Cellular Biochemistry

2
Uses of Organic Molecules
Americans consume
an average of 140
pounds of sugar
per person per
year
Cellulose, found in
plant cell walls, is
the most abundant
organic compound on
Earth
Copyright Cmassengale

3
Uses of Organic Molecules
A typical cell in
your body has
about 2 meters
of DNA
A typical cow
produces over
200 pounds of
methane gas
each year

4
Water
About 60-90 percent
of an organism is
water
Water is used in
most reactions in
the body
Water is called
the universal
solvent

5
Water Properties
Polarity
Cohesiveness
Adhesiveness
Surface
Tension

Copyright Cmassengale 6
Tension of the surface film of a liquid caused
by the attraction of the particles in the surface
layer by the bulk of the liquid, which tends to
minimize surface area.
Surface tension is the elastic tendency of a
fluid surface which makes it acquire the
least surface area possible. ... At liquid–air
interfaces, surface tension results from the
greater attraction of liquid molecules to each
other (due to cohesion) than to the
molecules in the air (due to adhesion).

7
Hydrocarbons
The simplest carbon
compounds …
Contain only carbon
& hydrogen atoms

8
Carbon can use its bonds to::
Attach to other
carbons
Form an
endless
diversity of
carbon
skeletons

9
Large Hydrocarbons:
Are the main
molecules in the
gasoline we burn
in our cars
The hydrocarbons
of fat molecules
provide energy for
our bodies

10
Shape of Organic Molecules
Each type of organic
molecule has a unique
three-dimensional shape
The shape determines
its function in an
organism
3-D (three dimensions or three-
dimensional) describes an image
that provides the perception of
depth.
When 3-D images are made
interactive so that users feel
involved with the scene, the
experience is called virtual reality

11
Common Functional Groups

12
Giant Molecules - Polymers
Large molecules
are called polymers
Polymers are built
from smaller
molecules called
monomers
Biologists call
them
Macromolecules

13
Most Macromolecules are Polymers
Polymers are made by stringing together
many smaller molecules called monomers
Nucleic Acid
Monomer

14
Linking Monomers
Cells link monomers by a process called
condensation or dehydration synthesis
(removing a molecule of water)
This process joins two sugar monomers
to make a double sugar
Remove
H
Remove OH
H2O Forms

15
Breaking Down Polymers
Cells break down
macromolecules
by a process
called
hydrolysis
(adding a
molecule of
water)
Water added to split a double sugar

16
Macromolecules in Organisms
There are four categories of large
molecules in cells:
Carbohydrates
Lipids
Proteins
Nucleic Acids

17
Monosaccharides:
Called simple sugars
Include glucose,
fructose, & galactose
Have the same
chemical, but
different structural
formulas
C6H12O6

The pentose sugars Ribose and deoxyribose are
part of the nucleotides that make up the crucial
nucleic acids like DNA and RNA. The highlighted
area shows the difference between the two sugars.

19
Isomers
Glucose &
fructose are
isomers
because
they’re
structures are
different, but
their chemical
formulas are
the same

20
Rings
In aqueous (watery) solutions,
monosaccharides form ring structures

21
Cellular Fuel
Monosaccharides
are the main
fuel that cells
use for cellular
work
ATP

22
Disaccharides
Common disaccharides include:
Sucrose (table sugar)
Lactose (Milk Sugar)
Maltose (Grain sugar)

23
Disaccharides
Sucrose is composed
of glucose + fructose
Maltose is
composed of 2
glucose molecules
Lactose is made
of galactose +
glucose GLUCOSE

24
Polysaccharides
Complex
carbohydrates
Composed of many
sugar monomers
linked together
Polymers of
monosaccharide
chains

25
Examples of Polysaccharides
Starch
Glycogen
Cellulose
Glucose Monomer

26
Starch
Starch is an example of a
polysaccharide in plants
Plant cells store starch
for energy
Potatoes and grains are
major sources of starch
in the human diet

27
Glycogen
Glycogen is an example
of a polysaccharide
in animals
Animals store excess
sugar in the form of
glycogen
Glycogen is similar in
structure to starch because
BOTH are made of glucose
monomers

Maltose also known as maltobiose or malt sugar, is a
disaccharide formed from two units of glucose joined with an
α(1→4) bond, formed from a condensation reaction. The
isomer isomaltose has two glucose molecules linked through
an α(1→6) bond.

29
Cellulose
Cellulose is the most abundant organic
compound on Earth
It forms cable-like fibrils in the
tough walls that enclose plants
It is a major component of
wood
It is also known as dietary fiber

30
Cellulose
SUGARS

31
Dietary Cellulose
Most animals cannot derive nutrition
from fiber
They have
bacteria in
their digestive
tracts that can
break down
cellulose

Animals such as cows have anaerobic bacteria in their digestive tracts
which digest cellulose. Cows are ruminants, or animals that chew their
cud*.
Ruminants have several stomachs that break down plant materials with
the help of enzymes and bacteria. The partially digested material is then
regurgitated into the mouth, which is then chewed to break the material
down even further. The bacterial digestion of cellulose by bacteria in the
stomachs of ruminants is anaerobic , meaning that the process does not
use oxygen. One of the by-products of anaerobic metabolism is
methane, a notoriously foul-smelling gas. Ruminants give off large
amounts of methane daily. In fact, many environmentalists are
concerned about the production of methane by cows, because methane
may contribute to the destruction of ozone in Earth's stratosphere.
*partly digested food returned from the first stomach of ruminants to the
mouth for further chewing.

Although Cellulose is indigestible by humans, it does form a
part of the human diet in the form of plant foods. Small
amounts of cellulose found in vegetables and fruits pass
through the human digestive system intact.
Cellulose is part of the material called "fiber" that
dieticians and nutritionists have identified as useful in
moving food through the digestive tract quickly and
efficiently. Diets high in fiber are thought to lower
the risk of colon cancer because fiber reduces the time
that waste products stay in contact with the walls of the
colon (the terminal part of the digestive tract).

34
Sugars in Water
Simple sugars and double sugars dissolve
readily in water
They are
hydrophilic,
or “water-
loving”
WATER
MOLECULE
SUGAR
MOLECULE
-OH groups
make them
water soluble

35
Lipids
Lipids are hydrophobic –”water fearing”
Includes
fats,
waxes,
steroids,
& oils
Do NOT mix with water
FAT MOLECULE

36
Function of Lipids
Fats store energy, help to insulate the
body, and cushion and protect organs

37
Types of Fatty Acids
Unsaturated fatty acids have less than
the maximum number of hydrogens
bonded to the carbons (a double bond
between carbons)
Saturated fatty acids have the
maximum number of hydrogens bonded
to the carbons (all single bonds
between carbons)

38
Types of Fatty Acids
Single
Bonds in
Carbon
chain
Double bond in carbon chain

39
Triglyceride
Monomer of lipids
Composed of
Glycerol & 3
fatty acid chains
Glycerol forms
the “backbone”
of the fat
Organic Alcohol
(-OL ending)

Glycerol (/ˈɡlɪsərɒl/;[4] also called glycerine or glycerin) is a
simple polyol compound. It is a colorless,
odorless, viscous liquid that is sweet-tasting and non-toxic. The
glycerol backbone is found in all lipids known as triglycerides. It
is widely used in the food industry as a sweetener
and humectant and in pharmaceutical formulations. Glycerol has
three hydroxyl groupsthat are responsible for
its solubility in water and its hygroscopic nature
Humectants (or moisturizers) are important cosmetic ingredients
allowing to prevent loss of moisture thereby retaining the skin's
natural moisture.
Humectants are key ingredients in most skin care products but
are also often used in hair care products to volumize the hair by
attracting moisture which expands the hair shaft. There is a large
variety of very different compounds providing moisturzing effects
including proteins, acids, polysaccharides, and various small
molecules (e.g. glycerine, sorbitol, urea, aloe vera etc.).

41
Triglyceride
Glycerol Fatty Acid Chains

42
Fats in Organisms
Most animal fats have a high proportion
of saturated fatty acids & exist as
solids at room temperature (butter,
margarine, creams)

43
Fats in Organisms
Most plant oils tend to be low in
saturated fatty acids & exist as
liquids at room temperature (oils)

44
Fats
Dietary fat consists largely of the
molecule triglyceride composed of
glycerol and three fatty acid chains
Glycerol
Fatty Acid Chain
Condensation links the fatty acids to Glycerol

45
Lipids & Cell Membranes
•Cell membranes are made
of lipids called
phospholipids
•Phospholipids have a head
that is polar & attract
water (hydrophilic)
•Phospholipids also have 2
tails that are nonpolar and
do not attract water
(hydrophobic)

46
Steroids
The carbon skeleton
of steroids is bent
to form 4 fused
rings
Cholesterol is
the “base
steroid” from
which your body
produces other
steroids
Estrogen & testosterone are also steroids
Cholesterol
Testosterone
Estrogen

In Vivo Production of Cholesterol
or Campesterol in Yeast Cells
Transformed with SSRs.

48
Synthetic Anabolic Steroids
They are variants
of testosterone
Some athletes use
them to build up
their muscles quickly
They can pose
serious health risks

49
Proteins
Proteins are polymers made of
monomers called amino acids
All proteins are made of 20 different
amino acids linked in different orders
Proteins are used to build cells, act
as hormones & enzymes, and do much
of the work in a cell

50
20 Amino Acid Monomers

51
Structure of Amino Acids
Amino acids have a
central carbon with
4 things boded to
it:
Amino group –NH2
Carboxyl group -COOH
Hydrogen -H
Side group -R
Amino
group
Carboxyl
group
R group
Side
groups
Leucine -hydrophobic
Serine-hydrophillic

52
Linking Amino Acids
Cells link amino
acids together to
make proteins
The process is
called condensation
or dehydration
Peptide bonds
form to hold the
amino acids
together
Carboxyl
Amino
Side
Group
Dehydration
Synthesis
Peptide Bond

53
Proteins as Enzymes
Many proteins act as biological catalysts
or enzymes
Thousands of different enzymes exist
in the body
Enzymes control the rate of chemical
reactions by weakening bonds, thus
lowering the amount of activation
energy needed for the reaction

54
Enzymes
Their folded conformation
creates an area known as the
active site.
Enzymes are globular proteins.
The nature and arrangement of
amino acids in the active site
make it specific for only one
type of substrate.

55
Enzyme + Substrate = Product

56
How the Enzyme Works
Enzymes
are
reusable!!!
Active site
changes
SHAPE
Called
INDUCED
FIT

57
Primary Protein Structure
The primary
structure is
the specific
sequence of
amino acids in
a protein
Called
polypeptide
Amino Acid

58
Protein Structures
Secondary protein structures occur
when protein chains coil or fold
When protein chains called polypeptides
join together, the tertiary structure
forms because R groups interact with
each other
In the watery environment of a cell,
proteins become globular in their
quaternary structure

59
Protein Structures or CONFORMATIONS
Hydrogen bond
Pleated sheet
Amino acid
(a) Primary structure
Hydrogen bond
Alpha helix
(b) Secondary
structure
Polypeptide
(single subunit)
(c) Tertiary
structure
(d) Quaternary structure

60
Changing Amino Acid Sequence
Substitution of one amino acid for
another in hemoglobin causes sickle-cell
disease
(a) Normal red blood cell Normal hemoglobin
1
2 3
4 5
6
7. . . 146
(b) Sickled red blood cell Sickle-cell hemoglobin
2 31
4 5
6
7. . . 146

61
Other Important Proteins
•Blood sugar level is controlled by
a protein called insulin
•Insulin causes the liver to uptake
and store excess sugar as
Glycogen
•The cell membrane also contains
proteins
•Receptor proteins help cells
recognize other cells

62
INSULIN
Cell membrane with proteins &
phospholipids

63
Nucleic Acids
Store hereditary information
Contain information for making all
the body’s proteins
Two types exist --- DNA &
RNA

65
Nucleic Acids
Nitrogenous base
(A,G,C, or T)
Phosphate
group
Thymine (T)
Sugar
(deoxyribose)
Phosphate
Base
Sugar
Nucleic
acids are
polymers of
nucleotides
Nucleotide

66
Nucleotide – Nucleic acid monomer

67
Nucleic Acids

68
Bases
Each DNA
nucleotide has one
of the following
bases:
Thymine (T) Cytosine (C)
Adenine (A) Guanine (G)
–Adenine (A)
–Guanine (G)
–Thymine (T)
–Cytosine (C)

69
Nucleotide Monomers
Form long chains
called DNA
Backbone
Nucleotide
Bases
DNA strand
Nucleotides are
joined by sugars
& phosphates on
the side

70
DNA
Two strands of
DNA join
together to form
a double helix Base
pair
Double helix

71
RNA – Ribonucleic Acid
Ribose sugar
has an extra
–OH or
hydroxyl
group
It has the
base uracil (U)
instead of
thymine (T)
Nitrogenous base
(A,G,C, or U)
Sugar (ribose)
Phosphate
group
Uracil

72
ATP – Cellular Energy
•ATP is used by cells for energy
•Adenosine triphosphate
•Made of a nucleotide with 3
phosphate groups

ATP – Cellular Energy
•Energy is stored in the chemical bonds
of ATP
•The last 2 phosphate bonds are HIGH
ENERGY
•Breaking the last phosphate bond
releases energy for cellular work and
produces ADP and a free phosphate
•ADP (adenosine Diphosphate) can be
rejoined to the free phosphate to
make more ATP

74
Macromolecules

75
Macromolecules

Cellular Biochemistry

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