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1. State of Consciousness
HAFIZA HAFSA MAHMOOD
LECTURER
LAHORE SCHOOL OF PROFESSIONAL STUDIES
THE UNIVERSITY OF LAHORE

2. Introduction
 The lives of all organisms, including humans, are influenced by regularly occurring
cycles of behaviors known as biological rhythms.
 One important biological rhythm is the annual cycle that guides the migration of
birds and the hibernation of bears.
 The strongest and most important biorhythm is the daily circadian rhythm that
guides the daily waking and sleeping cycle in many animals.
 Light also has a profound effect on humans. We are more likely to experience
depression during the dark winter months than during the lighter summer
months, and exposure to bright lights can help reduce this depression.

3. Consciousness
 The awareness of the sensations, thoughts, and feelings being experienced at a
given moment.
 In waking consciousness, we are awake and aware of our thoughts, emotions, and
perceptions.
 All other states of consciousness are considered altered states of consciousness.
 Among these, sleeping and dreaming occur naturally; drug use and hypnosis, in
contrast, are methods of deliberately altering one’s state of consciousness.

4. Major stages of sleep
REM
Presence of quick fast eye movements and dreaming.
Accounts for about 25% of our total sleep time.
Dramatically reduced awareness of external events and consciousness is dominated primarily by internally
generated images and a lack of overt thinking (Hobson, 2004).
Muscles shut down, and inhibit to react out towards the scenes that are playing in our dreams.
Non-REM
Very slow brain waves
It is further divided into 4 stages : 1, 2, 3, 4.

5. Stages of Sleep
Stage 1 sleep (few minutes)
• Transition between wakefulness and sleep.
• Relatively rapid , low amplitude brain waves.
Stage 2 sleep (half of the total sleep)
• Deeper sleep than of stage 1
• Slower, more regular wave pattern
• Momentary interruptions of “sleep Spindles”
Stage 3 sleep
• Slow brain waves
• Greater peaks and valleys in wave patterns
Stage 4 sleep
• Deepest stage of sleep
• Least responsive to outside stimulation

6. REM Sleep: The Paradox of Sleep
 Definition: Sleep occupying 20% of an adult’s sleeping time, characterized by increased heart rate, blood
pressure, and breathing rate; eye movements; and the experience of dreaming.
 Several times a night, when sleepers have cycled back to a shallower state of sleep, something curious
happens. Their heart rate increases and becomes irregular, their blood pressure rises, and their breathing rate
increases.
 Most characteristic of this period is the back-and-forth movement of their eyes, as if they were watching an
action-filled movie. This period of sleep is called rapid eye movement, or REM sleep, and it contrasts with
stages 1 through 4, which are collectively labeled non-REM (or NREM) sleep.
 REM sleep occupies a little more than 20% of adults’ total sleeping time.
 Paradoxically, while all this activity is occurring, the major muscles of the body appear to be paralyzed. In
addition, and most important, REM sleep is usually accompanied by dreams, which—whether or not people
remember them—are experienced by everyone during some part of their night’s sleep.
 Although some dreaming occurs in non-REM stages of sleep, dreams are most likely to occur in the REM
period, where they are the most vivid and easily remembered

7. Importance of REM Sleep
 There is good reason to believe that REM sleep plays a critical role in everyday
human functioning.
 People deprived of REM sleep—by being awakened every time they begin to
display the physiological signs of that stage—show a rebound effect when
allowed to rest undisturbed.
 With this rebound effect, REM-deprived sleepers spend significantly more time in
REM sleep than they normally would.
 In addition, REM sleep may play a role in learning and memory, allowing us to
rethink and restore information and emotional experiences that we’ve had during
the day

8. Importance of sleep and its duration
 Sleep is a requirement for normal human functioning, although, surprisingly, the reason why has long baffled scientists.
 It certainly is reasonable to expect that our bodies would require a tranquil “rest and relaxation” period to revitalize themselves,
and experiments with rats show that total sleep deprivation results in death. But why?
 Sleep permitted our ancestors to conserve energy at night, a time when food was relatively hard to come by. So, better able to
forage for food when the sun was up.
 Sleep restores and replenishes our brains and bodies. For instance, the reduced activity of the brain during non-REM sleep may give
neurons in the brain a chance to repair themselves.
 That reduced activity may also weaken connections among particular nerve cells to conserve energy, which has the effect of aiding
memory.
 Furthermore, the onset of REM sleep stops the release of neurotransmitters called monoamines and so permits receptor cells to
get some necessary rest and to increase their sensitivity during periods of wakefulness (McNamara, 2004; Steiger, 2007; Bub,
Buckhalt, & El-Sheikh, 2011; Tononi & Cirelli, 2013).
 Finally, sleep may be essential because it assists physical growth and brain development in children. For example, the release of
growth hormones is associated with deep sleep (Peterfi et al., 2010).

9. Contd.
 Scientists have been unable to establish just how much sleep is absolutely required.
 Most people today sleep between 7 and 8 hours each night, which is 3 hours a night less than people
slept a hundred years ago.
 In addition, there is wide variability among individuals, with some people needing as little as 3 hours of
sleep.
 Still, survey data shows that for most people, the more sleep they get, the greater their sense of well-
being (McCarthy & Brown, 2015).
 Men and women sleep differently. Women typically fall asleep more quickly, sleep for longer periods
and more deeply than men do, and they get up fewer times in the night.
 On the other hand, men have fewer concerns about the amount of sleep they get than women do, even
though they get less sleep. Furthermore, sleep requirements vary over the course of a lifetime: As they
age, people generally need less and less sleep

10. The Function and Meaning of Dreaming
 Nightmares, unusually frightening dreams, occur fairly often.
 They typically encompass everyday events such as going to the supermarket, working at the office, and
preparing a meal. Students dream about going to class; professors dream about lecturing. Dental patients
dream of getting their teeth drilled; dentists dream of drilling the wrong tooth. The English have tea with
the queen in their dreams; in the United States, people go to a bar with the president (Schredl & Piel, 2005;
Taylor & Bryant, 2007; Nosek et al., 2015).
 But what, if anything, do all these dreams mean? Whether dreams have a specific significance and function
is a question that scientists have considered for many years, and they have developed the three alternative
theories we discuss below (and summarize in Figure 6).

11. PSYCHOANALYTIC EXPLANATIONS OF DREAMS:
 Using psychoanalytic theory, Sigmund Freud viewed dreams as a guide to the unconscious (Freud, 1900).
 Unconscious wish fulfillment theory, he proposed that dreams represent unconscious wishes that
dreamers desire to see fulfilled.
 To Freud, the manifest content of the dream is what we remember and report about the dream— its
storyline.
 The manifest content, however, disguises the latent content, which includes the actual, underlying wishes
that the dream represents. Because the underlying wishes (the latent content) are threatening to the
dreamer, they are hidden in the dream’s storyline (the manifest content).

12. Opposing concepts of Freud
 Many psychologists reject Freud’s view that dreams typically represent
unconscious wishes and that particular objects and events in a dream are
symbolic.
 Rather, they believe that the direct, overt action of a dream is the focal point of its
meaning.
 For example, a dream in which we are walking down a long hallway to take an exam for
which we haven’t studied does not relate to unconscious, unacceptable wishes. Instead,
it simply may mean that we are concerned about an impending test.

13. Evolutionary explanation of dreams
 According to the dreams-for-survival theory, dreams permit us to reconsider and reprocess during sleep
information that is critical for our daily survival.
 Dreaming is considered an inheritance from our animal ancestors, whose small brains were unable to sift
sufficient information during waking hours. Consequently, dreaming provided a mechanism that permitted
the processing of information 24 hours a day.
 In the dreams-for-survival theory, dreams represent concerns about our daily lives, illustrating our
uncertainties, indecisions, ideas, and desires. Dreams are seen, then, as consistent with everyday living.
 Research supports the dreams-for-survival theory, suggesting that certain dreams permit people to focus
on and to consolidate memories, particularly dreams that pertain to “how-to-do-it” memories related to
motor skills. For example, rat and awakening at different times
 The implication is that dreaming, at least when it is uninterrupted, can play a role in helping us remember
material to which we have been previously exposed (Marshall & Born, 2007; Nishida et al., 2009; Blechner,
2013).

14. NEUROSCIENCE EXPLANATIONS OF DREAMS
 Activation-synthesis theory of dreams: The activation-synthesis theory focuses on the random electrical energy
that the brain produces during REM sleep, possibly as a result of changes in the production of particular
neurotransmitters.
 This electrical energy randomly stimulates memories stored in the brain. Because we have a need to make sense of our
world even while asleep, the brain takes these chaotic memories and weaves them into a logical story line, filling in the
gaps to produce a rational scenario (Hobson, 2005; Hangya et al., 2011).
 Activation information modulation (AIM) theory: According to AIM, dreams are initiated in the brain’s pons,
which sends random signals to the cortex. Areas of the cortex that are involved in particular waking behaviors
are related to the content of dreams.
 For example, areas of the brain related to vision are involved in the visual aspects of the dream, while areas of the brain
related to movement are involved in aspects of the dream related to motion (Hobson, 2007).
 Activation-synthesis and AIM theories do not entirely reject the view that dreams reflect unconscious wishes.
They suggest that the particular scenario a dreamer produces is not random but instead is a clue to the
dreamer’s fears, emotions, and concerns. Hence, what starts out as a random process culminates in something
meaningful.

16. Sleep-wake disorders (Non-REM sleep)
Disorder Description
Insomnia persistent difficulty in falling asleep
Narcolepsy extreme day time sleepiness & episodes of nodding
off
Sleep Apnea pauses in breathing that lasts for about 10 sec.
during sleep
Night terrors disruptive sleep patterns. Common in childhood
followed by screaming
SIDS
Bruxism the sufferer grinds his teeth during sleep
Restless legs syndrome the sufferer reports an itching, burning, or otherwise
uncomfortable feelings in leg

17. Circadian Rhythms: Life Cycles
 Circadian rhythms: Biological processes that occur regularly on approximately a 24-hour cycle.
 The fact that we cycle back and forth between wakefulness and sleep is one example of the body’s circadian
rhythms.
 Circadian rhythms (from the Latin circa diem, or “about a day”) are biological processes that occur regularly on
approximately a 24-hour cycle. Sleeping and waking, for instance, occur naturally to the beat of an internal
pacemaker that works on a cycle of about 24 hours.
 Several other bodily functions, such as body temperature, hormone production, and blood pressure, also follow
circadian rhythms (Beersma & Gordijn, 2007; Blatter & Cajochen, 2007; Labrecque & Cermakian, 2015).
 Circadian cycles are complex, and they involve a variety of behaviors.
 For instance, sleepiness occurs not just in the evening but throughout the day in regular patterns, with most of us
getting drowsy in mid-afternoon—regardless of whether we have eaten a heavy lunch.
 The brain’s suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) controls our circadian rhythms, but there are a number of
circadian “clocks” associated with specific parts of the body.

18. Contd.
 The relative amount of light and darkness, which varies with the seasons of the year, also plays a role in
regulating circadian rhythms. The disorder appears to be a result of the brevity and gloom of winter days.
 People’s moods also follow regular patterns. Across the globe and among different cultures, people were
happier in the morning, less so during the day, with a rebound in the evening.
 Moods are also happier on certain days of the week: we’re happier on weekends and holidays. Finally, positive emotions
increase from late December to late June as the days get longer, and negative emotions increase as days get shorter.
 Most adults are at their peak for carrying out cognitive tasks in the late morning. In contrast, focus and
concentration on academic tasks declines throughout the afternoon.
 Some research findings show that creativity increases in the evening when people are tired. It may be that
fatigue decreases inhibitions, allowing for more creative thought.
 Finally, health issues are more apt to appear at certain times of the day. For instance, heart attacks and strokes
occur most frequently, and are most severe, between 6:00 a.m. and noon. Asthma attacks and heartburn are
more common during the evening hours (Beck, 2015).

19. Daydreams: Dreams Without Sleep
 Fantasies that people construct while awake.
 Unlike dreaming that occurs during sleep, daydreams are more under people’s control. Therefore, their content is often more
closely related to immediate events in the environment than is the content of the dreams that occur during sleep.
 Daydreams are a typical part of waking consciousness, even though our awareness of the environment around us declines
while we are daydreaming. People vary considerably in the amount of daydreaming they do.
 The brain is surprisingly active during daydreaming. For example, several areas of the brain that are associated with complex
problem solving become activated during daydreaming.
 In fact, day dreaming may be the only time these areas are activated simultaneously, suggesting that daydreaming may lead
to insights about problems that we are grappling with
 Furthermore, some scientists see a link between daydreaming and dreams during sleep. The content of daydreams and
dreams show many parallels, and the brain areas and processes involved in daydreaming and dreams during sleep are
related (Domhoff, 2011).

20. Hypnosis
 A trancelike state of heightened susceptibility to the suggestions of others.
 People under hypnosis are in a trancelike state of heightened susceptibility to the suggestions of others.
 Yet other aspects of their behavior contradict this notion, as people are attentive to the hypnotist’s
suggestions.
 Process follows a series of four steps.
 First, a person is made comfortable in a quiet environment.
 Second, the hypnotist explains what is going to happen, such as he or she will experience a pleasant, relaxed state.
 Third, the hypnotist tells the person to concentrate on a specific object or image, such as moving finger or an image of
a calm lake.
 The hypnotist may have the person concentrate on relaxing different parts of the body, such as the arms, legs, and
chest.
 Fourth, once the subject is in a highly relaxed state, the hypnotist may make suggestions that the person interprets as
being produced by hypnosis, such as “Your arms are getting heavy” and “Your eyelids are more difficult to open.”

21. Contd.
 Despite their compliance when hypnotized, people do not lose all will of their own. They will not perform
antisocial behaviors, and they will not carry out self-destructive acts. People will not reveal hidden truths
about themselves, and they are capable of lying.
 Moreover, people cannot be hypnotized against their will—despite popular misconceptions (Raz, 2007;
Lynn, Laurence, & Kirsch, 2015).
 There are wide variations in people’s susceptibility to hypnosis. About 5% to 20% of the population
cannot be hypnotized at all, 15% are very easily hypnotized. Most people fall somewhere in between.
 People who are readily hypnotized are also easily absorbed while reading books or listening to music,
becoming unaware of what is happening around them, and they often spend an unusual amount of time
daydreaming.

22. Different state of consciousness
 There are certain specific changes in electrical activity in the brain that are associated with hypnosis. Such
changes support the position that hypnosis is a state of consciousness different from normal waking.
 In this view, hypnosis represents a state of divided consciousness.
 Hypnosis brings about a dissociation, or division, of consciousness into two simultaneous components.
 In one stream of consciousness, hypnotized people are following the commands of the hypnotist. Yet on
another level of consciousness, they are acting as “hidden observers,” aware of what is happening to them.
 For instance, hypnotic subjects may appear to be following the hypnotist’s suggestion about feeling no pain, yet
in another stream of consciousness they may be actually aware of the pain.
 Hypnosis is neither a totally different state of consciousness nor totally similar to normal waking consciousness

23. Value of hypnosis
 Controlling pain
 Reducing smoking
 Treating psychological disorders
 Assisting in law enforcement
 Improving athletic performance

24. Meditation
 A learned technique for refocusing attention that brings about an altered state of consciousness.
 Meditation typically consists of the repetition of a mantra—a sound, word, or syllable—over and over.
 In some forms of meditation, the focus is on a picture, flame, or specific part of the body.
 Regardless of the nature of the particular initial stimulus, the key to the procedure is concentrating on it so
thoroughly that the meditator becomes unaware of any outside stimulation and reaches a different state of
consciousness.
 After meditation, people report feeling thoroughly relaxed. They sometimes relate that they have gained new
insights into themselves and the problems they are facing.
 The long-term practice of meditation may even improve health because of the biological changes it produces. For
example, during meditation, oxygen usage decreases, heart rate and blood pressure decline, and brain-wave
patterns change (Lee, Kleinman, & Kleinman, 2007; Travis et al., 2009; Steinhubl et al., 2015)

25. Contd.
 Anyone can meditate by following a few simple procedures.
 Sitting in a quiet room with the eyes closed, breathing deeply and rhythmically, and
repeating a word or sound—such as the word one—over and over.
 Practiced twice a day for 20 minutes, the technique is effective in bringing about
relaxation.
 But there are many forms of meditation, as we discuss in Applying Psychology in the
21st Century (Aftanas & Golosheykin, 2005; Mohan, Sharma, & Bijlani, 2011).

26. Medication
psychoactive drugs
• influence a person’s
emotions,
perceptions, and
behavior.
addictive drugs
• produce a biological
or psychological
dependence in the
user
• withdrawal from
them leads to a
craving for the drug
• in some cases, may
be nearly irresistible

27. Psychological drun dependence
 In physiological drug dependence, the body becomes so accustomed to functioning in the presence of a
drug that it cannot function without it.
 In psychological drug dependence, people believe that they need the drug to respond to the stresses of
daily living.

28. Causes leading to addiction
 We know surprisingly little about the underlying causes of addiction.
 One of the problems in identifying those causes is that different drugs (such as alcohol and cocaine)
affect the brain in very different ways—yet they may be equally addicting.
 Furthermore, it takes longer to become addicted to some drugs than to others, even though the ultimate
consequences of addiction may be equally grave .
 There are many reasons, including the perceived pleasure of the experience itself, the escape that a drug-
induced high affords from the everyday pressures of life, or an attempt to achieve a religious or spiritual
state
 In addition, people may be influenced to use drugs by the highly publicized drug use of role models
such as movie stars and professional athletes, the easy availability of some illegal drugs, or peer pressure.
 In some cases, the motive is simply the thrill of trying something new.
 Finally, genetic factors may predispose some people to be more susceptible to drugs and to become
addicted to them.

29. Management or treatment of addiction
 Regardless of the forces that lead a person to begin using drugs, drug addiction
is among the most difficult of all behaviors to modify even with extensive
treatment.
 Because of the difficulty in treating drug problems, most experts believe that the
best hope for dealing with the overall societal problem of substance abuse is to
prevent people from becoming involved with addictive drugs in the first place.
 However, there is little accord on how to accomplish this goal.

30. Drug use
stimulants
Have arousal effect on central nervous
system
Leads to the high heart rate, blood
pressure and muscular tension
Inc. attentiveness, dec. reaction time
Eg: caffeine, nicotine, amphetamine,
cocaine
Depressants
Slow down the CNS
Small doses=temporary intoxication
and sense of euphoria
Large amount=slurred speech, motor
difficulty
Eg: alcohol barbiturates, rohypnol
Narcotics
Increase relax
Relieve pain and anxiety
Morphine used for pain reliever
Eg: heroine, methadone, suboxone
Hallucinogens
Capable for producing hallucinations
Change in perceptual process
Eg: marijuana, MDMA,

31. Thank you