUDE:
i) To prevent unsanitary meat (i.e. self-dead animals, diseased meat, foetus etc.)
from being released for human consumption.
ii) To prevent post-mortem contamination of meat through unhygienic dressing
of carcass, contamination during washing with polluted water, contamination
from human carriers of infectious diseases etc.
iii) To prevent the addition of dangerous drugs and chemicals to meat e.g. in
canning.
iv) To prevent false or fraudulent practices with meat e.g. soaking of meat and
rubbing of pale carcasses with blood by butchers.
v) To detect outbreaks of infectious diseases among food animals.

FOOD ANIMALS
Food Animals means and includes of the following types:
Domestic ungulates; ( Domestic bovine , including bubalus and Bison species ) eg Cow, pig,
camel, sheep,etc.
Domestic solipeds; eg horses, donkeys
Domestic birds i.e. poultry;
Lagomorphs; eg Rabbit
Farmed game; eg Turkeys, fowl, , guineas fowl, ducks andv geese.
Farmed game birds, including ratites;
Wild game, i.e. wild land mammals and birds which are hunted (including those living in
enclosed territory under conditions of freedom similar to those of wild game);
Animals as otherwise specified by the competent authority

EFFECTS OF MODE OF TRANSPORTATION ON MEAT QUALITY
i) Long journey produces hazards on the quality of the meat of the animals as
animal may get bruises, injuries and fractures due to overloading or other
reason.
ii) Fatigued animals do not bled well and there can be seen incomplete bleeding.
iii) There may be some suffocation due to lack of ventilation or overcrowding and
undue stress on the animals.
iv) Animals may become dehydrated, if they are traveled on a long journey
without provision of drinking water. It may also result into weight loss and sever
dehydration and ultimately death of the animal.
v) Bloat may develop if feet of the animals are tied.
vi) Animals may get poisoning if they are transported by first method i.e. trekking
on foot because they may graze on different poisoness plants found in their way.

Reason for ante mortem inspection
The reason for ante mortem inspection include the following;
a) To ensure that animals awaiting for slaughtering are properly
rested.
b) To reduce the contamination by separating the dirty and diseased
animals from the healthy animals.
c) To identify the sick animals and those treated with antibiotics.
d) To ensure that injured animals or those with pain and suffering
receive emergency slaughter and that animals are treated humanely.

Ante Mortem Inspection procedures
All animals presented for slaughter should be subjected to ante-mortem inspection, by a
competent person whether on an individual or a lot basis. Inspection should include
confirmation that the animals are properly identified, so that any special conditions pertaining to
their place of primary production are considered in the ante-mortem inspection, including
relevant public and animal health quarantine controls.
Ante-mortem inspection should support post-mortem inspection by application of a specific
range of procedures and/or tests that consider the behavior, demeanor and appearance, as well
as signs of disease in the live animal. Ante mortem inspection includes to assess;
- Respiration of the animal, whether it is normal or abnormal
- Behavior of the animal, normal walking or walking in circle.
- Gait and posture of the animal, normal or abnormal
- Structural and conformational abnormalities, there may be any abscess, bloat formation, injury
or lumpy jaw
- Discharge from the natural body orifices i.e. ocular and nasal discharge
- Fecal material for its consistency etc.

Both sides of an animal should be examined at rest and in motion. Antemortem examination should
be done within 24 hours of slaughter and repeated if slaughter has been delayed over a day.
Spread hogs and animals affected with extensive bruising or fractures require emergency slaughter.
Animals showing clinical signs of disease should be held for veterinary examination and judgement.
They are treated as “suspects” and should be segregated from the healthy animals. The disease and
management history should be recorded and reported on an A/M inspection card. Other
information should include:
 Owner's name
 The number of animals in the lot and arrival time
 Species and sex of the animal
 The time and date of antemortem inspection
 Clinical signs and body temperature if relevant
 Reason why the animal was held
 Signature of inspector

Antemortem inspection should be carried out in adequate lighting where the animals
can be observed both collectively and individually at rest and motion. The general
behaviour of animals should be observed, as well as their nutritional status, cleanliness,
signs of diseases and abnormalities. Some of the abnormalities which are checked on
antemortem examination include:
Abnormalities in respiration
Abnormalities in behaviour
Abnormalities in gait
Abnormalities in posture
Abnormalities in structure and conformation
Abnormal discharges or protrusions from body openings
Abnormal colour
Abnormal odour
Abnormalities in respiration commonly refer to frequency of respiration. If the
breathing pattern is different from normal the animal should be segregated as a suspect.

Abnormalities in behaviour are manifested by one or more of the following signs:
The animal may be:
 walking in circles or show an abnormal gait or posture
pushing its head against a wall
charging at various objects and acting aggressively
showing a dull and anxious expression in the eyes
An abnormal gait in an animal is associated with pain in the legs, chest or abdomen
or is an indication of nervous disease.

Abnormal posture in an animal is observed as tucked up abdomen or the animal may stand with an extended
head and stretched out feet. The animal may also be laying and have its head turned along its side. When it is
unable to rise, it is often called a “downer”. Downer animals should be handled with caution in order to prevent
further suffering.
Abnormalities in structure (conformation) are manifested by:
 swellings (abscesses) seen commonly in swine
 enlarged joints
 umbilical swelling (hernia or omphalophlebitis)
 enlarged sensitive udder indicative of mastitis
 enlarged jaw (“lumpy jaw”)
 bloated abdomen


Some examples of abnormal discharges or protrusions from the body are:
 Discharges from the nose, excessive saliva from the mouth, afterbirth
 Protruding from the vulva, intestine
 Protruding from the rectum (prolapsed rectum) or uterus
 Protruding from the vagina (prolapsed uterus)
 Growths on the eye and bloody diarrhoea
Abnormal colour such as black areas on horses and swine, red areas on light
coloured skin (inflammation), dark blue areas on the skin or udder (gangrene).
An abnormal odour is difficult to detect on routine A/M examination. The odour
of an abscess, a medicinal odour, stinkweed odour or an acetone odour of ketosis
may be observed.

SLAUGHTER OF FOOD ANIMALS
Slaughtering: means putting the food animals to death and
thereafter preparing the carcasses for human consumption.
The essentials in the slaughter of food animals are that it
should not cause unnecessary suffering to the animals and
bleeding should be as efficient as possible. Besides, it should
be safe for the handlers also

1) Muslim method of slaughter or Halal
When animals are to be slaughtered according to Muslim injunction, the meat produced thereof is known
as Halal meat. Such must follow the following principles:
a) The animal must be healthy and conscious.
b) Slaughter should be quick, with a single stroke cut to the throat without inflicting suffering to the animal.
Stunning is not acceptable.
c) The animal should be slaughtered lying on the floor with its head facing Mecca. The neck of the animal is
severed by cutting the four major blood vessels (carotid arteries and jugular veins) with a sharp knife. The
spinal cord is left intact. So the nerve centres controlling the heart and lungs remain functional and an
efficient bleeding is ensured. It also enhances the keeping quality of meat.
d) The name of Allah be invoked during the slaughter
e) Since pig is regarded as unclean animal, and the consumption of pork is prohibited under the Muslim
injunction, it is not acceptable to slaughter pigs under the same roof as cattle, sheep or goats. Also, a meat
shop selling mutton, goat or beef slaughtered according to Muslim rites cannot sell pork to non-Muslims

METHODS OF SLAUGHTERING:
2) Jewish Method of Slaughtering
These methods employ one stroke to cut the throat, severing
altogether the trachea, oesophagus, blood vessels and muscle
except the cervical vertebrae and the vertebral artery and spinal cord
within it.

Humane Slaughter of Food Animals
This is also known as scientific slaughter. Such a slaughter
avoids
unnecessary pain and cruelty to food animals and ensures as
complete bleeding as possible. It also ensures speed of
operation
and safety of the personnel.
Stunning: is a process employed to create a state of
immobility or unconsciousness at the time of slaughter.
Immediately, the animal is hoisted and blood vessels on the
neck are severed (sticking) to bleed the animal to death. It is
important to note that in stunning the animal is not killed but
only made unconscious.

Stunning Techniques and Devices
They fall into three main categories:
1. Mechanical instruments. Instruments such as captive boltpistol, percussion or stunner
cause damage to the brain so the animal immediately looses consciousness. Application
point of captive bolt pistol differs with species. In effective stunning, the animal
immediately collapse followed by tonic spasms and then movements of the hind legs.
2. Electrical stunning. It is conveniently employed in stunning of small ruminants, pigs and
poultry. The instrument carries electrodes by which alternating current is passed through
the brain. Bleeding is very efficient and the power consumption is extremely low. If the
current remains low, missed shock may occur resulting in paralysis of the animal,
although it remains fully conscious. It affects the quality of meat besides compromising
the safety of the handler. On the other hand, too high a current may cause splash. It
refers to the appearance of petechial haemorrhages
throughout the subcutaneous tissue in pigs. The capillaries get ruptured due to excessive
increase in blood pressure.

3. Chemical stunning. Carbon dioxide gas stunning
is most suitable for pigs. Carbon dioxide is heavier
than air and can be contained in a tunnel. The gas
blocks the nerve endings.
On exposure to gas, pigs become anaesthetised
that are then shackled and bled.

STICKING OR BLEEDING OF THE ANIMAL
It is important that bleeding should be done as soon as possible after stunning so
as to minimise the extravasation of blood into the organs and musculature. Blood
pressure is markedly increased during the period of stunning and unless the pressure
is relieved immediately by bleeding the rush of the blood to the tissues (splashing)
occurs. Bleeding can be done by any of the two methods:
1. After hoisting on the overhead rail, carotid arteries and jugular veins of both sides
are severed across the throat region, caudal to the larynx.
2. On the floor, skin is incised along the jugular furrow and carotid artery and jugular
vein of one side are severed. The knife is then passed to the chest severing the
anterior aorta
and anterior venacava. Sometimes, knife reaches too far in the chest puncturing the
pleura
and the blood may be aspirated into the thoracic cavity. This blood adheres to the
parietal pleura especially the posterior edges of the ribs. This contamination of lungs
is called back bleeding or over sticking. It requires to be washed immediately

DRESSING OF SLAUGHTER ANIMAL
Dressing techniques and sequence of dressing operations vary from
place to place and are very much influenced by the equipment and
facilities available in the abattoir. The present trend in organized abattoirs is towards
line dressing whereby once the animal has been hoisted to the bleeding rail, it is not
lowered to the floor till the entire dressing operation is completed. The carcass is
conveyed by gravity or power driven along an overhead rail. Equipment such as
brisket saw, hock cutter, hide puller, bone cutter etc. facilitate the dressing.
The process includes the opening of the carcass, flaying, evisceration, splitting,
inspection and dispatch
1. Flaying: This is the removal of the hide and skin of cattle (buffalo), sheep and goat
2. Dehairing: The removal of hair and bristles of pigs. This can be done by hand or by
dehairing machine. Plucking or Defeathering is the removal of feathers of poultry.
This can be done by 2 methods (a) Dry method whereby the feathers are plucked
after destroying the nerve centre behind the brain with a knife. (b) Wet method:
here, scalding tank with water is heated to 1300F is used to loosen the feather and
facilitate plucking.
3. Evisceration: Removal of the viscera from the carcass

ABATTOIR
This means and include any establishment where specified animals are slaughtered and dressed for human
consumption and that which is approved, registered and/or listed by the authority for such purposes.
An abattoir or slaughterhouse is a premise approved and registered by the controlling authority for hygienic
slaughtering and inspection of animals, processing, effective preservation and storage of meat products for
human consumption
In abattoir operation, certain prerequisite programs have to be considered, to provide basic environmental
and operating conditions that are necessary for production of safe meat. These prerequisite programs
include; good manufacturing practices, good hygiene practice and standard operating procedures.
There are 3 types of Abattoir:
1. Modern Abattoir
2. Semi Modern Abattoir
3. Traditional Abattoir

All equipment used in the slaughterhouse should be durable and made from
easily sterilized material. Its size should be in relation to the function it performs
1. Overhead rails with the following accessories:
a. overhead rollers
b. beef trees sheep carriers
c. pig shackles
d. extension chains for beef quarters
e. hooks for beef quarters
f. Pipe-made dressing rails
EQUIPMENT FOR HYGIENIC AND EFFICIENT
SLAUGHTERING

Overhead rails with the following accessories

2. Hand tools :
a. stunning pistol,
b. sticking and skinning knives,
c.. axe/meat and bone cutting saws/choppers.
3. Floor rings
4. Skinning cradles
5. Visceral inspection table and hook rail
6. Pig scalding vat and dressing equipment
7. Sanitation equipment:
a. Sterilizer
b. Dirt –removing carts
8. First-Aid Materials

ABATTOIRE EQUIPMENTS & HAND TOOLS

Selection of site for an abattoir
1. Abattoir must be located in the outskirt of the town or city.
2. The building should be constructed at an elevated ground to provide easy drainage.
3. There should be provision of adequate and potable water supply
4. It should have concrete road facilities
5. There should be arrangement of uninterrupted electric supply.
6. There must be enough open space nearby for future expansion.
7. Abattoir has to be located far away from airport.
8. It should be free from pollution of industrial odours, smoke, dust, ash etc.
9. There should be availability of sufficient number of good meat animals in the region.
10. The soil should be able to support good foundation and pillars.
11. Proximity to supply of varied labour.

.FACTORS NECESSARY FOR SITING ABATTOIR
1. Site of buildings for slaughtering and processing. The slaughterhouse should be situated away from
residential areas. Access for animals - either by road, rail and/or stock route - must be assured. The
slaughterhouse should be located in areas where flooding is impossible.
2. An abundant supply of potable water as well as adequate facilities for treatment and disposal is
important.
3. The land acquired for the proposed slaughterhouse should be sufficient to permit future expansion
as overcrowding of facilities may give sanitation problems. There should be a reasonable relationship
between the size of slaughter facilities and the number of animals to be killed. Sufficient space for
lairage and tripe and hide treatment is required. The space required for lairage will often depend on
local and even climatic conditions. In specific areas it will only be possible to transport the animals in
the dry season while slaughtering may only be carried out in the rainy season because of water
requirements. Sufficient space is required to dig pits for condemned animals, compost stacks,
lavatories etc., and for disposal of liquid and solid waste

Abattoir Design and Construction
Abattoir building should face either towards east or west. Clear demarcation exists between clean and unclean
sections.
A modern abattoir building should have the following units.
Lairage or livestock holding pen
. Slaughter hall, with clearly demarcated
a. Stunning section
b. Bleeding section
c. Skinning section
d. Dressing section
e. Evisceration section
f. Postmortem section

Abattoir Design and Construction
Isolation block /emergency slaughter unit.
. Chill rooms
Detained and condemned meat rooms
Hide and skin store
Gut and tripe room
Offal room
Meat cutting room
Veterinary office and laboratory
Dispatch room
Cloak room
Manure bay
Effluent plant

TYPICAL LAYOUT OF MODERN ABATTOIR

SECTIONS/ COMPONENTS OF ABATTOIR
A. LAIRAGES:
The lairage provides temporary housing for the animals prior to slaughter and it’s design should
take into account the following needs; animal welfare, maintaining cleanliness and separation of
sick or “suspect” animals. It must be designed and constructed to allow the following physical
activities
The key elements in the design of a lairage are:
- Sufficient light for satisfactory ante-mortem inspection.
- Floors that drain easily and do not compromise the cleanliness of animals’ coat
- No sharp objects that could injure animals.
- Isolation pen available for the containment of sick or “suspect” animals, with separate drainage.
- Physical separation of lairage (dirty area) from the area where edible products are produced.

LAIRAGES (non-functional lairage overgrown with plants )

ROUTINE HYGIENE MANAGEMENT PROCEDURES IN MODERN ABATTOIR
Abattoir wastes consist of several pollutants such as animal feaces, blood, bone, fat, animal trimmings,
paunch content and urine from operations or areas like lairage, stunning or bleeding, carcass processing
and by-product processing. These abattoir wastes can be classified as solid, liquid and gaseous forms.
Abattoir wastes can have a detrimental effect on the environment, public health, animal health and
economy of the country if they are not effectively managed and controlled.
Abattoirs often have difficulties in disposing, treating and processing of these wastes in an
environmentally acceptable fashion. Due to this reasons there is high risk on environmental pollutions like
underground water pollution, air pollution, nuisance, odor, soil pollution and public health risks through
transmission of zoonotic diseases to human.
Good manufacturing and good hygienic practices, liquid, solid and gaseous waste management
practices, are highly necessary to minimize the harmful effect of abattoir wastes. Safe disposal, treatment
and processing methods like burial, composting, rendering, incineration, anaerobic digestion and blood
processing are also highly important to absorb our economic benefits from abattoir wastes /by-products
rather than controlling public health risks and environmental pollution

ROUTINE HYGIENE MANAGEMENT PROCEDURES IN MODERN ABATTOIR
1. Abattoir waste management should be progressively implemented commencing with low
cost, low technology practices and thereafter progressing to more sophisticated technologies
2. Liquid and solid waste products including specific risk material from the slaughter operation
need to be handled, transported and disposed of in compliance with relevant regulations and in
a manner appropriate for each processing site. There exist, however, a number of good
management practices which, when applied in terms of pre-treatment, can lessen the
environmental impact of abattoir waste and potentially increase the availability of value-added
products.
3. The layout of the premises and building must be designed so that the production process
moves in one direction without any cross flow of products, which may adversely affect the
hygiene of the product. Live slaughter animals are received at the dirty end of the abattoir and
meat is dispatched from the clean side of the abattoir

ROUTINE HYGIENE MANAGEMENT
PROCEDURES IN MODERN ABATTOIR
4. Personal hygiene and health of food handlers is of the utmost importance
when an effort is made to deliver a safe product of high quality to the consumer.
Workers should be medically examined before employment in order to
determine if they are physically fit to perform the work and also if they do not
suffer from transmissible diseases, which can be transmitted through the food
they handle to the consumer. They must also undergo daily fitness checks for
different signs of illness. Workers must be issued daily with clean clothes in a
good condition in order to protect the food from contamination and also to
protect the workers against potential dangers. Each worker can contribute to
good personal hygiene standards

HEALTH REQUIREMENTS OF WORKERS
Food handlers and food borne diseases: Meat can transfer pathogenic organisms to the people (or animals)
that eat or handle it. These organisms can originate from the slaughtered animal in other words a sick
animal, or one that is a carrier of the organisms or from other sources. These sources include food
handlers(people who work with food) at the abattoir wholesalers or retailers – even the housewife in her
kitchen. This discussion however focuses on people employed at an abattoir. The principles can however
also be applied elsewhere. Where we refer to meat handlers the same can be said of any food handler
1. Legal requirements regarding the health and hygiene of workers
a. Visitors entering an abattoir: All persons entering an abattoir including management, visitors and
maintenance personnel must be issued, by the owner, with clean suitable protective clothing complying to
abattoir regulation.
b. Medical records of employees
(1) Before employment at an abattoir or its cutting plant, medical certification must confirm that a person is
–
(a) Healthy and physically able to work as a meat handler; and not a carrier of, or sufferer from, a
communicable disease.

(2) All medical records pertaining to medical examinations and daily fitness checks must be
available to the provincial executive officer or the registered inspector.
a. Health checks: The owner must ensure that all personnel –
(i) are examined daily, before starting work, for adverse health conditions such as suppurating
abscesses, sores, cuts and abrasions which may pose a food safety risk, and persons so affected
may not work with edible products unless such conditions are covered with a firmly secured
waterproof dressing so that the risk of contamination is excluded.
(ii) who were ill for three days or longer, present medical certificates to indicate that they are
now fit to handle foodstuffs.
(3) Training: All personnel must be trained in hygiene procedures and personal hygiene matters
by the owner, and training records must be kept.

(4). Protective clothing
(i) Protective clothing must be light coloured, clean, in good repair and must include safety hats,
hair nets, beard nets, head and shoulder capes, white gumboots and safety boots compliant with
hygiene requirements and waterproof aprons as required by the work situation.
(ii) At the start of each working day or shift, the owner must provide personnel with protective
clothing.
(iii) The owner must ensure that such clean protective clothing is stored and handled so that it
does not make contact with private clothes.
(iv) Private clothes must be kept in a locker that is reserved for that purpose only.
(v) Protective clothing must be changed or cleaned when it becomes contaminated by obnoxious
matter or becomes dirty.

(vi) The workers in the clean and dirty areas must wear distinctive protective clothing, respectively.
(vii) Protective clothing must completely cover all personal clothing.
(vii) Personnel may change into protective clothing only in appropriate change rooms and items of
protective clothing left in the abattoir working areas may only be placed or hung in areas designated for
these items.
(ix) Personnel may not sit or lie on the ground in their protective clothing during rest periods and may never
wear protective clothing outside the premises.
(x) The abattoir owner must provide laundry facilities or make use of a laundry service and personnel must
not be allowed to take protective clothing home to be washed
(5) Injuries
(i) All cuts and minor injuries must be covered with a durable waterproof dressing, surgical gloves or rubber
finger guards.
(ii) Personnel must immediately report any injury to the owner.

(5) Showering and washing of hands Personnel who handle foodstuffs must
(i) shower before assuming duties; and
(ii) wash hands and forearms with a liquid germicidal soap and running water immediately after they become
soiled or after having used a toilet or when entering a working.
(7) Prohibitions
(i) Jewelry, including traditional objects, may not be worn in an area where edible products are handled.
(ii) Fingernails must be short, clean and free of nail varnish.
(iii) Eating, drinking or using or handling tobacco are not allowed in any area where meat is handled.
(iv) Drugs, liquor or any intoxicating substance may not be brought into any part of the premises and a
drugged or intoxicated person may not be allowed to enter any part of a meat handling plant.
(v) Personnel must refrain from any actions that could contaminated the product

Post Mortem Examination
Post mortem inspection is the examination of carcasses and organs after slaughter to assess
whether these products are fit for human consumption.
Edible products are products that are fit for human consumption. This would include meat,
certain offal, casing etc. from animals which have been examined and passed by an inspector.
Inedible products are meat products which are not fit for human consumption and would include
such products as horn, hair, bone, bristle, blood.
Condemned meat is meat and meat products which have been found by an inspector not to be
fit for human consumption. All diseased and defective carcasses or part of carcasses will be
declared condemned material by the inspector and severely contaminated products may also be
included in this category.

Post mortem inspection should provide necessary information for the scientific evaluation of
pathological lesions pertinent to the wholesomeness of meat. Professional and technical knowledge
must be fully utilized by:
1. Viewing, incision, palpation and olfaction techniques.
2. Classifying the lesions into one of two major categories acute or chronic
3. Establishing whether the condition is localized or generalized and the extent of systemic changes
in other organs or tissues.
4. Determining the significance of primary and systemic pathological lesions and their relevance to
major organs and systems, particularly the liver, kidney, heart, spleen and lymphatic system.
5. Coordinating all the components of ante mortem and postmortem findings to make a final
diagnosis.
6. Submitting the samples to the laboratory for diagnostic support, if abattoir has holding and
refrigeration facilities for carcasses under detention.
Carcass judgement: Trimming or condemnation may involve:
1. Any portion of a carcass or a carcass that is abnormal or diseased.
2. Any portion of a carcass or a carcass affected with a condition that may present a hazard to
human health.
3. Any portion of a carcass or a carcass that may be repulsive to the consumer.

Head inspection. Retropharyngeal (No. 1), parotid (No. 2)
and submaxillary (No. 3) lymph nodes are viewed and
incised by multiple incisions and slicing
Liver inspection - Incised portal (hepatic) lymph nodes
(No. 1) and opened large bile duct (No. 2).
SOME OF THE ORGANS AND LYMP NODES TO BE
INSPECTED

SYSTEMATIC POST MORTEM INSPECTION PROCEDURE
1. Visual examination of the whole carcass and all organs should always be conducted first, because the inspector
should not endanger his/her own health or that of other people by unnecessary handling of an animal with
obvious signs of a transmissible disease. Visual inspection implies that the inspector is familiar with the normal
appearance of tissues and organs, so that abnormalities can be assessed; the focus is on the size, shape and
colour.
2. Palpation of the organs is routinely used, as specified for different organs/tissues in different species, to get a
feeling of the ‘texture’ of the tissue: stickiness, softness, dryness, wetness, etc. Palpation is useful for organs or
tissues with conditions that do not always produce a visible difference, e.g. arthritis.
3. Incision of organs/tissues is routinely used, but not for all organs and tissues.
4. Any additional examinations are conducted when the meat inspector or Official Veterinary Surgeon (OVS)
considers it necessary, including taking samples for rapid (on-site) laboratory tests if needed. Further investigation
is needed when any abnormalities are found, to assess their nature and extent. At this stage, incisions may be
applied more extensively, to obtain the necessary information, and samples may be taken for laboratory
investigation as necessary. Further investigation, over that required for routine inspection, can be costly, but this is
a secondary consideration when extra assurance for protection of public health is required.

Medial view of carcass with relevant lymph nodes

Understandably, not every single part of the tissues/organs in the animal can be inspected for signs of
abnormalities in great detail, so examination of the state of the lymph nodes may help to determine the status of
the correlated body parts. The lymph node is assumed to be an indicator of the existence of pathological
processes in the region from which it drains lymph; its status indicates whether there is a need to inspect the
related organ/tissue directly and in greater detail. The lymph node, while reacting to harmful or infectious
agents, may change appearance: become enlarged, have haemorrhages, abscesses, etc. Obviously, to use the
information obtained from lymph node inspection, the inspector must be familiar with the anatomical location
and physiological role of individual lymph nodes, the area from where each lymph node drains the lymph fluid
and the flow of the lymph between lymph nodes.
Using basic inspection techniques described above, carcasses and offal (and blood where appropriate) of all
animal species are routinely examined for:
• sex and age;
• state of nutrition;
• local/general oedema;
• efficacy of bleeding;
• swelling/deformity;
• abnormal colour, odour or taste;
• condition of pleura and peritoneum;
• any other abnormality; and
• signs of specific diseases.

INSPECTION OFTHEVISCERAL ORGANS
1.View the stomach, intestine and palpate. if necessary, incise the mesenteric lymph node for evidence of
tuberculosis.Observe for pimply gut.
2.View, palpate and incise if necessary the spleen for hydatid cyst
3.View the entire liver, palpate the parietal surface to detect cyst and abscesses. Incise the hepatic lymph
node, open up the bile duct and liver tissues for Fasciola spp.
4.View and palpate with both hands the lungs for Contagious bovine pleuropneumonia (CBPP). Incise the
epical, mediasternal and bronchial lymph nodes
5.View the organ, make 1 or 2 incision from the apex to the base of the heart. Inspect the epicardium for
haemorrhages. Examine the ventricles for endocarditis and cysticercus cyst
6. Evidence of coronary fat for evidence of emaciation
7. Kidney; view, enucleate (pumping out from the capsule), palpate and incise the hydatid cyst.
Inspection of the carcass
a.View the carcass for evidence of bruising, bleeding efficiency and other injuries as well as the nutritional
status and conformation
b. Inspect the thoracic and abdominal cavity for evidence of inflammation, abscesses or tuberculosis lesions.
c. Incise the iliac, prescapular, prefemoral, superficial inguinal or supramammary lymphnode as a routine
(Note: Cows have no superficial inguinal lymph node but supramammary lymph node)
d. Examine the cut surfaces of bones for evidence of tuberculosis

CONTAGIOUS BOVINE PLEUROPNEUMONIA (CBPP)

Judgement:
This is the most difficult part of meat inspection. It is easy to reject meat but not easy to
know what to pass for human consumption. This is because diseases vary in their severity, extent
and spread within the animal body. Acute stages of diseases are always associated with
inflammation because the disease is active and progressive but the disease may also be mild or
chronic. So, all the stages are encountered in meat inspection i.e from very slight to very severe
with all the possible graduates between them.
The meat inspection regulation lists certain diseases and conditions which render the whole
carcass and offal unfit for human consumption. In the case of Anthrax, there is obviously no room
for doubt but we may have grazing which may be extensive and severe. The question is What is
extensive? and what is severe?. As extensive and severe‖ cannot be stated precisely, in words, in
judgment becomes very important. The same applies to liver. There may be a single, very small
encapsulated abscess in the liver which has not spread to other parts. An experienced meat
inspector may trim and reject the affected portion. However, there may be multiple abscesses or
very large ones affecting the whole liver. In this case, the entire liver is rejected but between these
two extremes (single and multiple abscesses), there can be all sizes, numbers, types, activities of
abscesses. The question arises How much to pass or reject. Judgement can only be learnt by a
complete knowledge of all the factors involved and by practical experience.

MEAT BORNE DISEASES
Definitions
1 Infectious diseases are those caused by infectious agent or pathogens, eg tuberculosis.
2. Non-infectious diseases are those caused by non-infectious agents, eg wounds and trauma.
3. Contagious diseases are those easily spread from one animal/person to another, eg bird flu.
4. Pathogens are organisms that cause infectious disease, eg viruses, bacteria, or protozoa.
5. Vector is an organism that facilitates movement o fa pathogen or a parasite from one host to another. Examples
include, fleas with the dog tapeworm, pork withTrichinellaspiralis, mosquitos with malaria, blood-sucking bugs with
Trypanosomacruzi causing Chagas‘ disease, and tsetse flies with Trypanosomabrucei causing sleeping sickness in people
and nagana in cattle. Parasites live in close proximity to an animal and receive their nutrition from the host.
6. Zoonosis (plural zoonoses) is an infectious disease spread from animals to people.
7. Epidemic (or epidemic disease) is an infectious disease that spreads rapidly causing many people (or animals) to
become sick or ill; showing obvious clinical symptoms of the disease(such as fever).

1. Rabies: Rabies is a viral disease of many mammalian species, including bats, dogs, cats, foxes,
raccoons, skunks, and people. It is spread chiefly by animal bites. Rabies is almost always fatal in people
and most animals. Rabies vaccination is required legally for dogs and cats in Nigeria and most countries
of the world. People who have a high risk of animal bites, such as veterinarians, receive prophylactic
vaccination against rabies. If someone is bitten by an animal suspected of having rabies (being rabid),a
series of vaccinations are used. Orally active vaccines at baiting stations are used to control rabies in
wildlife.
2. Foot-and-Mouth Disease:Foot-and-mouth disease, also known as hoof-and-mouth, is a
highly contagious viral disease of cattle, pigs, and sheep.The disease is caused by a RNA virus, the foot-
and-mouth disease virus. North America has been foot-and-mouth disease free since 1954, with the last
reported case in the United States in 1929, while Africa and many tropical countries remain endemic.
There was a significant outbreak in the United Kingdom in 2001, with 7 million animals culled.This
spread toWestern Europe.Vaccines against foot and-mouth disease virus are only used in countries
where foot-and-mouth disease is found because vaccination prevents exports and does not allow
surveillance for the presence of the disease
3.Avian Influenza: Avian influenza is caused by one of a series of viruses.The disease not only
affects poultry but also can infect both game and wild birds.The latter is particularly a problem because
they fly around and can spread the disease locally or, for those that migrate, spread the disease into
different regions and countries.Avian influenza viruses are classified on two bases

4. Mastitis: Mastitis is the number one disease of dairy cattle. It results in much-reduced milk
production, the loss of milk not saleable with a high concentration of somatic cells (leukocytes), and long-
term damage to the mammary gland. It is caused by the invasion of the mammary gland by pathogens,
including various species of Streptococcus, Staphylococcus, and Mycoplasma bacteria.The innate immune
response plays a significant role in how the mammary gland deals with pathogenic bacteria.The teat canal is
a barrier preventing pathogens from entering the mammary gland. Between milking and during the dry
period, the teat canal is sealed by keratin, which is a plug.This is derived from the stratified epithelial
lining of the canal. Inflammation is part of the innate immune, and mastitis is inflammation of
the mammary gland. Mastitis can be either of the following: clinical or overt (readily seen by
observation),or subclinical.
5.Tuberculosis: Tuberculosis is a chronic disease of many animal species and poultry caused by bacteria of
the genus Mycobacterium. It is characterized by development of tubercles in the organs of most species.
Bovine tuberculosis is caused by Mycobacterium bovis. It is a significant zoonotic disease.An infected animal
is the main source of transmission.The organisms are excreted in the exhaled air and in all secretions and
excretions. Inhalation is the chief mode of entry and for calves infected milk is an important source of
infection.When infection has occurred tuberculosis may spread:
a) By primary complex (lesion at point of entry and the local lymph node)
b) By dissemination from primary complex

In sick animals the condition manifests as;
a. Low grade fever
b. Chronic intermittent hacking cough and associated pneumonia
c. Difficult breathing
d.Weakness and loss of appetite
e. Emaciation
f. Swollen superficial body lymph nodes
6.Salmonellosis:Salmonellosis is a disease which occurs in all animals and humans. In animals, salmonellosis is
characterized clinically by one of three syndromes:
a) Peracute septicemic form:
b) Acute enteritis
c) Chronic enteritis.
The young, old, debilitated and stressed animals are at greater risk. More than 200 antigenically different serotypes
of Salmonella have been identified and all of these possess pathogenic potential.The most frequently identified
serotypes of the organisms which cause the disease in cattle are S. typhimurium, S. dublin, S. muenster and S.
newport. Salmonellosis in stressed animals is frequently associated with inadequate diet, irregular feeding, water
deprivation, overcrowding, parasitism, weather extremes, pregnancy, parturition, inter-current diseases etc.The
calving complications which may predispose the disease include abortion or early termination of pregnancy, retained
placenta, endometritis and post-parturient metabolic Condition It is transmitted through the ingestion of feed that
have been contaminated by the faeces of infected animals, by drinking water in stagnant ponds and by the carrier
animals. In housed animals, transmission is via contaminated feedstuff containing improperly sterilized animal by-
products such as bone and meat meal and fish meal.

Casual workers, infected clothing and utensils, transportation trucks and birds may transmit the disease
to the farm. Active carrier animals shed Salmonella organisms intermittently and without obvious stress
factors. Latent carriers with stress factors are also identified in the transmission of salmonellosis.
Human
infection is transmitted via contaminated water, raw milk and meat. Compared to bovines, pigs and
poultry are more significant sources of infection in humans.
7.Leptospirosis:This is the disease caused by clinical infection with any one of the many serovars of
the bacterium Leptospirainterrogans. Each serovar of the bacterium is maintained in nature by non-
clinical persistent infection of one or more wild or domestic mammals.These mammals are the
maintenance hosts. Leptospirosis as a clinical disease occurs when mammals of other susceptible
species, such as humans, become infected.The disease is associated with septicemia, hemolytic
anemia, hepatitis, nephritis, jaundice, abortion and still births.The bacteria persist in the kidneys of the
maintenance hosts, are shed (excreted) in the urine and can survive for some time in aquatic and moist
environments. Infection can occur through the following ways:
– ingestion of contaminated water
– handling or ingesting infected milk or tissues
– transplacental invasion
– sexual contact
– social grooming.

8.Brucellosis: Several species of Brucella infect animals. Infection of livestock by
any of these species, whether or not the infection results in disease, may cause the
animals to test positive‘ in standard screening tests used to identify and eliminate
infected domestic animals or herds. Brucellaabortus and B. melitensis are the
species most regularly transmitted between wild and domestic ungulates, and are
most frequently associated with the conflicting needs of agriculture, and the risk of
human disease. Each species can cause significant disease in livestock (B. abortus
in cattle and B. melitensis in sheep and goats), and both can cause serious disease
in humans. Human health risks are generally associated with the handling or
consumption of infected animals or products.

ECONOMIC PROBLEM CREATED BY MEAT BORNE DISEASES
There is a tremendous impact of animal diseases in developed and developing countries, especially in Africa,
Asia, and Latin America.This is despite an armory of mechanisms used in combating animal diseases in modern
times, including good management, sanitation, biosecurity, veterinary care, monitoring and depopulation in the
event of an outbreak, vaccines, prophylactic drugs, and therapeutic drugs. Examples of the economic impact of
animal diseases based on government estimates include
the following:
• Annual cost of treatment, prevention and control of animal diseases are enormous in many countries
•The last major foot-and-mouth disease outbreaks costing the British economy about $17 billion and the
outbreak inTaiwan costing $1.3 billion.
• Mastitis impacting dairy production by an average of over $100 per cow in the United States.
• Because of tsetse flies and trypanosomes, cattle production is severely impacted, in Sub Saharan Africa.
• Newcastle disease in non-vaccinated poultry has wiped out poultry in whole villages in parts of Africa.
• Animal diseases impact commerce and the price of animal products with the exporting of livestock or animal
products restricted when there is a disease outbreak. For instance, the persistence occurrence of foot and mouth
disease (FMD) in African cattle populations limits the exports of beef products to major global markets.

MEAT POISONING
Some foods are more associated with foodborne illnesses and food poisoning than others.
They can carry harmful germs that can make you very sick if the food is contaminated. Raw foods
of animal origin are the most likely to be contaminated, specifically raw or undercooked meat
and poultry.
Beef food poisoning : This type of food poisoning refers to beef and meat products in general,
e.g. beef burgers. It also includes pates, sausages and sliced cooked meats.
Red meat is a good source of protein, vitamins and minerals and is highly versatile as well. It can
be grilled, roasted, barbecued and fried although in the latter case it is better to grill than fry for
health reasons.
Cooked meat such as beef needs to be kept separate from raw meat to prevent cross
contamination. If it has been frozen beforehand then it needs to be allowed to completely thaw
out before cooking and cooked at the correct temperature

CAUSES OF BEEF FOOD POISONING
Meat food poisoning is caused by any number of bacteria which include:
• Campylobacter
• Listeria
• Salmonella
• E coli
Campylobacter and salmonella are both found in raw meat. Listeria occurs in meat
products such as pates and cooked meats, e.g. salami. E coli can be found in
undercooked beef.
These types of food poisoning occur as a result of meat which has been
contaminated by bacteria. However, there is another type of food poisoning –that
which develops due to parasites –called ‘toxoplasmosis’
Toxoplasmosis is rare but is likely to be the cause of any cases of parasitical food
poisoning.This type of parasite lives in the digestive system of animals for example
cats and can easily be passed to humans.This happens as a result of eating
undercooked beef which contains this parasite or food or water which has been in
contact with infected animal faeces

Bacterial food poisoning and intoxication
Bacterial food poisoning results from ingestion of food containing large numbers of
living organisms or their toxins.There are three categories of food poisoning bacteria:
(a)Those that grow and produce toxins in foods before they are
eaten. E.g. Staphylococcus aureus and Clostridium botulinum
(b)Those that multiply in the intestinal tract and cause disease by
infection of the host. E.g. Salmonella typhi, S. typhimurium, S.
enteritidis, Shigellae
(c )Those that apparently act through a dual mechanism. E.g.
Clostridium perfringes, Bacillus cereus,Vibrio parahaemolyticus and
enteropathogenic E. coli.
Some important Food-borne Infections
• Staphylococcal food poisoning
• Botulism
•Vibriosis
• Salmonellosis
Symptoms of beef food poisoning
The symptoms of beef food poisoning appear within the first 48 hours after consumption.
They include: Stomach pains/upset stomach, Fever,Vomiting, Diarrhoea, Nausea, Bloating,
Aches and pains, and General feeling of being unwell

PREVENTING BEEF FOOD POISONING
The advice given here refers to all forms of meat based food poisoning.
As in any case of food poisoning, prevention is better than cure.This means care
and attention paid to the preparation, cooking and storing of food, and ensuring
that utensils and work surfaces are kept clean.
Another important factor is cross contamination.This means ensuring that cooked
and raw meats are kept separate, in containers, so that they do not infect one
another.
You should not wash raw poultry or meat before cooking it, even though some
older recipes may call for this step. Washing raw poultry or meat can spread
bacteria to other foods, utensils, and surfaces, and does not prevent illness.
Leftovers should be refrigerated at 40°F or colder within 2 hours after preparation.
Large cuts of meat, such as roasts or a whole turkey, should be divided into small
quantities for refrigeration so they will cool quickly enough to prevent bacteria
from growing.

MEAT PRESERVATION
The basis for meat preservation is to prevent the meat from microbial attack
and prolong the storage life of the meat. Basically, preservation methods are
designed to make conditions unfavourable for these organisms to grow.This is
achieved by extreme heat or cold, deprivation of water and oxygen, excess of
saltiness and increased acidity of the substrate.The methods based on these
principles include
o dehydration,
o salt curing,
o chemicals,
o irradiation,
o chilling and freezing
o heat processing

Dehydration
This is an old method of food preservation which is still popular in Nigeria today.To achieve best results,
meat should be pre-cooked at temperatures below 70oC. Low fat meats dry more rapidly and they
are more easily rehydrated. Dehydration does not affect the gross chemical composition of meat. However,
dehydrated meat reabsorbs water only to about 60% of the original moisture content. Some of the
disadvantages of drying include:
1. Flavour loss due to conversion of water soluble compounds to insoluble compounds
2. Loss of some nutritive components especially thiamine and pantothenic acid which are components of the
Vitamin B complex
Salt curing
This is a method of preserving meat with the use of brine solution. Brine solution contains the following:
Water 4.50 Litres
Salt 1.02 kg
NaNO3 or KNO3 21.25g
Sugar (optional) 56.75g
The action of salt curing on meat can be preservative or bacteriostatic.
a) Preservative action
b) Bacteriostatic action

Smoking
Smoke is produced as a result of anaerobic distillation of wood followed by partial oxidation. If the oxidation is
complete, there will be production of water and oxygen and not smoke, since wood’s main components are cellulose
(50%), hemicellulose (25%) and lignin (25%) which all contains carbon, oxygen and hydrogen. Smoke contains well over
200 compounds of which are aldehyde, phenols, acetate and resins.These compounds prevent oxidative activities,
provide flavour for the meat and have germicidal effect.
Smoking is the process of allowing smoke produced from natural wood, twigs, heather or the fruits of trees to act on
the surface of meat and meat products. During smoking the smoke is transferred to the product through the process of
absorption, adhesion, condensation, diffusion, dissolution and deposition.There are many methods of producing
smoke these include; smouldering of wood, by friction, steam, gas pyrolysis, vibratory feeder and liquid smoke
production.
Action of smoke on texture, flavour and colour of meat
Texture:The effect of smoke on texture meat depends on the relative humidity and the smoke temperature. At relative
humidity of 65 –70%, the surface of the meat will be dry. During smoking, as temperature increases from 49oC to 82oC,
the meat protein coagulates and the meat is toughened.
Colour:The surface colour of well-smoked meat is light golden yellow to dark brown shades.The colour varies with the
type of wood burnt, the density of smoke and the temperature of the smoke.
Flavour: The smoky taste in smoked meat product is as a result of the phenolic fraction of smoke.The type of wood can
also affect the flavour, soft woods give acrid flavours

Chemical preservatives
Antibiotics: these have been used to preserve and improve the keeping
quality of beef carcases, poultry and fish.These antibiotics are added to water in
a proportion of 5 to 40ppm and the meat is dropped into the treated water.
Alternatively, the antibiotic is added to ice in amounts of 2 – 5ppm and the fish
(or meat) is transported in the treated ice.The storage life of such treated meat,
poultry and fish is considerably increased.
Disadvantages of this method include
1. Antibiotics are not effective against yeasts and moulds
2.These antibiotics may occur as residues in the meat which when consumed
may be hazardous to the health of the consuming populace.
3.The widespread use of antibiotics in food encourages the appearance of
antibiotic-resistant strains among pathogenic bacteria present.
4.There is the danger that producers may tend to depend more on drugs than
good hygienic practices.

COLD STORAGE
Chilling
Chilling involves refrigerating meat to temperature just above freezing point.This temperature must be
maintained throughout the meat until it is delivered to the consumer. Meat will not keep for a long time
unless it is proper chilled. In chilling, care should be taken to prevent meat from being frozen as meat upon
thawing develops characteristics which are considered not so desirable than those possessed by chilling.
Quick chilling of carcase is necessary in order to prevent the growth of spoilage organisms.This process is
achieved by rapid circulation of air at low temperature (1 to 2oC or as low as -7oC) and controlled humidity.
Chilling of some of the thicker muscles is sometimes accelerated by the injection of liquid carbon dioxide into
the muscle.
Freezing
Meat has no definite freezing point because of its complex structure. Freezing meat at very low temperature,
the quality of the meat is retained better. In freezing meat, the internal temperature of the meat should be
reduced to -18oC.To store already frozen meat, the air temperature must be equal to or less than -14oC and
this will kept the meat for 9months and above. Pork should be stored at -18oC and will keep well for
6months.There should be proper spacing of boxed meat or meat products as they are placed in the freezer
between layer boxes and between boxes in the individual layers.To transport frozen meat and prevent
thawing during transportation, the vehicle and cargo space should be capable of a maximum air
temperature of -10oC.

TRANSPORTATION OF MEAT AND MEAT
PRODUCTS
Transporting meat products and road freight in Nigeria go hand in hand.To keep them from
spoiling, such products need to be refrigerated right after being processed and up until being
consumed. Refrigerated freight is designed to do just that, but there’s more to it than keeping the
products in cold storage.
Two other aspects that have a big impact on the transportation of meat products is the companies
that transport it and the authorities responsible for regulating them.While they are not as obvious
concerns, they are just as important as the refrigerated freight themselves.
To help make sure you meet all the requirements of transporting meat products, here are the 4
best practices for doing so:
Keep theTravelTime Short IfTransporting Fresh Meat Products
Compared to frozen and processed meat products, fresh meat products have a short shelf life.While
the former can last a month to a year before they spoil, the latter can last only a couple of days. So if
you’re transporting fresh meat products, avoid taking longer than two days for transportation.You
can plan the quickest trip by doing so well in advance.

Control theTemperature
Meat products need to be stored at 5°C or colder to stay as fresh as possible. It needs to be monitored
throughout the journey using a temperature measuring device that can be fitted into your refrigerated
freight, like a thermograph, an electronic data logger or a thermometer.To always get right readings,
calibrate the device to an accuracy of +/- 1°C.
If the journey will be short and you’re transporting chilled meat products, store them in insulated and
lidded containers so they stay cold. Remember, only precooled food can be kept in such containers. But if
you’re transporting frozen meat products, you won’t need such containers. Just make sure they stay frozen
throughout the journey
Protect Meat Products from Contamination
A lot of things can contaminate meat products during shipment if you aren’t careful. Good thing there
are many ways to prevent this:
1.Practice good personal hygiene – always wash your hands before and after handling the meat products.
2.Always wear clean clothing.
3.Don’t handle the meat products if you’re sick.
4.Cover any wounds you might have with waterproof bandages.
5.Don’t smoke anywhere near the meat products.
6.Immediately place chilled meat products in insulated and lidded containers.
7.Keep the packaging intact.

8. Keep ready-to-eat meat products and raw meat products separate.
9. Separate, remove or discard contaminated or damaged meat products.
10. Always check for pests or vermin.
11. Don’t allow animals to go near the meat products or your refrigerated freight.
12. Don’t keep chemicals near the meat products.
13. Keep your refrigerated freight in good condition.
14. Regularly check your refrigerated freight for damages.
15. If you find any damages, have your refrigerated freight repaired right away.
16. Make sure the inside of your refrigerated freight is sturdy, smooth, corrosion-
resistant, nontoxic, does not transfer odour or taste and can put up with
repeated cleaning and sanitising.
Undergo ProperTraining
It’s important that everyone in the supply chain is properly trained in safe food
storage and transportation. If you are hiring a refrigerated freight transport
company, always ensure they have up-to-date certificates and paperwork.

Meat should be transported in a correct manner, to make sure no contamination takes place nor
bacteria can grow on the product. There are three types of meat products produced as a result of
slaughter:
a.fresh meat product
b. processed meat products .
c. frozen meat products
The transportation of each of these products has different guidelines. Frozen meat products for
example can be transported all over the world. Fresh meat products have a limited shelf life and
therefore have to be in the supermarket within two days. Fresh meat products are therefore not
transported long distances typically. Processed meat products can either be fresh or frozen.With
this being said, trucks are therefore the most common transportation method, especially
concerning fresh meats.

• TRANSPORTING
MEAT ON THE
OPEN
UNSANITISED VAN
ILLEGAL
PRACTICE
• TRANSPORTING
MEAT SO OPEN AT
THE BACK OF
MOTOR CYCLE
ILLEGAL
PRACTICE

THE HOST-PARASITE ECOLOGICAL CONTINUUM (HERE
PARASITES INCLUDE VIRUSES AND PARASITIC BACTERIA)

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN DECOMPOSITION
AND SPOILAGE
DECOMPOSITION
Is a breaking-up of organic matter, chiefly protein but also fats and
carbohydrates, by the action of bacteria, moulds and yeasts, which
split the meat up into number of chemical substances, many of which
are gaseous and foul smelling
All forms of foods in their state remain in a fresh and edible state for
only a comparatively short time.
Foods rapidly acquire bacteria, moulds or yeasts, which are the main
causes of spoilage or decomposition.
Before terminal decomposition changes occur, however, other factors
such as enzyme action (food and bacterial) and oxidation take place in
some foods.
Enzymes or ferments, which are present in all living cells, catalyze the
complicated chemical reactions taking place in the cell
SPOILAGE
The spoilage of meat occurs, if the meat is untreated, in a
matter of hours or days and results in the meat becoming
unappetizing, poisonous, or infectious. Spoilage is caused
by the practically unavoidable infection and subsequent
decomposition of meat by bacteria and fungi, which are
borne by the animal itself, by the people handling the
meat, and by their implements. Meat can be kept edible
for a much longer time – though not indefinitely – if
proper hygiene is observed during production and
processing, and if appropriate food safety, food
preservation and food storage procedures are applied
The organisms spoiling meat may infect the animal either
while still alive ("endogenous disease") or may
contaminate the meat after its slaughter ("exogenous
disease").There are numerous diseases that humans may
contract from endogenously infected meat

Meat hygiene and inspection

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Meat hygiene and inspection