Pak Studies Notes

1. KYOTO PROTOCOL
EFFORTS:
Following efforts are made by international community after signing the Kyoto Protocol:
-Industrialized nations pledged to cut their yearly greenhouse gas emissions to a certain percentage below 1990
levels. The year 1990 was chosen as a baseline because that was the year when the UN first launched
negotiations on climate change.
-Conversion of fossil fuel (coal, gas, living organisms) system to cleaner fuels (Natural fuel which produces less
pollution) system.
-The European Union agreed to cut its emissions by 8% below 1990 levels, Japan by 7%, the United States by
7%, and Canada by 6%. Russia agreed to stay at 1990 levels, which still represents a significant reduction.
Governments are separated into two general categories:
1- Developed countries: Who have accepted greenhouse gas emission reduction obligations and must
submit an annual greenhouse gas inventory.
2- Developing countries: Who have no greenhouse gas emission reduction obligations but may participate
in the Clean Development Mechanism.
THE KYOTO MECHANISMS:
Under the Kyoto Protocol, there are three Mechanisms that allow countries and companies to buy, generate, or
trade "emissions credits." These credits then count towards the country's reduction target.
1- International Emissions Trading: Buying credits from other industrialized countries who have
exceeded their reduction targets.
2- Joint Implementation: Investing in emissions reduction projects in other industrialized countries.
3- Clean Development: Investing in clean energy and other emission reduction projects in developing
countries.
4- Carbon Trading: It controls pollution by providing economic incentives for achieving emission
reductions.
CONVENTIONS
1-CHEMICAL WEAPONS CONVENTION (CWC):
The Chemical weapons convention abbreviated as CWC came into force 1997.This is overlooked the
Organisation for prohibition of chemical weapon (OPCW) based in the Hague, Netherlands. This was an arms
control treaty that outlawed the production, stocking and use of chemical warfare and weapons. The main
obligation of this party under the convention was to prohibit the use of chemical weapons, as well as destruction
of all current chemical weapons. This treaty has signed by 192 states as of 2015. These states have given their
consent to be bound by the treaty (CWC).
2-VIENNA CONVENTION FOR THE PROTECTION OF THE OZONE LAYER:
The Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer is environmental agreement and without a doubt
one of the most successful ones considering it has been signed by 197 states which include all the members

2. present in the United Nations as well as members of the European Union. It was agreed upon by the states in
Vienna conference 1985 but came into force 3 years later in 1998. It acts as a legal framework in efforts to
reduce ozone depletion however does not include and legal binding reduction against the use of CFC’s a proven
ozone depleting agent.
3-CCAMLR:
The Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources abbreviated as CCAMLR is a part
of the Antarctic treaty system. This convention was up for signing in 1980 but came into force April, 1982. The
convention was set up with the goal to preserve marine life and environmental integrity in and near Antarctica.
It was at start ratified by 35 states and signed by 14 states. As of 2013 37 states have ratified this convention
including Pakistan.
4-CITES:
The convention of international trade in endangered species of wild fauna and flora, also known as the
Washington convention was drafted in result to a resolution in 1963 at a meeting of the international union for
conservation of nature (IUCN). It opened for signing in 73 and came into force in 1975. Its aim is to make sure
there are no threats towards the survival of species of plants and animals due to trade in specimens of wild
animals and plants. It has provided protection of over 35,000 species of plants.
PROTOCOLS
1-GENEVA PROTOCOL:
Geneva protocol is the protocol for the Prohibition of the Use in War of Asphyxiating, Poisonous or other
Gases, and of Bacteriological Methods of Warfare but it is referred to as Geneva protocol because it was signed
at Geneva in 1925. This is the general prohibition on chemical weapons and biological weapons but says
nothing about the production, storage and transfer. Later treaties covered such as Biological Weapons
Convention covered this issue.
2-MONTREAL PROTOCOL:
The Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer (a protocol to the Vienna Convention
for the Protection of the Ozone Layer) is an International treaty designed to protect the ozone layer by phasing
out the production of numerous substances that are responsible for ozone depletion. It was signed on 1987, and
entered into force on January 1989, followed by its first meeting in May 1989. Since then, it has undergone
eight revisions. The success of this protocol as compared to Kyoto protocol is more. The two ozone treaties
have been ratified by 197 parties, which includes 196 states and the European Union, making them the first
universally ratified treaties in United Nations history.
3-VOLATILE ORGANIC COMPOUNDS PROTOCOL:
The VOC Protocol is a protocol to the Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution which aims to
provide for the control and reduction of emissions of volatile organic compounds to reduce their transboundary
fluxes to protect human health and the environment from its possible devastating effects. The protocol was
concluded at Geneva, Switzerland similarly to the Geneva protocol. It was up for signing in 1991 and entered
into force in 1997.it has been ratified by 24 countries and signed by 6 more that have not ratified it yet which
includes the United States of America.

3. 4-GOTHENBURG PROTOCOL:
The 1999 Gothenburg Protocol to Abate Acidification, Eutrophication and Ground-level Ozone (known as the
Multi-effect Protocol or the Gothenburg Protocol) is a multi-pollutant protocol designed to reduce acidification,
eutrophication and ground-level ozone by setting emissions ceilings for sulphur dioxide, nitrogen oxides,
volatile organic compounds and ammonia to be met by 2010. As of August 2014, the Protocol had been ratified
by 26 parties, which includes 25 states and the European Union.
FACTORS LEADING TO THE CREATION OF PAKISTAN
BACKGROUND:
The history of South Asia is largely a history of conflicts between Hindus and Muslims of the region. Starting
with the war between Muhammad Bin Qasim and Raja Dahir in 712, armed conflicts between Hindus and
Muslims run in thousands. Clashes between Mahmud Ghaznavi and Jaypal, Muhammad Ghouri and Prithvi Raj,
and Aurangzeb and Shivaji are cases in point. There were so many reasons which forced Muslims to make their
separate nation.
NATION:
“A community or race of people which shares culture, tradition, language, and history, whether scattered or
confined to one country, form a nation.”
FACTORS LEADING TO THE CREATION OF PAKISTAN:
1. SUPPRESSION OF MUSLIMS:
After the war of independence, the British were afraid of being driven out. Therefore, they started
supporting Hindus in all the fields and made Muslims serve them. The educational doors were closed for
Muslims. British also paralyzed Muslims politically. As a result of which the Muslims were weakened
socially, economically and educationally.
2. PRESERVATION OF CULTURAL IDENTITY:
Muslims and Hindus follow different culture as their religions are entirely different. Hindus burn their
dead bodies while Muslims bury them. Hindus worship Cows while Muslims slaughter it. With the
passage of time Hindus started thinking about their glorious past when they used to be the rulers of
India and started dreaming to grasp the power again. Thus they suppressed every cultural activity of
Muslims and demanded that the Hindi should be given priority against Urdu.
3. EVOLUTION OF TWO NATION THEORY:
After 1857 war, when Muslims were being tortured badly by Hindus and British, Sir Syed infused a
spirit in them. They began to realize their condition. They were not free to do anything. So the word
“Two Nation” arose among the Muslims. Thus Hindus and Muslims were regarded as two separate
nations and it lead to the creation of Pakistan.
Louis Fischer wrote:
“The wall between Gandhi and Jinnah was the Two Nation Theory.

4. 4. INTRODUCTION TO WESTERN POLITICAL SYSTEM:
Initially, British introduced western education and established three universities. Hindus were getting
education there and they were sent to England for higher studies. Afterwards, in 1885 they introduced
western political system according to which “Majority rules”. A political party “All Indian national
congress” was also formed which was not for the rights of Muslims.
5. ECONOMICAL FACTORS:
After 1857, the Muslims were crushed economically. All trade policies were framed in such a way so as to
determent the Muslim conditions. Their service, estates and properties were confiscated while the Hindus
were provided with ample opportunities to progress economically. According to Sir Syed “Muslims were
permanent minority of India.”
6. POLITCAL FACTORS:
The political differences have played an important role in the partition of India. On 30th
December
1906, Muslim leaders met at Dhaka on the occasion of the annual meeting of the Muhammadan
Educational Conference. In this meeting, Sir Saleemullah moved a resolution for restoring an
organization to be called “All India Muslim League.”
The reasons of foundation were:
a) To stop Congress from propagating its concept of Nationalism.
b) To represent Muslims.
c) To safeguard the rights of Muslims.
7. FORMATION OF HINDU MINISTRIES:
Both Congress and Muslim league participated in the Elections of 1937. Congress won a great electoral
victory. Congress ministries ruled 8 out of 11 provinces. This period was extremely crucial in the history
of Hindu Muslim relations. When congress ministries resigned, Quaid-e-Azam appealed Muslims to
celebrate day of deliverance on 22nd
December 1939 as a token of relief.
8. PAKISTAN RESOLUTION:
In the Muslim League session at Lahore on 23rd
march 1940, Bengal’s chief minister, Fazal ul Haq
demanded the separation of Muslim majority areas through a resolution. Large number of Muslims
leaders passed that resolution as it was a demand for the protection and safeguard of the national
identity of Muslims.
9. CREATION OF PAKISTAN:
On 148th
july 1947, British parliament gave approval of Hindustan freedom law and finally Muslims
achieved an Islamic state after a long struggle on 14th
august 1947.
ROLE OF SIRSYED AHMED KHAN:
Sir syed’s whole life was spent in rendering great services in the fields of education, literature,
socialism, and politics for the Muslims. All these services were collectively names as “ALIGARH
MOVEMENT”. A brief sketch of which is given below:

5. 1. In 1858, a great stress was put forward by sir syed on the prevalence of education.
2. In 1876 “Muhammedan college fund committee” was established.
3. In 1875 MAO HIGH SCHOOL was established that later on was promoted to AO COLLEGE.
4. In order to eradicate hatred from the British, he took out a magazine called “Reasons For the Hind
Rebel”
5. Sir syed opposed all the statements and efforts set by congress and brought forward many of its
flaws and frauds.
6. Sir syed also opposed the procedure of examination for jobs because Muslims were not only in
minority but were also less educated.
CONCLUSION:
After being tortured by Hindus and British, Muslims realized that they cannot survive in India together
with Hindus as they were discriminated and treated as minority in all respects. Thus the realization of
above mentioned factors and struggles of great Muslims leaders resulted into the creation of Pakistan.
MAJOR ISSUES IN THE ECONOMY OF PAKISTAN:
INTRODUCTION:
“Economy can be defined as activities related to the production and distribution of goods and services in a
particular geographic region.”
Pakistan faces some major economic issues which are listed below:
1. General poverty and low living standards:
Poverty cannot be described. It can be seen and felt. Most of the people in Pakistan are ill-fed, ill-housed, ill-
clothed and illiterate. In Pakistan 21.0 % population is living below poverty and unfortunately the literacy rate
is 58% including the people who can only sign their name.
2. Burden of external and internal debts:
Under developed countries are receiving loans and grants from other nations and are being debtors.They are
dependent on foreign economic loans. In Pakistan the services chargers on all types of debts are Rs. 730 to
732 billion. This was during the time of 2011-2012.
3. Low per capita income:
Due to low national income and huge population growth rate, per capita income in developing countries is
very low. According to economic survey of Pakistan 2011-2012 per come capita is less than 1000 rupees.
4. Over dependence on agriculture:
61% population of Pakistan is living in villages. Backward agriculture is the major occupation. Around 66.7%
people of the country are working in agriculture. And the others are indirectly dependent on agriculture.

6. 5. Backward industrial sector:
Industrial sector of Pakistan is quite backward. Since the independence, the labor force is attached with
industrial sector in Pakistan. Even many industries are built, they are not used beneficially.
6. Limited foreign trade:
Due to backwardness, developing countries have to export raw material because the quality of their
products is not according to international standard. Imports of Pakistan are $ 33.15 billion and exports are
$ 20.474 billion that cause into unfavorable balance of payment of $ 12.676 billion.
7. High degree of illiteracy:
Illiteracy rate is very high in poor countries while it is nearing zero in developed countries. Literacy rate in
Pakistan is 58% according to a report in 2011-12. It is because of conservative thinking of many people who
don’t allow their daughters to study and poverty doesn’t allow people to get education.
8. Influence of feudal lords:
The poor class is under the influence of federal lords. About 50% people borrow from land lords and 57.4%
poor are working for feudal lords without wages in Pakistan.
9. Unproductive Use of Funds:
The unproductive expenditures are rising day by day in Pakistan due to socio-economic and administrative
reasons. About 75% of the budget is spent on defense, administration, repayments of loan and interest
charges in Pakistan.
10.Violation of Law and Order:
Law and order conditions are at their poor stage in Pakistan. A huge portion of saving of people is wasted
in costly and lengthy legal process.
11.Backward State of Technology:
Use of modern techniques of production is not adopted in Pakistan rightly. It may cause further
unemployment. Backward state of technology results in low production, high cost and wastage of time.
12. Unfair Wealth and Income Distribution.
There are not only regional inequalities in Pakistan but also wealth and income inequalities. 20%
extremely rich population has 50.02% of national resources, while 20% poorest population has just 6.37 %
of national resources in Pakistan.
13. Lack of Experts and Skilled Persons:
People have to move abroad for advanced study due to illiteracy and lack of training institutes. They
adjust them in foreign countries due to low self-esteem. So, there is scarcity of experts, skilled and trained
staff that causes the poor nation to remain backward.

7. 14. Political Instability:
There is political instability in Pakistan which affects economy. There are a lot of clashes between
government and the opposition that is a cause to reduction in domestic as well as foreign investment.
15. Low Self-esteem:
There is less respect, honor and dignity of people in Pakistan. People are honored due to their powers,
relations and castes instead of capabilities. There is poverty, poor health, poor education and shortage of
other social services. Government and population of Pakistan are under the external influence.
CONCLUSION:
We conclude that all above characteristics are unfavorable for Pakistan’s economy. These features are
obstacles in way of Pakistan’s development. All these features are the basic causes why are country is not
well developed and facing various problems in many respects.
GEO-POLITICAL AND GEO-STRATEGIC IMPORTANCE OF
PAKISTAN:
Geopolitics:
Geo politics is a method of political analysis that emphasizes the role played by geography in international
relation. Geopolitics became popular during the first half of the 20th century. Geo political theorist stressed
that natural political boundaries and excess to important water ways is vital to a nation's survival. Geo politics
is concerned with how geographical factors including territory, population, strategic and natural resources
affect their relation btw their states and the struggle for world domination.
Geo strategy:
Geo strategy is the sub field of geopolitics. It is a type of foreign policy guided mainly by geographic factors as
they affect political and military planning. The geo strategic location of Pakistan in the biggest continent of
Asia has given it unique position in the world. The geographic location of Pak is very important as it assumes a
decisive role to maintain balance of power in Asia and particularly between the super powers during the cold
war. And after 9/11 incident against the war on terror.
Pakistan's significance:
1) An adherent of the unity of Muslim Ummah.
2) An obstacle to the expansion of communism.
3) Maintained balance of power in South Asia.
4) Strong support to China.

8. 5) Front line state during Afghan-Soviet war.
6) Pakistan's strategic significance in the war on terror.
7) Pakistan's political importance in the recent Saudi Iran crisis.
8) Gateway to Central Asia.
1) An adherent of the unity of Muslim Ummah:
Pakistan got independence in the period of cold war. Pakistan was created in the name of Islam and is known
as the first ideological state in the world. Pakistan is very important in the Muslim world as it is the largest
Muslim state and is situated at the center of Islamic countries of Africa and Asia. It is linked to these Muslim
countries through land and sea routes thus not only its ideological background but its location makes it an
adherent to the unity of Muslim Ummah. So, it can play the role of mediator or reconsider in the times of
crisis.
2) An obstacle to the expansion of communism:
Pakistan was very close to USSR and the only one state between USSR and PAKISTAN was Afghanistan. In 1949
both the super powers look towards south Asia. USA sent invitation to India and in the same year USSR sent
invitation to Pakistan looking for allies but Pakistan refused it because Pakistan came into existence on the
basis of Islam and USSR was communist state. It was very humiliating for super powers to be ignored. Soon
after when USA came to know about this rejection, another invitation was sent to Pakistan by USA in 1950 and
it was accepted.
The reason for accepting USA’s invitation was that Pakistan was under Britain and they were very close to
British because of its historical legacy and they were at least believers of a Holy Book (Bible). After accepting
the invitation, Liaquat Ali khan, the Prime Minister of Pakistan visited USA and addressed about Pakistan and
presented Pakistan as a very important state and as the heart of Asia due to its geographical location.
3) Maintained balance of power in south Asia:
SAARC: SAARC stands for South Asian Association for Regional Co-operations. Firstly, 7 countries were
members of SAARC which were Pakistan, India, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Maldieves and Nepal. Now
Afghanistan is also a member of SAARC. India is dominating the region as it has good relation with other 6
countries excluding Pakistan. Pakistan is the only state which maintained the balance of power in south Asia
because it is also a nuclear power. Although it has very weak military but it doesn’t accept Indian dominance.
The dynamics of balance of power are very important in South Asia because whenever the balance of power
of the region got disturbed, an India-Pakistan war happened
4) Strong support to china:
Pakistan shares a border with China through Karakoram highway. When Pakistan was created China was going
through civil war period. Pakistan was the first state which established diplomatic relations with china and
supported china in membership with USA. In 1965 war, when USA stopped Pakistan’s aid, china was the only
established country which supported Pakistan. Pakistan is the only and shortest link between China and the
Middle East. Recently, in 2014, China is constructing trade route with Pakistan through Gwadar Port.
5) Front line state during afghan soviet war:

9. Pakistan shares the largest border named Durand line with Afghanistan and both countries have friendly
relations since 1950 -1979. As Afghanistan was a landlord country and militarily very weak, USA ignored
Afghanistan for military aid when Afghanistan demanded, so Afghanistan joined hands with USSR. Afghanistan
has border with Pakistan so USSR started giving support to Afghanistan. As Afghani Muslims were
conservative, they turned away from USSR because of communism and turned toward USA. On 25 December
1979, USSR forces entered in Afghanistan. In the period of 1979-1988, USA supported Pakistan by giving huge
aid packages, so Pakistan accepted to favor USA and agreed to play a role of front line state during Afghan
Soviet war. USSR accepted their defeat and withdrew with Afghanistan. A Geneva accord was signed in 1988
between 4 countries. USSR was disintegrated, comprised of 15 republics. Communism failed in USSR and
democracy was declared so only Russia was left.
6) Pakistan strategic significance in the war of terror:
The terrorist attacks on US resulted into a global war against terrorism. Pakistan by virtue of its geopolitical
location, and close relations with the Taliban became a natural and key ally in the US led War on Terror. Its
proximity with the Afghanistan brought Pakistan on the limelight. Unites States had chosen Pakistan for
logistics, intelligence support, bases for operations in Afghanistan. Pakistan provided its complete support to
the coalition forces against the Taliban regime. Pakistan proved to be pivotal for the United States in war
against terrorism.
7) Pakistan political importance in the recent Saudi Iran crisis:
Pakistan’s role in the Saudi-Iran split isn’t entirely obvious. Pakistan shares close historical and diplomatic ties
with Saudi Arabia, but shares a border with Iran. For Pakistan, maintaining good ties with both Saudi Arabia
and Iran is a priority for entirely different reasons. Meanwhile, Pakistan’s leaders have no particular intentions
to be seen as siding with either Saudi Arabia or Iran.
The Pakistani foreign office issued a statement noting that “Pakistan is deeply concerned at the recent
escalation of tensions between the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia and the Islamic Republic of Iran.”
CONCLUSION:
Pakistan is a junction of South Asia, West Asia and Central Asia. A way from resource efficient countries to
resource deficient countries. Pakistan always get benefit of its location. It received many aids from super
powers because of its location. Its geo-political and geo-strategic location has resulted in putting the effective
development and utilization of its vast natural and human resources at a corner.
The famous American Scholar remarked:
“The establishment is prone to thinking that someone will always come to Pakistan’s rescue because of its
location.”
Pakistan-USA Relations.
INTRODUCTION:
Pakistan is undergoing a prolonged internal crisis, one that has been compounded by strained relations with

10. its neighbors, and even with its allies. It is tempting to attribute its present difficulties to its involvement in the
Cold War, and particularly to its relations with the United States. Pakistan’s foreign policy changed the
relations of Pakistan and US a lot of times as it was a pro-western policy.
1- PAK-US RELATIONS IN THE COLD WAR PERIOD:
When the USA and Pakistan established relations in 1947, they had different reasons for doing so. Pakistan
needed help against India which had withheld its military assets, while the war had broken out in Kashmir. The
USA wanted Pakistan’s assistance to counter the communist states like the USSR and China.
Liaquat Ali Khan, as the first Prime Minister of Pakistan made a successful visit to the United States held back
from committing troops to Korea. On his return from the US, Liaquat announced that Pakistan was completely
neutral because it was not beholden to any country.
2- PAKISTAN’S ALLIGNMENT WITH THE US:
Throughout the period between 1950 and 1953, several major Pakistan political and military figures paid visits
to the United States. Pakistan joined SEATO and CENTO. Defense ties between the two countries strengthened
almost immediately following Liaquat Ali Khan's visit. Personal goodwill towards Pakistan was evident even
when Liaqat Ali Khan was assassinated in 1951.
Close ties between the countries were further consolidated by a mutual defense treaty signed in May 1954,
after which hundreds of Pakistani military officers began to regularly train in the United States. US Military
Assistance Advisory Group (MAAG) was also established in Rawalpindi. In 1956, USA’s President requested
permission from Pakistan's new Prime Minister to lease the Peshawar Air Station (PAS).
In 1960, Ayub Khan granted permission for the United States to fly its first spy missions to Soviet Union from
the Peshawar Air Base. In May 1960, the U-2 incident took place.
In 1961, Khan paid his first visit to the United States as head of state. Economic aid to Pakistan was increased
by the United States through the consortium companies.
3- USA’S COLD RESPONSE IN PAK-INDO WARS:
The war with India had a high economic cost for Pakistan. After joining SEATO and CENTO, Pakistan thought
that the security of Pakistan has been confirmed and it was in the hands of the Super power USA. But in 1965
war, Pakistan’s aid was cut off by the US although it was fully aligned with the US. It was because US was
giving aids to Pakistan and India to counter USSR and China but they used those aids against each other. Thus,
Pakistan turned toward the communist state USSR.
4- PAKISTAN’S ROLE IN SINO-US RELATIONS:
Since 1970, when China was declared a communist state, relations remained sour between China and US
when the US revisited its anti-China policy. USA’s President took advantage of Pakistan's close relationship
with China to initiate secret contacts. He requested Pakistan’s President Yahya Khan to play its role in
developing relations between US and China that resulted in his secret visit to China in July 1971 after visiting
Pakistan. These contacts resulted in the 1972, visit to China, and the subsequent normalizing of relations
between the United States and the People's Republic of China.

11. 5- PAKISTAN QUITS FROM SEATO AND CENTO (1976-1979):
Pakistan was a leading member of the Central Treaty Organization (CENTO) and the Southeast Asia Treaty
Organization (SEATO) from its adoption in 1954-55. In 1965 period of Pak-Indo war, US cut off Pakistan’s aid
and didn’t support Pakistan. In 1971-72, Pakistan ended its alliance with the US and quitted from SEATO and
CENTO and became a non-aligned state because the promise of economic aid from the United States was
instrumental in creating these agreements.
6- PAKISTAN’S NUCLEAR PROGRAM:
Pakistan started its first nuclear program in 1970s. In that period, there was civilian government in Pakistan.
Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto decided and declared to build nuclear weapons for the sake of their national security and
survival. In 1974, Pakistan started nuclear program although Kannup was established with the assistance of
China in 1972. It was a civilian nuclear program initiated with the help of China. Pakistan was threatened
because Pakistan already fought three wars with India.
In 1976, Pakistan succeeded in its quest for nuclear weapons and France agreed to provide Pakistan a nuclear
proliferation plant. US imposed restriction on Pakistan to limit its nuclear weapons program. When this
agreement was signed with France, then USA came up and proposed Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto to provide Pakistan
modern nuclear weapons if Pakistan abandoned its deal with France. Pakistan’s nuclear program and this deal
with France was the main obstacle between Pak-US relations. Pakistan’s Prime Minister didn’t agree. US
Secretary said “If you won’t cancel the deal with France, we’ll make you a horrible example.” When Pakistan
did not cancel the deal, then US insisted France to cancel the deal with Pakistan. And France canceled the deal
in the same year. But Pakistan’s nuclear program was continued and USA cut off all types of aids to Pakistan.
During 1977-79, there were no relations between Pak and US.
In November 1979, there was an attack on the Holy Ka’aba. Since 1976, relations between Pak and US were
worst, so it was thought in Pakistan that there was a hand of US behind that attack. There was a protest in
Islamabad and US embassy was burned there.
7- PAKISTAN FOUGHT A PROXY WAR IN THE 1980s:
Throughout the military regime of General Zia-ul-Haq, the ties and relations were promoted at its maximum
point, and United States had given billion dollars of economic and military aid to Pakistan. The Soviet invasion
of Afghanistan in December 1979 highlighted the common interest of Pakistan and the US in opposing the
Soviet Union. In 1981, Pakistan and US agreed on a military and economic assistance program. With US
assistance, Pakistan armed and supplied anti-Soviet fighters in Afghanistan. Aid to the Afghan resistance, and
to Pakistan, increased substantially. Pakistan fought a US-aided war by proxy in Afghanistan against the
Soviets.
8- PAK-US RELATIONS IN THE UNI-POLAR WORLD:
Since the US and Pakistani interests had diverted with the Soviets retreating from Afghanistan, Pakistanis yet
again felt isolated and betrayed by their old friend. Pakistan's Afghan efforts were bringing some success and
the Taliban government was established in Afghanistan. The US administration initially welcomed the
prospects of peace in the country but later opposed the Taliban regime based on their extreme views and
gross violations of human rights.

12. 9- PAKISTAN AND US IN THE GLOBAL WAR AGAINST TERRORISM:
The terrorist attacks on US resulted into a global war against terrorism. Pakistan by virtue of its geopolitical
location, and close relations with the Taliban became a natural and key ally in the US led War on Terror. Its
proximity with the Afghanistan brought Pakistan on the limelight. Unites States had chosen Pakistan for
logistics, intelligence support, bases for operations in Afghanistan. Pakistan provided its complete support to
the coalition forces against the Taliban regime. Pakistan proved to be pivotal for the United States in war
against terrorism.
10-TRUST DEFICIT ISSUES DURING (2008-2013):
Western officials have claimed nearly 70% of the aid given to the Pakistani military has been misspent in
2002–2007. However US-Pakistan relationship has been based on US military aid to Pakistan. A significant
proportion of US economic aid for Pakistan has ended up.
In the November 2008 Mumbai Attacks, the United States informed Pakistan that it expected full cooperation
in the hunt for the plotters of the attack.
The United States and Pakistan have experienced several military confrontations on the Durand Line while
Pakistani troops guarding the border.
In November 2011, 24 Pakistani soldiers were killed in an aerial attack on Pakistani positions near the border.
The attack further damaged US-Pakistani relations.
10- PAKISTAN-USA RELATIONS SET ON A STEADY COURSE (2013-
PRESENT):
Following years of poor inter-governmental relations, the two countries began to cooperate more closely -
particularly following the USA's use of drone missiles to strike at Pakistan's most-wanted militant Mullah
Fazlullah in November 2014. The United States later used drone missiles to kill several of Pakistan's most
wanted militants who were hiding in a remote region close to the Afghan border in November 2014.
Pakistan killed senior Al-Qaeda leader long wanted by the United States.
In May 2015, according to an internal report, Pakistan has made full payment from its national funds towards
the purchase of 18 new F-16C/D aircraft worth USD 1.43 billion including F-16 armaments. All this has cost
Pakistan USD 629 million.
In February, 2016, US government has proposed US $860 million in aid for Pakistan during the 2016-17 fiscal
year, including $265 million for military hardware.
CONCLUSION:
In the historical context of US-Pakistan relations, it is obvious that the mutual relations between the two
countries are based on convergence of common interests from time to time. USA gave aid and support to

13. Pakistan many times while Pakistan helped US in its policy to counter communist states. However, time
will tell how long the present cooperation between the USA and Pakistan lasts.
“Pakistan Afghan relations”
INTRODUCTION:
The initial era of Pakistan afghan relation was in a critical phase. Both being neighboring states, relations between
the two began in August 1947 after Pakistan became an independent nation. Being a neighbor, Pakistan gives
paramount importance to Afghanistan as Pakistan’s peace and stability depends on Afghan peace and stability.
PHASE – 1: (1947-1963)
1- Opposition in UNO:
Afghanistan was the first Muslim state in the world who was against the membership of Pakistan in UNO.
Pakistan joined the UNO in September 1947. Afghanistan put forward the anti-Pakistan resolution.
Afghanistan did not consider Pakistan as an independent state but as a colony of British. In the beginning cast
a negative vote against Pakistan but later on accepted Pakistan.
2- Reaction in the war:
The demand for Pakhtoonistan was made in December 1947, when Indian army poised for a quick advance
into Kashmir or Pakistan’s border. Since then, raids from Afghanistan into Pakistan’s territories have taken
place from time to time.
3- Treaties and Durand Line:
When Pakistan was established, Afghanistan claimed on the boundary of Pakistan which was drawn in 1893 by
Durand. They also demanded some territory of NWFP and Baluchistan. In 1949, relations turned worse. The
afghan parliament canceled all the treaties which former afghan government have signed with the British
including the Durand treaty thus proclaimed that afghan government doesn’t recognize the Durand line as a
legal boundary between afghan and Pakistan.
4- Forces and Ambassadors:
In 1950, the afghan’s flag hoisted and anti-Pakistan leaflets were dropped by Afghan Air Force. Irregular forces
from Afghanistan crossed border of Pakistan to fabricate Pakhtoon uprising in Pakistani tribal areas in 1950-
1951.
Pakistan rejected Afghanistan’s claim of neutrality in the cross border infiltration and both nations withdrew
their ambassadors for few months till those were repositioned.
5- Assassination of Liaquat Ali Khan and Relations with India:
As the relations between Pakistan and Afghanistan were not good because of charges and counter charges
regarding border indentation on Pakistan side. A visit of afghan prime minister to New Delhi gave the

14. indication of cordial relationship with India. Further, the assassination of Pakistani Prime Minister Liaquat Ali
Khan by an Afghan National in 1951 deteriorated the already fragile relations.
6- Interference of USSR:
In 1953, The Soviet diplomacy had decided to support Afghanistan against Pakistan by fanning the
Afghanistan’s fear that their neighbor Pakistan will grow stronger because of US military assistance. As during
the cold war, Afghanistan was ignored by the US, so Afghanistan turned towards the USSR.
7- SEATO and CENTO:
When Pakistan joined SEATO and CENTO in 1955, Moscow severely against Pakistan. Russia supported India
on Kashmir issue and paid $100 economic and military assistance to Afghanistan on the issue of
Pakhtoonistan.
8- Visits by Presidents and Prime Ministers:
Pakistan’s President Iskandar mirza visited Afghanistan in August 1956. Then Hussain Shaheed, prime minister
of Pakistan toured Afghanistan in 1957. These visits were reciprocated by Afghan Ruler King Zahir Shah in
1958. Then Prime Minister of Pakistan visited Kabul and as a result of his conversation with Daud Khan. The
two government agreed to restore full diplomatic relations between the two countries.
9- U-2 Incident:
The U-2 incident 1960 was precipitated during the cold war on May 1, 1960. Since the happening of U-2
incident, USSR supported every afghan move to isolate or damage Pakistan in any aspect. These incursions led
to the termination of Pak-Afghan relations and closure of Afghanistan’s consulates and trade offices in
Pakistan.
PHASE- 2: (1963-1973)
10-Reinstatement of Relations:
Iran succeeded in his efforts for the better relations between Pakistan and afghan which resulted in the 1963
Tehran Accord Trade. Afghanistan and Pakistan agreed to restore diplomatic relations, reopen their closed
borders and resume trade and commercial ties.
11-Wars of 1965 and 1971:
The relations were improved to such an extent that during the Indo-Pakistan war, Afghanistan sided with
Pakistan which enabled Islamabad to fully concentrate on its war with India and worry less about the security
of its western border.
Afghanistan maintained strict neutrality during the 1971 war between India and Pakistan and refrained from
taking an advantage of Pakistan’s preoccupation in war.
PHASE- 3: (1973-1978)
12-Daud as a threat:

15. Daud comeback once again aroused separatist movements amongst Pakhtoon and Baluchi living across
Durand Line in mid 70s. Considering Daud a serious threat to Pakistan integration, Pakistan government
decided to support anti-daud forces.
13-Daud visits to Pakistan:
Daud observed that anti Pakistan policies were doing Afghanistan more harm than good. Daud decided for
reconciliation with Islamabad and invited Pakistan’s Prime Minister Zulifiqar Ali Bhutto for Kabul’s visit. Bhutto
was given a warm welcome in Kabul in June 1976. Daud Khan paid a return visit to Islamabad.
14-Pact:
After the visit of Daud, Bhutto agreed to release the national party leaders accused of supporting the
Pakhnuistan demand, while Daud agreed to recognise the Durand line as the frontier between Pakistan and
Afghanistan.
15-Communists reforms in Afghanistan:
Pakistan had no other option but either to surrender or to go for all out support to the forces resisting against
the communist regime. Pakistan had to host over 150,000 Afghan refugees into Pakistan immediately after the
Saur revolution in 1978.
PHASE- 4 (1979-2011):
16-Soviet invasion:
The December 1979 soviet invasion of Afghanistan killed Hafizullah Amin and installed Babrak Kamal as the
country president. It created difficult situation for Pakistan as it brought the red army dangerously close to
Khyber pass.
17-Thareek-e-Taliban:
Thareek-e-Taliban Afghanistan emerged in and around Kandhar in 1994 and began as new movement.
Pakistan extended full diplomatic and economic support to the Taliban government. To reconstruct chaman-
kandhar- Herat- kushka highway Pakistan provided financial and technical support to Taliban as well.
18-Visits:
Hamid Karzai paid an official visit to Pakistan and started friendly relation. Pakistan offered all sort of moral,
economic and political support to Afghanistan support to strength a new government under the presidency of
Karzai.
President Musharraf visited to Afghanistan in April 2002 and announcement of 100 million dollars aid for
reconstruction of Afghanistan.
19-Pak-Afghan Relations After 9/11 to date:
- President Zardari made his first trip to Afghanistan in January 2009, finishing terrorism.
- In 2010, Afghan President visited Pakistan addressing new tactics to fight militancy.
- In October 2010, both countries signed Pak-Afghan transit trade agreement.

16. - In 2012, in Peshawar, Pakistan local police and food department recovered the meat which was
smuggled to Afghanistan.
- Both countries agreed to establish a joint chamber of commerce and industry.
- Pakistan and Afghanistan have agreed to strengthen trade ties by 2015 after a two day Joint Economic
Commission (JEC).
CONCLUSION:
Relations between Pakistan and Afghanistan had so many ups and downs since 1947. According to policies and
National interests, both Pakistan and Afghanistan established relations helping each other at times. The main
issue between these countries was the border, Durand Line and Pakhtoonistan issue. The leaders of both
countries paid official visits in order to resolve these issues. Still for better relations, these countries need to
understand each other’s policies and help accordingly.
Quaid-e-Azam and demand of Pakistan
PRELUDE
The services and dynamic leadership of Quaid-e-Azam Mohammad Ali Jinnah in the Pakistan
Movement need no introduction. In this movement, the personality of Quaid-e-Azam and his
immense struggle made the thought pall of the foundation of Pakistan easy and finally, the
Muslims of India were successful in reading their destination for which they underwent a
long journey under the Quaid.
Educational Background:
Early life:
Quaid-e-Azam, Muhammad Ali Jinnah was born on 25 December 1876 in Kharadar. After taught
at home, Jinnah sent to Sindh madrasah high school in 1887. Later he attended the Mision High
School, where, at the age of 16, he passed the matriculation examination of the University of
Bombay.
Departure to England:
On the advice of an English friend, his father decided to send him to England to acquire business
experience .Jinnah, however, had made up his mind to become a barrister. Married at the age of
16 before he left India. He then continued his study at Bombay University and at Lincoln’s Inn in
London. He completed his study in 2 years and became the youngest barrister of India. While he
was in England, he was terrified by the act that so many Muslims of India become slave there
and were treated poorly.
Political career (1905-1932):
1. Started politics:
During his stay in London, Muhammad Ali Jinnah thoroughly studied the British
Parliament. He also remained the private secretary Dadabhoy Noorogi. He became the
member of Indian National Congress in 1906 till 1909.Due to these activities his political
understanding and his abilities in law had become a Universal truth. Therefore, when the
elections of Legislative council took place under Minto-Morley Reforms, so the Quaid-e-

17. Azam become the member of Council from Bombay. This was Quaid-e-Azam’s first step in
politics.
2. Ambassador of Hindu Muslim Unity:
Quaid-e-Azam was called the “Ambassador of Hindu Muslim Unity”, because he
thought it was important for the independence of Sub Continent that there
is complete unity among the Muslim and Hindus.
3. Joined Muslim League:
In 1906, to represent Muslim minority in India, All India Muslim league established. In
1913, when he became the member of Muslim League, he made hectic efforts for the
unity. And in 1916 he become the president of Muslim League.
4. Lucknow Pact:
In 1916, the joint session of the Muslim League and congress was held in Lucknow.
On this historical occasion, an agreement was signed between the Muslims and Hindus
leaders which could lay the foundation of Hindu Muslim unity, this agreement is known
as Lucknow pact. The man who was behind this was Quaid-e-Azam.
5. Quaid-e-Azam’s Fourteen Points:
In 1928, Pundit Moti lal Nehru, presented a report which turned down all the Muslims
demand. On the reply of Nehru report, Quaid-e-Azam made a chart of minimum
demands of Muslims and it was known as” Quaid-e-Azam’s Fourteen Points”. This was
the certainly the right answer to the Nehru report.
Reorganization of Muslim League 1936-40:
1. President ship of Muslim League
In 1933, Quaid-e-Azam was elected as the permanent President of Muslim League due to
which he permanently came back to India in October 1935 and remained busy in the
reconstruction of Muslim League.
2. Popularity of League and Jinnah
When the Muslims of majority provinces observed the rational attitude of the Congress, they
tried to make the Muslim League effective and influential. Therefore, Punjab, Bengal and
Sindh became near to Jinnah and the Muslims of these areas decided to work under the
Muslim League.
Demand of Pakistan:
Pakistan Resolution:
On 23rd March 1940, the historical session of the Muslim League was held under the
chairmanship of Mr. Jinnah at Minto Park, Lahore. At this historical occasion a resolution
known as Pakistan Resolution was passed in which the Muslims demand for the first
separate independent homeland.
Presidential address:

18. In his presidential address, he declared that the Muslims of India stood unequivocally for the
Muslim of India but it must be freedom for all India and not for one section only.
The Quaid-e-azam remarked in Ahmadabad in December 1940:
“India should be partitioned so that Hindus and Muslims may live as friends and
good neighbours and develop according to their own genius”
Quaid-e-Azam and the struggle of separate
homeland 1940-47:
1. Punjab Muslim student’s federation:
During the course of his presidential address to the Punjab Muslim Students federation March 2,
1941, Quaid-e-azam said:
“If we lose in struggle all is lost”.
2. Jinnah -Gandhi Talks (1944)
Gandhi held talks with Jinnah to discuss about the future of India, but no fruitful results
came out of it’s because Gandhi did not accept Muslims as a separate nation.
Louis Fleisher wrote:
“The wall between Jinnah and Gandhi was the Two Nation
Theory.”
3. Shimla Conference-1945
Lord Wavell called a conference at Shimla. The conference failed to achieve any purpose due
to one-sided attitude of Lord Wavell. In this conference Quaid-e-Azam made it crystal clear
that only the Muslim League can represent Muslims of India.
4. General Elections -1945-1946
Elections for the central and provincial assemblies were held in 1945-1946 in which Muslim
League won 30 seats of central legislative meant for Muslims and 430 seats out of 495 in
the provincial legislative.
Quaid said on this occasion:
“I have no doubt now in the achievement of Pakistan. The Muslims of India told the world
what they want. No power of the world can topple the opinion of 10 crore Muslims of India.”
5. Formation of Pakistan
On 14th August, 1947, Pakistan came into being as a separate self-governing Dominion and
the Quaid became the first Governor General of Pakistan.
6. Problems of Pakistan and Jinnah
The problems which the Quaid-e-Azam had to face as Governor General of Pakistan were
not only due to the happenings in East Punjab and to provide shelter for the millions of
refugees. What immensely increased the difficulties of the new state was the fact that it had
yet to organize itself.
DEATH OF THE GREAT LEADER:
It was due to immense hard work for the Muslims that his health failed. The great leader
breathed his last on 11th September 1948 and was buried at Karachi. His demise was
mourned not only by Pakistan but by the whole world.

19. WATER RESOURCES:
INTRODUCTION
Water is one of the basic necessities of life. The usage of water can be divided into three broad categories i.e.
domestic consumption, commercial industrial use and usage for land irrigation. Water has always played a
central role in human societies. Water is a key driver of sustainable growth and poverty alleviation as an input
to almost all production, in agriculture, industry, energy, transport, by healthy people in healthy ecosystems.
WATER REOURCES OF PAKISTAN
There are two types of major resources of water in Pakistan, Natural and artificial. Natural resources include
rainfall, rivers, glaciers, ponds, lakes, streams, wells etc, whereas artificial resources consist of the surface
water from rainfall and rivers, which is in excess of the requirements for irrigation and other uses, is stored in
dams and reservoirs, The water from these dams and reservoirs is not only used for irrigation and supplying
water for daily consumption, but also used for hydroelectric power generation.
a) Rainfall
There are two major sources of rainfall in Pakistan i.e. the Monsoons and the Western Disturbances.
There is about 70 percent of the annual monsoon rainfall from July to September. Pakistan has both
arid and semi-arid zones. The entire Indus Plain receives an average seasonal rainfall of 212 mm and 53
mm in the Kharif and Rabi seasons respectively.
b) Glaciers
There are more glaciers in Pakistan than any other land except North and South Poles. The glacier area
of Pakistan is about 13,680 sqkm and on the average is 3 percent of mountainous region of upper
Indus Basin and accounts for most of the river turnoff in summer. Pakistan has greatest mass and
collection of glaciers of the Karakorum Range. The total length of glaciers is 160 km. About 37 percent
of the Karakorum area is under glacier, Himalayas has upper Indus has 17 percent and European Alps
has 22 percent.
c) Rivers and Dams
Pakistan has been blessed with a number of rivers which are tributaries to the Indus. The five main
rivers which join Indus from the eastern side are Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, beas and Sutlej, besides three
minor rivers are the Haro, Soan, Siran. There are number of small rivers which join the river from the
west side, in which biggest river is Kabul and others are Kunar, Punj and Kora. The Gomal Kurram, Tai,
Kohat Tank and several other small streams join the Indus River from the right side.
d) Surface water resources
Irrigated agriculture was, still is, and will remain in the future the backbone of Pakistan’s economy.
Nature has blessed Pakistan with abundant surface and subsurface water resources. These resources
had been exploited and utilized for agriculture, domestic, and industrial purposes in the past and will
continue to be explored in future.

20. e) Ground Water Resources
The Indus plain constitutes about 34 million hectares of cultivable land. The Ground water system of
the Indus plains is estimated around 55 MAF, out of which about 48 MAF is within the command of
Indus Basin Irrigation System (IBIS).The tube wells installed in the fresh ground water areas have been
pumping water directly into water courses thus they are being used for irrigation in addition to canal
water.
Power Resources of Pakistan:
INTRODUCTION:
The progress of any country depends upon the power resources. The power resources not only fulfill the
electricity requirement of the country but also play an important role in the industrial development of the
country. There are two types of power resources:
• Renewable Power sources
• Non-renewable power sources
Renewable power sources:
Solar Energy:
Solar Energy is energy directly from the sun. Solar energy can be used in solar cells to produce electricity,
many of these cells are joined to solar panels to generate power for heating and lighting purpose. Pakistan is
situated near the Tropic of cancer so the sun rays are vertical most of the year.
Wind Energy:
Wind is a form of solar energy. In Pakistan 4 mechanical wind pumpers and one wind power generation
system has been set up. Near Islamabad, the wind speed is anywhere from 6.2 to 7.4 metres per second.
Nuclear Energy:
The energy released during nuclear fission or fusion, especially when used to generate electricity is called
Nuclear energy.
Pakistan has a small nuclear program with 725 Mwe capacity. At present, Pakistan has two nuclear power
plants (Chashma 1 and Chashma 2) each with a capacity of 320 MW built with Chinese assistance. Chashma 3
and 4 are under work.
Bio Gas:
It is produced from animal and plant wastes. It is very cheap source of energy. It is used for cooking, lighting
and irrigating the land.

21. Non-renewable Sources:
Non-renewable energy comes from sources that will run out or will not be renewed. Most non-renewable
energy sources are fossil fuels.
Coal:
Coal is the most abundant fossil fuel. Pakistan has huge reserves of coal which can be used to overcome the
problems of energy crises in the country. The government of Pakistan is making hectic efforts to introduce the
usage of coal in industrial sector. A coal based power plant of 150 MW has been set up in interior Sindh.
Natural Gas:
Natural gas mainly consist of methane and contain small amount of hydrocarbon liquids and non-hydrocarbon
gases.
Natural gas production is at a high level in Pakistan. The Sui gas field is the largest, accounting for 26% of
Pakistan’s gas production. Under the barren mountains of Baluchistan and the sands of Sindh, there are
untouched oil and gas reserves. Major users of natural gas areas are Karachi, Lahore, Faisalabad, Multan,
Rawalpindi and Islamabad.
Petroleum (Crude oil):
Crude oil is a mixture of hydrocarbons formed from plants and animals lived millions of years ago. Pakistan's
first oil field was in the late 1952 in Baluchistan near a giant Sui gas field. Crude oil is found at Jhelum,
Rawalpindi, Badin, Attock and Mianwali. It is used at transport and power generating stations. Only 40% is
used within the country and the rest is imported from abroad.
CONCLUSION:
Menace of energy crisis can be overwhelmed by government through making effective policies and its
proactive implementation. Simultaneously, it is the responsibility of us, the people of Pakistan, to utilize the
available energy wisely to play our due role for progress of the country.
POLITICAL AND CONSTITUTIONAL CRISIS OF 1971.
BACKGROUND:
With the creation of Pakistan, Punjab and Bengal were also divided. Bengal played an important
role in the creation of Pakistan as most of the founding members of Muslim League were Bengali.
But there is a 1600 km distance between East and West Pakistan. Bengal has 20% Hindu
population which had their influence also East Pakistan had its border with India.
1 LANGUAGE ISSUE:
A major issue which differentiated the Bengalis from rest of the country was language. Bengalis
were deeply attached to their mother language. Sheikh Mujeeb then an unknown entity took this

22. issue and become a hero. This issue was resolved afterwards and Bengali was finally accepted as
2nd
language of Pakistan in 1965 constitution.
2 REPRESENTATION ISSUES:
Representative issue was one of the controversial issues. All West provinces were merged into
one, giving the equality but as East Pakistan was in majority, they wanted more seats. In 30th
September 1965, one act was passed they were given total 500 seats, 250 each.
3 UNFAIR DISTRIBUTION OF REVENUES:
In Pakistan’s revenue, there was a share of East Pakistan of about 60-70%, which was more than
half and it was spent on West Pakistan. Poverty and literacy rate was lower in East Pakistan than
West Pakistan.
4 AYUB KHAN’S AUTHORITATIVE RULE:
10 years authoritative rule of Ayub Khan also lead to East Pakistan separation and suppression.
There was no check and balance in 1962 constitution as he prepared the constitution himself
without any assembly which decreased nationalism and increased regionalism.
5 REJECTION OF SIX POINTS:
When Ayub khan came back from Tashkent, there was a protest against him. In February 1966,
he convened a press conference in Lahore, but only small group of 22 politicians represented
East Pakistan in National press conference, where sheikh Mujeeb presented six points and all
were rejected.
6 CONSPIRACY CASE:
In February 1968, 33 members Pakistanis arrested. Sheikh Mujib was also included. This case
was held in Agartala and one day strike was also held in Karachi. Serious charged were imposed
and East Pakistan was paralyzed.
7 ABROGATION OF 1962 CONSTITUTION:
In November 1967, Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto founded PPP. In 1968-1969, they tried to improve the
situations and decided round table conference, there were consecutive 3 round table conferences
were held and all three were failed because they were not productive. There was protest against
Ayub Khan so he had to abrogate his own constitution.
8 GENERAL ELECTIONS 1970:
After abrogation of constitution, Yahya Khan became chief executive. General yahya khan
announced the general elections which were held in December 1970 and Awami leaguewon 160
seats out of 162 in East Pakistan and Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto (PPP) won 80 seats and emerged as the
second largest parliamentary party.
9 CANCELLATION OF NATIONAL ASSEMBLY SESSION:
All political leaders except PPP wasted power to be transferred to Awami League. Whether it was
Bhutto or some of the other generals encourage Yahya khan to postpone the session.

23. 10 MILITARY ACTION IN EAST PAKISTAN:
After the election of 1970, situation became critical in East. When Yahya authorized an armed
operation to attack Awami League. As response of this operation, Awami League announced
declaration of Independence of East Pakistan on 26 march 1971 and began an armed struggle
against Pakistan.
11 PAK INDO WAR AND THE FALL OF DHAKA:
The Indo-Pak war of 1971 was the direct military action between India and Pakistan. Lasting just
13 days it is considered to be one of the short war in the history. The war effectively came to an
end on 16th
December 1971 in Dhaka, making the liberation of the new nation of Bangladesh.
CONCLUSION:
The pain and anguish of December 1971 would gradually fade away. But what should always be
remembered is that the history has a cruel habit of repeating itself if past mistakes were repeated
over and over again.
CITIZENSHIP: NATIONAL AND INTERNATIONAL
INTRODUCTION:
Citizenship is the state of being a native of the country and having certain rights and duties with
respect to it. It refers to oneself as an individual participating freely in society with others for political,
social, cultural and economic purposes.
Citizenship has all of the rights granted to people in a given State. They are expressed in rules which
specify what an individual or the State may or may not do. They are mainly defined in constitution or
other basic legislation.
It is a famous quote that:
“Citizenship consists in the service of country.”
NATIONAL AND INTERNATIONAL CITIZENSHIP:
The concept of citizenship emerged in this millennium. World citizenship is a new global example of
rights, responsibilities and authority. Being a citizen, one has to do what is beneficial for his city or
country. Citizens on the whole make a society of a country, and there are defined rights and duties of
every individual. But there are some issues which are not being dealt by citizens.
There is an increasing need to construct citizenship about issues that are now dealt with globally, but
it will be a new type of citizenship. A citizen of the world would be one who senses ability to influence
global decisions and accepts behavior that is harmonious with those decisions.

24. The international responsibilities increasingly involved expectations of behavior as tourist, one should
not pollute, should not spam on the internet, should not criticize etc. While national citizenship
involves behavior as fellow being. One should help his fellow citizens in each and every manner. It is
the duty of each citizen to do his best for his country.
IMPORTANCE OF CITIZENSHIP:
Citizens have authority while slaves may have rights and responsibilities. Only citizens have authority
over their governments. They may change government leaders and may determine what constitutes
the common good. This idea of legitimacy is the most effective and least expensive form of power
underlies democratic government.
Increasingly it involves international enforcement of universal human rights norms as reflected in the
work of international tribunals. Nationally and internationally, it is possible to communicate with each
other and discuss global issues through sources. Citizenship is all about communicating, cooperating
and dealing in the best way with each other for the sake of human rights. So world citizenship is a
new global paradigm of rights, responsibilities and authority.
CONCEPTUAL FOUNDATION OF HUMAN RIGHTS
INTORDUCTION:-
Human rights are written in the hearts of people. They were there long before law makers drafted
their first proclamation. Human rights are international norms that helped to protect all people
everywhere from severe political, social and legal abuses: paying rights ensure peace and harmony
in the society.
DEFINITION OF HUMAN RIGHTS:-
“Human rights are moral claims, which are inherent in all human beings. It simply means that all
human beings by virtue of their being human have the same rights everywhere all the times”.
A human being from one part of the world does not have any less right than another from a different
part of the world. Human rights protect all people everywhere from severe political, legal and social
abuses.
ORIGIN OR SOURCES OF HUMAN RIGHTS:-
Following are the origin and sources of human rights:
1. Domestic
2. Religion
3. Laws
4. Constitutions
5. customary law

25. 6. international documents
7. Covenants
8. protocols
SINIFICANCE OF HUMAN RIGHTS:-
Human rights are very significant in our life. Human rights are very helpful in many ways. Such that,
• It is significant for civilized and dignified existence.
• Human rights helped in creating peace and harmony in the world.
• It helps in to achieve happier, progress and fulfillment life.
1. It is significant to build a balanced personality, quality of life.
CHARACTERSTICS OF HUMAN RIGHTS:-
The following are the basic characteristics of human rights:
1. Inherent:-Human Rights are inherent because they are not granted by any person or authority.
2. Fundamental:-Human Rights are fundamental rights because without them, the life and dignity of
man will be meaningless.
3. Inalienable:-Human Rights are inalienable because,
a. They cannot be rightfully taken away from a free individual.
b. They cannot be given away or be forfeited.
4. Imprescriptible:-Human Rights do not prescribe and cannot be lost even if man fails to use or
assert them, even by a long passage of time.
5. Indivisible:-Human Rights are not capable of being divided. They cannot be denied even when
other rights have already been enjoyed.
6. Universal:-Human Rights are universal in application and they apply irrespective of one’s origin,
status, or condition or place where one lives. Human rights are enforceable without national border.
7. Interdependent:-Human Rights are interdependent because the fulfillment or exercise of one
cannot be had without the realization of the other.
Human rights are restricted by duties. They are legally guaranteed, protected through law,
constitution, expressed in treaties agreements, protocols, declarations and resolutions.
HISTORY OF HUMAN RIGHTS:-

26. The concept of human rights can be found in the teachings of prophets, sages and philosophers. An
old concept stressed by religions, ethics, customs, laws, etc. The modern concept of human rights
has its foundation in mainly three revolutions which swept in Europe.
1. English Revolution
2. American Revolution.
3. French Revolution.
4. Industrial Revolution.
 ENGLISH REVOLUTIO N (1688-1689):-English revolution also known as “GLORIOUS
REVOLUTION” because it is a peaceful revolution, there was no blood shed. This revolution was
started in 1688 (17thcentury) and continue 1 year and then ended in 1689. Before English
revolution they were usually cruel enjoying these rights and they limit the divine rights of the kings
they prepared, ”DIVINE RIGHTS” are those rights which are given to kings by the GOD and
they are only answerable to only GOD. In Britain, they prepared “Bill Of Rights” in 1689 and the
rights of king were passed to parliament (people elected by the people). After this, no rights were
given to British people.
 AMERICAN REVOLUTION(1776-1789):-American revolution also known as “American
Revolutionary War” and “US War Of Independence” it was started in 1776 and ended in 1789.In
this revolution, Independence of declaration was held (united states), and it was a British colony,
when British parliament apply a tax on the people, the people deny for the taxes because, they
have no representative in parliament. They also adopted bill of rights in the second half of century
but, no rights were there for people.
 FRENCH REVOLUTION(1789-1791):-This revolution is basically the history of Europe and
started in 1789, 14th
july, National Day Of French. In this revolution French declared the rights of
man and citizens. Before this revolution, kings were enjoying unlimited rights. In this revolution
“BASTIN PRISON” attack on prison and raised the slogan of fraternity. There was a great
bloodshed. In the half of 20thcentury, two great wars were fought in Europe, but indirectly whole
world was included. There was a mass violation of human rights in these wars.
 INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION(1789-1900):- In the 2nd
half of 18th
century, there was another
revolution in Europe that is “INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION”. People shifted from rural to urban
areas. Low wages, great violation of human rights. Before the whole family had to work whole day,
they were provided with very short time for sleeping, there were no facilities for people. They
started thinking to get rid of it and make their condition better. In this revolution incident name as
“HAY MASTEN” were held in which few labors were killed and now Labor Day is celebrated on
1st
MAY. They also got rid of slavery and serfdom. Industries were built and many items were
made to make their life easy. After this their weapons were also made and world war began in
1914 and ended in 1919. This war fought in Europe and Europe was divided in two parts.
1) Alike powers
2) Central powers

27. CONCLUSION:-
Human rights have a long historical heritage. The language of human rights is understood and utilized
by many people in very diverse circumstances. Human rights are written in the hearts of people.
Human rights are best thought of as potential moral guarantees for each human being to lead a
minimally good life. Human rights are international norms that are paying rights ensure peace and
harmony in the society.
CRC (Convention on the Rights of Child)
INTRODUCTION:
CRC is a short for United Nation’s Convention on the Rights of Child. It’s a human rights treaty
which protects the civil, political, economic, social, health, and cultural rights of the children. It
is an internationally recognized agreement between nations which establishes a
comprehensive set of goals for individual nations to achieve on behalf of their children. The
Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC) was adopted on 1989 by the UN General Assembly
and entered into force one year later. The UN General Assembly opened it for signature on 20
November 1989 (the 30th anniversary of its “ Declaration of the Rights of the Child)”. It came
into force on 2 September 1990, after it was ratified by the required number of nations.
Currently, 193 countries are party to it, including every member of the United Nations except
the United States. The most widely ratified human rights treaty, the CRC was created in
response to the grave injustices that children suffer as well as their often special needs, and
defines the rights that belong to all children. The Convention comprises 54 articles that
establish the body of all children’s rights. Pakistan ratified the Convention on the Rights of the
Child (UNCRC) on 12th
November 1990.
PRINCIPLE AND GOALS
The Convention further sets out four guiding principles that are intended to assist state parties
in interpreting the obligations established in the document. These principles are:
• Non-discrimination
• The primacy of a child’s best interests in all decisions affecting children
• The right of every child to life, survival, and development
• The importance of seeking and respecting the views of the child
In general, the Convention calls for:

28. • Freedom from violence, abuse, hazardous employment, exploitation, abduction or sale
• Adequate nutrition
• Free compulsory primary education
• Adequate health care
• Equal treatment regardless of gender, race, or cultural background
• The right to express opinions and freedom of though in matters affecting them
• Safe exposure/access to leisure, play, culture, and art.
Recognizing the special vulnerability of children, all of these goals are expressed with respect
to a child's age and evolving capacities - the child's best interests are always the paramount
concern.
DEFINITION OF A CHILD :
The Convention defines a child as any human being under the age of eighteen, unless the age
of majority is attained earlier under a state's own domestic legislation.
RIGHTS OF CHILDREN:
In the Middle-Age, children were considered as “small adults”. In the middle of the 19th
century, the idea appears in France to give children special protectionSince 1919, the
international community, following the creation of The League of Nations (later to become the
UN), starts to give some kind of importance to that concept and elaborates a Committee for
child protection. The League of Nations adopts the Declaration of the Rights of the Child on
September 16, 1924, which is the first international treaty concerning children’s rights. The
year 1979 is declared International Year of the Child by the UN. That year saw a real change of
spirit, as Poland makes the proposal to create a working group within the Human Rights
Commission, which is in charge of writing an international charter. Afterwards, The
Convention on the Rights of the Child got adopted unanimously by the UN General Assembly
on November 20, 1989.
Some of the rights of children
1. include the child’s right to life and the needs that are most basic to existence, such as
nutrition, shelter, an adequate living standard, and access to medical services.
2. include the right to education, play, leisure, cultural activities, access to information,
and freedom of thought, conscience and religion.
3. ensure children are safeguarded against all forms of abuse, neglect and exploitation,
including special care for refugee children; safeguards for children in the criminal justice

29. system; protection for children in employment; protection and rehabilitation for
children who have suffered exploitation or abuse of any kind.
4. encompass children's freedom to express opinions, to have a say in matters affecting
their own lives, to join associations and to assemble peacefully. As their capacities
develop, children should have increasing opportunity to participate in the activities of
society, in preparation for adulthood. Etc.
CRC’s status in the United States :
As of February 24, 1997, 190 countries have ratified the Convention. The most recent nations
to become States Parties to the Convention are Oman, the United Arab Emirates, and
Switzerland.
The Cook Islands -- which recently ratified the Convention on the national level -- is projected
to formally ratify the treaty and submit its instrument of ratification within the next couple of
months. The remaining two countries which have not ratified the Convention are Somalia and
the United States. Markedly, Somalia currently does not have the governmental capacity to
ratify an international treaty at this time.
On February 16, 1995, the United States signed the Convention indicating the nation's intent
to consider ratification. The next step is for the President and his advisors to draft a Statement
of Reservations, Understandings and Declarations which will be presented with the
Convention to the Senate for its "advice and consent." Once Senate consideration is
completed in the affirmative, the President will ratify the Convention. As of April 1, 1997, the
Convention has not been presented to the Senate
International treaties undergo extensive examination and scrutiny before they are ratified in
the United States. Unfortunately, it can take several years for a treaty to be ratified after it is
signed. For example, the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of
Genocide took more than 30 years to be ratified by the United States, and the Convention on
the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women, which was signed by the United
States 17 years ago, still has not been ratified. Signed by the U.S. just over two years ago, the
Convention on the Rights of the Child is relatively early in this process.
Unlike many nations which view implementation of a treaty as a progressive process, the
United States attempts to ensure that all federal and/or state laws meet the standards of the
treaty and, if necessary, enact new legislation before giving its consent. This is because the
United States takes the position that the text of a human rights treaty itself does not directly
become part of U.S. law. This process can take years.

30. Two "environmental" factors have created obstacles to moving the CRC ahead expeditiously.
Due to widespread misconceptions about the Convention's intent and provisions, and a lack of
public understanding about how this type of agreement is implemented by our government,
the Convention has encountered a notable level of opposition within the Senate and in the
public. Until a more favorable political environment can be achieved and greater public
support can be attained, further movement on ratification will be difficult.
Committee on the Rights of the Child
CRC has also established “Committee on the Rights of the Child” (a Committee), a group of 18
independent experts on children’s rights who meet three times a year in Geneva. The
Committee provides guidance for and also monitors each state party’s compliance with the
CRC by drafting general comments on the scope of treaty obligations, issuing statements on
issues related to children’s rights, and conducting reviews of state parties’ progress in
implementing the treaty. In accordance with the Optional Protocol to the Convention on the
Rights of the Child on a Communications Procedure, the Committee may also accept individual
complaints and communications alleging a state party’s violation of rights under the
Convention. However, since China is not a party to the Optional Protocol, the Committee may
not accept individual complaints related to China at this time.
To comply with the review process, each state party must submit for review a report to the
Committee every five years on steps taken to implement the Convention, but, in practice,
reports are often combined and reviewed less frequently. To prepare for a state party’s
review, the Committee convenes a pre-sessional working group, in which all Committee
members are invited to participate. The pre-sessional working group meets three to four
months prior to the review to consider the state party’s report and develop a “list of issues
and questions,” which gives the state party an indication of the Committee’s priority issues
and also requests additional information prior to the review. After considering all relevant
materials, two members of the Committee designated as “Country Rapporteurs” lead the
interactive dialogue with representatives of the state party. Following the dialogue, the
Committee adopts concluding observations which include final remarks and
recommendations.
Civil society members may provide input to the Committee at various points by submitting
reports, making oral statements, and participating in briefings for Committee members. The
Committee also encourages state parties to consult and incorporate information from civil
society members in their national reports and follow-up procedures, and requires that the
concluding observations are widely disseminated following the review. In addition the
Committee considers information from civil society and other stakeholders, such as UN
agencies and national human rights institutes.

31. Basically, The Convention on the Rights of the Child defines the full range of children’s needs
and provides a practical framework for addressing these needs in an integrated and holistic
way, by fulfilling their rights.
It poses a challenge to traditional approaches to children that view them as incompetent,
passive objects of adult protective care. Instead, it acknowledges children as both capable and
entitled to active participation in decisions that affect their lives.
It is legally binding on all countries that have ratified it. Governments are required under
international law to take all necessary measures to implement its provisions. It provides a
universal set of standards against which to measure and improve the treatment of children.
There are no formal sanctions that can be brought against governments for failing to comply
with its provisions or the process of reporting to the Committee on the Rights of the Child.
It is nevertheless an invaluable mechanism for monitoring how a government is complying
with extending rights to children.
Full implementation of the rights contained in the Convention would herald a fundamental
change in the status of children in all societies in the world and ensure their optimal health
and development and fulfillment of potential
CONCLUSION:
The child shall enjoy all the rights set forth in this Convention. Every child, without any
exception whatsoever, shall be entitled to these rights without distinction or discrimination
account of race, colour, language, religion, political or other opinion, national or social origin,
property, birth or other status, whether of himself or of his family.
CEDAW (The Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of
Discrimination against Women)
The Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW), adopted
in 1979 by the UN General Assembly, is often described as an international bill of rights for
women. Consisting of a preamble and 30 articles, it defines what constitutes discrimination against
women and sets up an agenda for national action to end such discrimination.

32. The Convention defines discrimination against women as "...any distinction, exclusion or restriction
made on the basis of sex which has the effect or purpose of impairing or nullifying the recognition,
enjoyment or exercise by women, irrespective of their marital status, on a basis of equality of men
and women, of human rights and fundamental freedoms in the political, economic, social, cultural,
civil or any other field."
By accepting the Convention, States commit themselves to undertake a series of measures to end
discrimination against women in all forms, including:
• to incorporate the principle of equality of men and women in their legal system, abolish all
discriminatory laws and adopt appropriate ones prohibiting discrimination against women;
• to establish tribunals and other public institutions to ensure the effective protection of women
against discrimination; and
• to ensure elimination of all acts of discrimination against women by persons, organizations or
enterprises.
The Convention provides the basis for realizing equality between women and men through ensuring
women's equal access to, and equal opportunities in, political and public life -- including the right to
vote and to stand for election -- as well as education, health and employment. States parties agree to
take all appropriate measures, including legislation and temporary special measures, so that women
can enjoy all their human rights and fundamental freedoms.
The Convention is the only human rights treaty which affirms the reproductive rights of women and
targets culture and tradition as influential forces shaping gender roles and family relations. It affirms
women's rights to acquire, change or retain their nationality and the nationality of their
children. States parties also agree to take appropriate measures against all forms of traffic in women
and exploitation of women.
Countries that have ratified or acceded to the Convention are legally bound to put its provisions into
practice. They are also committed to submit national reports, at least every four years, on measures
they have taken to comply with their treaty obligations.
-Why is there a gap between theory and practice of human rights
constitution in Pakistan?
Main points:
Reasons:-
• Child labour
• No security of life
• No quality education
• Poor health resources
• No legal equality
• Cast, gender and racial discrimination
• Bounded labour
• Domestic violence

33. • Child abuse
• Extra judicial killings
• Weak criminal justice system
• Human trafficking
• Suppression of women
• Corporal punishment
• Harassment
• No legal equality
Child Labour
Pakistan has passed a number of laws containing provisions , prohibiting child labour, and regulating the working
condtions of children but these laws are universally ignored.An estimated 11 million children are working in the country,
half of which are under the age of ten. Child labour is an outcome of a multitude of socio-economic factors and has its
roots in poverty, lack of opportunities, high rate of population growth, unemployment, uneven distribution of wealth
and resources, outdated social customs and norms and plethora of other factors. According to the United Nations
Development Program (UNDP) the daily income of 65.5% people of Pakistan is below 2 U.S. dollars a day which is not
suffiecient to support a family.
No security of life
Pakistan actively seeks a peaceful international order. It has firmly adhered to the terms of the UN Charter and UN
Declaration of human rights. It adheres to the principle that any territorial acquisition by force is totally inadmissible. It
has always sought and upheld peaceful settlement of regional and international disputes. Despite this policy of peace
inherent in Pakistan's ideology and orientation, there is currently still a great risk to life and property in Pakistan.
Bombing, target killings, and robberies are a general phenomenon in the country and have not been eradicated.
Education
Though the right to educational institutions is safeguarded in the constitution of Pakistan, the picture of illiteracy in
Pakistan is grim.The overall literacy rate is 46% while only 26% of the girls are literate. The situation is the most critical in
NWFP and Baluchistan, where the female literacy rate stands between 3 per cent and 8 per cent. Some government
organizations and non-governmental organizations have tried to open formal and informal schools in these areas, but
the local landlords, even when they have little or nothing to do with religion or religious parties, oppose such measures,
apparently out of fear that people who become literate will cease to follow them with blind faith. Unfortunately, the
government has not so far taken any steps to promote literacy.
Health resources
In Pakistan healthcare is a privilege only afforded by the wealthy. Only 0.27% of the GDP of Pakistan is spent on health
care facilities which are the lowest investment in South Asia. Government hospitals lack resources as well as proper
doctors. Hospitals where doctors are present, they are helpless due to absence of proper resources to treat their
patients. According to a report, Pakistan is ranked lowest in education and health among the nuclear powers. The birth
rate and death rate are higher than usual.
Legal Equality

34. Legal equality of citizens of Pakistan is protected by the law but the corruption rate is high in this sector and so mostly
people do not get even the basic rights.
Caste and gender discrimination
Special provisions for Scheduled Castes: There is no provision in the law that clearly condemns discrimination or talks
about the protection of the rights of Scheduled Castes, which results in discrimination in social and economic life. While
the Government of Pakistan has enacted laws intended to reverse some of the effects of discrimination, it has not made
a serious effort to fully implement or enforce those laws. One example is the extensive problem with bonded labour in
Pakistan.
Gender discrimination: Women in Pakistan are considered extremely vulnerable to discrimination and social exclusion,
and due to their vulnerability Scheduled Caste women may experience double discrimination as they are both
discriminated on the basis of caste and gender. Scheduled Caste women are subject to rape assaults and culprits easily
get away due to the weak socio-economic status of victims.
Bonded labour
There is an extensive problem with bonded labour in Pakistan. A report by Anti-Slavery International (1996) documented
that bonded labour is prevailing in Pakistan despite the 1992 Act, and large numbers of labourers, including children,
continue to be put into bondage in exchange for loans. The Government has failed to fully implement the National Policy
and Plan of Action (2001) for the abolition of Bonded Labour and Rehabilitation of freed bonded labourers created to
address the needs of released bonded labourers’ children, the majority of whom are Scheduled Castes. A fund was
created as part of the plan of action and six years later a substantial portion of it remains unused and held by
government functionaries, as the released bonded labourers continue to live under inhumane conditions in camps on
the outskirts of Hyderabad. Around 2000,000 people are enslaved in Pakistan which is at the 3rd
position in a list of 167
countries where the problem of human slavery s most severe.
Domestic violence
Domestic violence in Pakistan is an endemic social problem. It is estimated that between 70 tp 90 percent of women in
Pakistan suffered some or the other form of abuse. In Pakistan’s rural areas instances of violence against women in the
form of so-called ‘honor’ killings, child marriages, acid attacks, and domestic abuse are frequent. These crimes are
grossly under-reported, and seeking justice is difficult due to structural factors such as the lack of independence of
women, a weak criminal justice system and a lack of societal support for women. In this environment, progressive
laws enacted to protect women against violence have been largely ineffective. An estimated 5000 women are killed ,
tortured and disabled per year from domestic violence.
Child abuse
Child abuse cases are taking alarming proportions and adversely affecting the individuals, families as well as the whole
society. In a study of child abuse in Islamabad and Rawalpindi out of a number of 300 children 17 percent are claimed to
have been abused. In most places children are abused and forced to beg on streets and the number of cases are
increasing but still no effective action has been taken.
Extra Judicial killings
An extrajudicial killing is the killing of a person by governmental authorities without the sanction of any judicial
proceeding or legal process. After 9/11, Pakistan has become a security cornered zone. This has led to a new wave of
extra-judicial killings in Pakistan. War against terrorism, has lead to initiate operations in many areas. Though these
operations have got some successes, in curbing the terrorism activities, but at the same time, it is alleged that such
operations have planted upon the political workers and civilians as well.

35. As per Human Rights Commission of Pakistan reports for 2010, as many as 12,580 people were murdered and over 17000
cases of abduction have been reported. Amongst these murders as many as 338 people were killed in Police encounters
and at least 174 persons were recovered from illegal detention centers of the police. Target killings took the lives of
thousands of people across the country.
Corporal punishments
School corporal punishment in Pakistan is not very common in modern educational institutions although it is still used in
schools across the rural parts of the country as a means of enforcing student discipline. The method has been criticized
by some children's rights activists who claim that many cases of corporal punishment in schools have resulted in physical
and mental abuse of schoolchildren. According to one report, corporal punishment is a key reason for school dropouts
and subsequently, street children, in Pakistan; as many as 35,000 high school pupils in Pakistan are said to drop out of
the education system each year because they have been punished or abused in school.
Human trafficking
Pakistan is a source, transit, and destination country for men, women, and children subjected to trafficking in persons,
specifically forced labor and prostitution. The largest human trafficking problem is bonded labor, concentrated in the
Sindh and Punjab provinces in agriculture and brick making, and to a lesser extent in mining and carpet-making.
Estimates of bonded labor victims, including men, women, and children, vary widely, but are likely well over one million.
In extreme scenarios, when laborers speak publicly against abuse, landowners have kidnapped laborers and their family
members.
Criminal Justice System
Criminal Justice refers to the agencies of government charged with enforcing law, adjudicating crime, and correcting
criminal conduct. The criminal justice system is essentially an instrument of social control. The justice system is not equal
for all citizens of Pakistan. Though there are many government laws as well as constitutional provisions on this matter.
Hence, the ineffectiveness of the system has serious repercussions for domestic, regional and international security.
GEO-PHYSICAL CONDITIONS OF PAKISTAN
“MOUNTAINOUS REGION OF PAKISTAN”
INTRODUCTION:
Pakistan is a unique land! Situated in heart of South Asian sub-continent. It is a country with rich history and
cultural heritage, fascinating in its own. Nature has blessed Pakistan with High Mountain, plateaus, plains,
desert and the luring sunny beaches are all found here. However, more than fifty percent (50%) of its area is
mountainous, particularly it’s northern, and north western which passes the most fascinating mountains on
earth. Pakistan is blessed with a long range of mountains that are an attraction for geologists and mountain
climbers from all over the world. Pakistan has more than a hundred peaks that are above 7,000 metres. Out of
the world’s 14 highest peaks, four are in Pakistan.
MOUNTAINOUS REGION:

36. In Pakistan’s mountainous region, there are three mountain ranges:
-Northern Mountains (High Mountain Ranges)
-North Western Mountains (High Mountain Ranges)
-Western mountains (Low Mountain Ranges)
THE NORTHERN & NORTH WESTERN MOUNTAIN RANGES:
High Mountain Ranges:
Northern Pakistan is host to three of the world’s biggest and most spectacular mountain ranges, the Himalaya,
the Karakorum, and the Hindukush. Amongst these ranges lies the great Himalayas which the people of
central and south Asia consider to be the roof of the world.
1-Karakorum Mountain Range:
Location:
Karakorum means “Black stone”. It is believed to be the north western extension of greater Himalayan
Mountain system, covering the borders between Pakistan, India and China, in the regions of Gilgit-baltistan
(Pakistan), Ladakh (India) and Xinjiang region (china).
The region is about 500km in length, and is bounded on the northeast by the edge of the Tibetan plateau, and
on the north by the Pamir Mountains.
Peaks of Karakorum Mountain Range:
K2: 8611m
Gasherbrum I: 8080m
Broad Peak: 8051m
Gasherbrum II: 8035m
Gasherbrum III: 7952m
Gasherbrum IV: 7925m
DistaghilSar: 7885m
KunyangChhish: 7852m
Masherbrum I: 7821m
Batura I: 7795m
Highest peak:
K-2 is the second highest mountain in the world. It is in Karakorum section of the Himalaya between Pakistan
and china. K-2 is the national mountain of Pakistan and its height is 8,623m high. The popular name of k-2
come from the name of the mountain range Karakorum, It means Karakorum 2.
-The Himalaya Mountain Range:

37. Name, Location and Surroundings:
The western Himalaya are situated in Kashmir valley and northern Pakistan, to the south and east of Indus River, and is
denominated by “Nanga Parbat”. The Himalaya range occupies in Pakistan the region of Kashmir, Kaghan, Kohistan,
Deosai and Chilas.
Ranges of Himalaya:
-Mount Everest (29,035 ft.) which lies between Tibet and the kingdom of Nepal, is the highest mountain in the world.
-One of the most famous peaks in the range is Mount Kailas (21,778 ft.) which lies in Tibet. This mountain is holy to the
Hindus and the Buddhists and is said to contain the thrones of their God.
-Kanchenjunga (28,169 ft.) the world’s third highest peak lies near Mount Everest. Other highest peaks in this range
include Makalu (27,825).
-Dhaulagiri (26,795 ft).
-Nanga Parbat (26,660 ft.)
-Mount Kamet (25,446 ft.)
Highest range in Pakistan (Nanga Parbet):
Nanga parbet has highest peak rising 8125m above the sea level. Pakistan’s second highest and world’s 9th
highest peak.
Nanga par bet peak is also famous for its unique rupal face which rises 4,600m straight above its base and the mountain
is considered as one of the most difficult and dangerous to climb. Its nick name is “Killer Mountain”.
Ecology of Himalaya:
The flora and fauna of the Himalayas vary with climate, rainfall, altitude, and soils. The climate ranges from tropical at
the base of the mountains to permanent ice and snow at the highest elevations. Almost every kind of climate can be
found in the Himalaya, because of the great difference in attitude in various parts of the range.
The Hindu Kush Mountain Range:
Origin:
The origins of the name ‘Hindu Kush’ are uncertain, with multiple theories. In the time of “Alexander, the great”, the
Hindu Kush range was referred to as the “Caucasus Indicus” or the "Caucasus of Indus River".
Location:
The Hindu Kush is a chain of mountains in central Asia extending to the west of the Himalayas. They are part of the
boundary between eastern Afghanistan, and north-western Pakistan.
They are part of the boundary between eastern Afghanistan, and north-western Pakistan. To the east, the Hindu Kush
buttresses the Pamir mountains near the point where the borders of Pakistan, Afghanistan, china meet after which it
runs southwest through Pakistan and into Afghanistan. The mountain range separates central Asia from south Asia.
Peaks of Hindu Kush:
Some of the important peaks of Hindu Kush mountain range are:
Trich Mir (7708m): Pakistan
Noshak (7492m): Pakistan and Afghanistan

38. Istor-o-Naal (7403m): Pakistan
Saraghrar (7338m): Pakistan
UdrenZom (7140m): Pakistan
Highest Peak (Trich Mir):
Trich Mir also known as ‘Terich Mir’ is the highest mountain of the Hindu Kush range, and the highest mountain in the
world outside of the Himalayas-Karakoram range, located in KPK, Pakistan. Its elevation is about 7708m.
The mountain was first climbed in 1950 by a Norwegian expedition consisting of Arne Næss, P. Kvernberg, H. Berg, and
Tony Streather.
The last village in Chitral before reaching Tirirch Mir is known as Village Tirich. It is lies in Mulkow. The people have a
‘Khowar’ language which most speak. The residents are available for here as porters and tourist guides and will lead
trekkers part way up the mountain, but there is a point where they cannot approached and advice to the tourist not to
go.
LOW MOUNTAIN RANGES OF PAKISTAN:
Most of the low mountain ranges of Pakistan extend from North to Southwest and to South in a bone like
manner. These ranges lie in the western area of Pakistan. There are many mountain ranges in Pakistan which
are on the lower side but the main low mountain ranges are:
1- Suleiman Mountain Range
2- Safaid Koh Mountain Range
3- Kirthar Mountain Range
-Suleiman Mountain Range:
Location:
Suleiman Range is the major geological feature of Northern Baluchistan Province of Pakistan and Zabul
Province of Afghanistan. It is the bordering region between the Iranian Plateau and the Indian
subcontinent. Bordering the Suleiman Range to the north are the arid highlands of the Hindu Kush. The
Suleiman Mountain Range continue from south of Gomal River, lies between Baluchistan Plateau and
the Indus Plains. The Suleiman mountain range is east of Quetta (Pakistan), overlooking the plain of
the Indus river. Further, Suleiman mountain range meets the Kirthar Mountain Range, which merges in to the
Kohistan area of Sindh.
Peaks of Suleiman Range:
On the northern end of Sulaiman range are its prominent twin peaks Kaisargarh and Takht-e-Sulaiman. The
latter is also known as the ‘Throne of Solomon’ because of its shape. The peaks, their heights and locations
are given below:
Peaks: Heights of Peaks: Locations of Peaks:

39. Looi Sar Naikan (Koh-Zarghun) 3578m Quetta, Baluchistan
Takht-e-Suleiman 3487m East of Quetta
Kaisargarh 3441m East of Quetta
Khilafat Hills 3475m Baluchistan
Loai Sar (Koh-i-Takatu) 3472m Quetta
Elevation:
Its heights gradually decrease toward the south, with summits averaging 1800–2100m. The average elevation
of this range is 1,520 meters i.e. about 5000 feet.
-Safaid Koh Mountain Range:
Safaid Koh Mountain Range remains covered with snow throughout the year, luring nature lovers and
captivating them in its fascinating beauty and this is the reason behind its name “Safaid Koh”.
Location:
Safaid Koh Mountain range is named in Persian which means “White Mountains” and in Pushto, it means,
“Spin Ghar”. Safaid Koh Moutain range forms a natural frontier between Pakistan and Afghanistan extending
westward for 100 miles (160 km) from the Vale of Peshawar (Pakistan) to the Lowrah Valley (Afghanistan).
This mountain range is in Eastern Afghanistan and expanding well to North-Western Pakistan which covers
Khyber Agency and Kurram Valley of Federally Administered Tribal Areas in Pakistan. The closest city near the
Safed Koh is Parachinar of Pakistan. It is a straight and rigid peak, towers above all surrounding hills.
Highest Peak:
Mount Sikaram Sar is the highest peak of the Safed Koh Range which forms a natural boundary and water shed
with Afghanistan is situated in Kurram agency. It is at an elevation of 4,761 m above mean sea level. It has a
prominence of 2,295 m. It lies on the Afghanistan-Pakistan border south of the Kabul River and Khyber Pass. It
parallels the Kabul River. The Kabul River cuts a narrow trough through the Safaid Koh mountains to flow
eastward in the Indus River, otherwise, the range connects directly with the Shandur Top off shoot of the
Hindu Kush mountain system The Khyber Pass crosses a spur of the Safed Koh range.
-Kirthar Mountain Range:
Location:
This mountain range is located in Sindh. It extends about 190 miles southward from River Mula in Central
Baluchistan to Muari on the Arabian Sea, west of Karachi. This range forms a boundary between the southern
Baluchistan on the West and the Lower Indus Plain on the East.
There are several rock hills having heights around 4,000a ft. in the south to 8,000 ft. north. There is a huge
Kirthar National Park being the largest reserve of wildlife in Sindh.
Elevation:
The highest elevation of this range was discovered very recently by Shaddan Shah i.e. on April 2009. He named
it Koh-e-Benazir to honour the late Benazir Bhutto. Before this the highest was Kutte-ji-Kabar (Tomb of a Dog),