2. EPIDEMIOLOGY
Age onset:
• All ages and all populations, regardless of race and ethnicity.
Trivedi P et al. Gut 2021
• Commonly 2 peaks : 2nd Decade, 50-60 years
• Sex:
Female predominance
adults (71%-95%)
children (60%-76%)
3. Lv T, Li M, Zeng N, et al. Systematic review and meta-analysis on the incidence and prevalence of autoimmune hepatitis in Asian, European,
and American population. J Gastroenterol Hepatol 2019
Annual incidence /lac Annual prevalence /lac
Worldwide 1.37 17.44
Asian 1.31 12.99
Europe 1.37 19.44
America 1.0 22.80
4. Choudhuri, G., Somani, S.K., Baba, C.S. et al. Autoimmune hepatitis in India: profile of an uncommon
disease. BMC Gastroenterol 5, 27 (2005)
INDIAN DATA
Study Prevalence Mean Age(Years) Gender
Choudhuri G et al 1.50% (38/2401) 36.2 89.4% Females
Gupta R et al 3.43%(39/1358) 31 M:F 1:3
Gupta R, Agarwal SR, Jain M, Malhotra V, Sarin SK. Autoimmune hepatitis in the Indian subcontinent: 7
years experience. J Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2001
7. Antibodies
Target Disease association
ANA Multiple nuclear antigens
AIH, SLE, PBC, PSC, drug hepatitis, alcoholic liver disease and
viral hepatitis.
AMA 2-oxo-acid-dehydrogenase complex PBC
pANCA h-Lamp-2, proteinase 3 AIH, PSC, PBC
ASMA Actin, troponin, tropomyosin
AIH I, infectious and rheumatic disorders
VGT pattern: earlier disease
LKM 1 CYP 2D6 AIH II, HCV
LKM 2 CYP 2C9 Tienilic acid-induced hepatitis
LKM 3 UGT1A AIH, hepatitis D
LM CYP 2A6 Hepatitis C, Dihydralazine induced hepatitis
LC1 FTCD AIH II or HCV
SLA/LP tRNP(Ser)Sec AIH I and II, PSC
LM CYP 1A2 Dihydralzine-induced hepatitis, APECED
ASGP-R Asialoglycoprotein receptor Autoimmune liver disease, HCV
ANA, anti-nuclear antibodies; AMA, anti-mitochondrial antibodies; ANCA, antineutrophilic cytoplasmatic antibodies; SMA, smooth muscle antibodies; LKM, liver kidney microsomal
antibodies; LM, liver microsomal antibodies; LC1, liver cytosolic antibodies type 1; SLA/LP, soluble liver antigen/liver pancreas antibodies; ASGPR-R, asialoglycoprotein receptor
antibodies; UGT1A, UDP glucuronosyltransferase family 1 A; FTCD, formimino-transferase cyclodeaminase; AIH, autoimmune hepatitis; PSC, primary sclerosing cholangitis; PBC, primary
biliary cirrhosis; HCV, hepatitis C virus; APECED,
8. Features Type 1 AIH Type 2 AIH
Frequency US adults, 96%
US children, 9%‐12%
UK children, 38%
Age at presentation Peripubertal and adults Usually under 14 years
Mode of presentation
Chronic symptoms common Acute onset (~40%)
Ascites or GI bleeding rare Acute liver failure possible
Asymptomatic in 25%‐34% Relapse frequent
Acute in 25%‐75%
Acute severe in 2%‐6%
Laboratoryfeatures Hypergammaglobulinemia IgA levels may be reduced
Autoantibodies
ANA 80% Anti‐LKM1
SMA 63%, anti‐actin Anti‐LC1, Anti‐LKM3
SLA 7-22% ; high specificity
Concurrentimmune diseases
Autoimmune thyroiditis Autoimmune thyroiditis
Rheumatic diseases Diabetes mellitus
IBD Vitiligo
Autoimmune overlap with PSC Common in children Rare
Atypical pANCA‐positive Atypical pANCA‐negative
Overlap with PBC Seen in adults (not children) Not reported
Cirrhosis at presentation
Adults, 28%‐33% (especially elderly)
Children, ≤33%
Rare
Remission after drug withdrawal Possible Rare, usually need long‐term immunosuppression
9. • Auto Antibody Negative AIH
• ANA AMA Anti LKM1 : Absent (19-34%)
• Similar :
• lab findings,
• histologic features,
• HLA phenotypes ,
• response to glucocorticoids.
• Atypical pANCA and anti SLA(15-20%) Anti LC 1
• Scoring system helpful.
10. OVERLAP SYNDROMES
AIH-PBC OVERLAP
SYNDROME
AIH COMPONENTS:
Interface hepatitis plus 1 of 2 features:
ALT ≥ 5 x ULN
IgG ≥ 2 x ULN or SMA present
PBC components (2 of 3 features):
Alk phos ≥ 2 x ULN or GGTP ≥ 5 x ULN
AMA present
Florid duct lesions
PARIS CRITERIA
SENITITIVITY 92%
SPECICIFICITY 97%
11. AIH-PSC OVERLAP Typical AIH features
AMA absent
Focal bile duct strictures and dilations
by cholangiography
Bile duct loss or damage, portal
edema, and fibrous obliterative
cholangitis possible on histologic
examination
12. • Asymptomatic (25%-34%)
• 12% spontaneous laboratory improvement
• Symptoms within 2 to 120 months (mean 32months).
Mack CL, Hepatology. 2020
CLINICAL PRESENTATIONS
• Acute onset hepatitis:
• Most frequent pattern worldwide
• AST ALT >5-10 X ULN
• Jaundice, INR prolonged
Muratori L, BMJ. 2023
Feb
13. • Acute liver failure “fulminant”:
• Difficult to diagnosis AIH in ALF
• ANA and IgG may be negative.
• Cirrhosis:
• 30% of AIH patients have cirrhosis at presentation
15. REVISED International Autoimmune Hepatitis Group diagnostic (IAIHG) scoring system (1999)
Viral markers of active infection Positive −3
Negative +3
Hepatotoxic drug history Yes −4
No +1
Average alcohol <25 g/day +2
>60gm/day −2
ALP:AST (or ALT) ratio >3 −2
1.5–3 0
<1.5 +2
Serum globulins or IgG (times above >2.0 +3
ULN) 1.5–2.0 +2
1.0–1.5 +1
<1.0 0
ANA, SMA, or anti-LKM-1 titers >1:80 +3
1:80 +2
1:40 +1
<1:40 0
AMA Positive −4
Parameter Feature Score
Principal parameters
Sex Female +2
16. Revised International Autoimmune Hepatitis Group diagnostic (IAIHG) scoring system (1999)
Histological features Interface hepatitis +3
Plasmacytic infiltrates +1
Rosettes +1
None of above −5
Biliary changes −3
Atypical changes −3
Concurrent immune illness Thyroiditis UC etc +2
Seropositivity for other defined
autoantibodies
Anti-SLA/LP, actin, LC1, atypical p-ANCA +2
HLA DR3 or DR4 +1
Response to therapy complete +2
Relapse +3
Interpretation of aggregate scores
Pre-treatment
Definite AIH >15
Parameter Feature Score
Principal parameters
Probable AIH 10–15
Post-treatment
Definite AIH >17
Probable AIH 12–17
17. Simplified criteria for the diagnosis of autoimmune hepatitis (2008)
Variable Cut-off Points
ANA or SMA 1:40 +1
≥1:80 +2
Or Anti-LKM1 (alternative to ANA and SMA) ≥1:40 +2
Or Anti-SLA (alternative to ANA, SMA and LKM1) Positive +2
IgG or γ-globulins level >ULN +1
>1.10 times ULN +2
Liver histology Compatible with AIH +1
Typical of AIH +2
Absence of viral hepatitis Yes +2
6 probable AIH
≥7 definite AIH
Less reliable in children and atypical groups of AIH patients (seronegative disease, normal IgG levels) and
those with co-existing chronic viral hepatitis
18. Typical AIH: 2 points
Typical and compatible histology for the diagnosis of AIH in the 2008 simplified criteria
Diagnostic category Histological features
• Interface hepatitis with lymphocytic or lymphoplasmacytic
portal inflammatory infiltrates extending into the lobule
• Emperipolesis
• Hepatocyte rosette formation
Compatible with AIH: 1 point
Chronic hepatitis with lymphocytic infiltration without all the
features considered typical
Atypical 0 points Evidence of another diagnosis
19. • Revised diagnostic criteria (1999):
• More accurate for diagnosis of AIH
in patients with complex or unusual
features, multiple medications or
alcohol use
• The simplified diagnostic criteria
(2008):
• Preferred with typical biochemical,
serological and histological features
100%
73%
82%
95%
90%
92%
60%
65%
70%
75%
80%
85%
90%
95%
100%
105%
Sensitivity Accuracy
Specificity
Revised Simplified
20. Limitations of the revised original and
simplified scoring systems
• Lack of validation
• Lack of accuracy in the setting of concurrent PSC, PBC, NAFLD/NASH,
LT
, or fulminant liver failure
• Failure to include other serological markers, such as anti‐SLA
21. LIVER BIOPSY
• Histopathology :
• diagnosis,
• exclusion
• monitoring
• response.
INVESTIGATIONS
No single histological feature is specific or pathognomonic for AIH
de Boer et al Histopathology 2015
TYPICAL histology: Two out of Three. IAHG
Hennes EM, Zeniya M, Czaja AJ, et al, Hepatology 2008
22.
23. Histological activity index for chronic hepatitis
HAI 1-3: minimal hepatitis or remission.
HAI 4-8: mild hepatitis.
HAI 9-12: moderate hepatitis.
HAI 13-18: severe hepatitis
24. Noninvasive Fibrosis Assessment
FIBROSCAN
• After 6 months of treatment: accuracy is excellent in the detection of
advanced fibrosis.
Hartl J et al. J Hepatol 2016
• MR ELASTOGRAPHY
• MRE correlate strongly with fibrosis stage
• Accuracy (97%), sensitivity (90%), specificity (100%), positive predictive value
(100%), and negative predictive value (90%)
Wang J et al. World J Gastroenterol 2017
26. TPMT activity:
• Test for thiopurine methyltransferase activity to detect patients with zero or
near‐zero TPMT activity (0.3-0.5%) to avoid AZA severe myelosuppression.
Vaccines:
• Recombinant and inactivated vaccines.
• Avoid live, attenuated vaccines in persons on high doses of immunosuppression.
• HAV and HBV vaccination before treatment.
• Response to vaccines is relatively slow.
PRE TREATMENT EVALUATION
27. Bone Maintenance:
Baseline DEXA scan and then every 2- 3 years.
Measure Vit D
On Steroids: 1-1.2g elemental calcium and 800 IU vitamin D.
Osteoporosis: bisphosphonate.
Metabolic syndrome.
Steroids increases DM and cardiovascular diseases.
Assessment for all features of metabolic syndrome.
28. ABSOLUTE RELATIVE NONE
Clinical ֍ Symptoms (fatigue, arthralgia, ֍ Asymptomatic
jaundice, abdominal pain)
Laboratory ֍ AST ≥ 10 ULN or AST ≥ 5 ULN and ֍ AST or IgG less than absolute ֍ Normal or near normal AST and
IgG ≥ 2 ULN criteria IgG
Histology ֍ Bridging necrosis or multiacinar ֍ Interface hepatitis ֍ Inactive cirrhosis or mild portal
necrosis on histology HAI >4 hepatitis
֍ Incapacitating symptoms ֍ Osteopenia, emotional instability,
hypertension, diabetes, or cytopenia
(white blood cell counts ≤2.5 ×109/L
or platelet counts ≤50 ×109/L)
֍ Severe cytopenia (WBCs <2.5
×109/L or platelet counts <50 ×109/L)
or known complete deficiency of
TPMT activity precludes treatment
with azathioprine
֍ Vertebral compression, psychosis,
brittle diabetes, uncontrolled
hypertension, known intolerances to
prednisone or azathioprine.
Indications for treatment of autoimmune hepatitis
2010
29. EASL Clinical Practice Guidelines: Autoimmune hepatitis. Journal of Hepatology 2015; 63:971-1004.
with AIH are
All patients
candidates for therapy except
individuals with inactive disease by
clinical, laboratory, and histological
assessment.
New
Concept
2019
2015
30. Different Guideline Protocols
AASLD 2010 EASL 2015
Monotherapy Combined Therapy Combined Therapy
Week
Prednisolone
mg/day
Prednisolone
mg/day
AZA mg/day or
mg/kg/day
Prednisolone
or Budesonide
mg/day
AZA mg/day
1 60 30 50 or 1-2 60 (1mg/kg) 9 0
2 40 20 50 or 1-2 50 9 0
3 30 15 50 or 1-2 40 6 50
4 30 15 50 or 1-2 30 6 50
5 20 10 50 or 1-2 25 6 100 (1-2mg/kg)
6 20 10 50 or 1-2 20 6 100
7+8 20 10 50 or 1-2 15 6 100
8+9 20 10 50 or 1-2 12.5 6 100
from week
10
20 and below 10 50 or 1-2 10 and below 6 and below 100
For EASL if the patient is not 60kg use initial weight based formula Prednisolone 1mg/kg and AZA 1-2mg/kg
34. Figure 1
Budesonide Induces Remission More Effectively Than Prednisone in a Controlled Trial of Patients With
Autoimmune Hepatitis Michael P. Manns et al Gastroenterology 2010
38. Pape S, Gevers TJG, Belias M, Mustafajev IF, Vrolijk JM, van Hoek B, Bouma G, van Nieuwkerk CMJ, Hartl J, Schramm C, Lohse
AW, Taubert R, Jaeckel E, Manns MP, Papp M, Stickel F, Heneghan MA, Drenth JPH. Predniso(lo)ne Dosage and Chance of
Remission in Patients With Autoimmune Hepatitis. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2019
39. Pape S, Gevers TJG, Belias M, Mustafajev IF, Vrolijk JM, van Hoek B, Bouma G, van Nieuwkerk CMJ, Hartl J, Schramm C, Lohse
AW, Taubert R, Jaeckel E, Manns MP, Papp M, Stickel F, Heneghan MA, Drenth JPH. Predniso(lo)ne Dosage and Chance of
Remission in Patients With Autoimmune Hepatitis. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2019
40. Predictors of Treatment Response
• AST and ALT improvement within 2 weeks.
• Patients ≥60y and HLA DRB1*04:01 : Rapid response
• 6-months biochemical remission decreases risk of progression to cirrhosis.
• ELEVATED Ferritin >2.1‐fold ULN.
• IgG <1.9‐fold ULN
• Vit D def : histological severity, poor treatment response, progression to cirrhosis
41. Duration of therapy & drug withdrawal
• AASLD 2019:
• Sustained normal liver functions, IgG
• At least 2 years.
• Liver biopsy before drug withdrawal is preferred but not mandatory in adults
• EASL 2015:
• At least 3 years
• And at least 24 months after complete normalization of ALT AST and IgG levels
42.
43.
44. Acute Severe AIH or ALF due to AIH
Acute severe AIH Jaundice, INR > 1.5 < 2, no encephalopathy; no previously recognized liver disease
ALF
INR ≥ 2; hepatic encephalopathy within 26 weeks of onset of illness; no previously recognized
liver disease
Acute severe AIH:
Prednisolone: 0.5‐1 mg/kg/d.
If no response after 2 weeks LT
AIH and ALF:
Steroids do not increase survival.
MELD >40 :poor survival.
Steroids may be deleterious in patients with severe decompensation.
Refer for LT
46. DILI vs AIH
Clinical Features Drug Induced AIH‐Like Injury AIH
Gender Mainly women
Female predominance, but men also
affected
Acute onset Majority (>60%) <20%
Hypersensitivity (fever, rash,
eosinophilia)
Up to 30% Unusual
Temporal relationship with drug Positive Negative
HLA DRB1*03:01 or DRB1*04:01
association
None Common
Concurrent autoimmune diseases Unusual Present in 14%‐44%
Cirrhosis at presentation Rare 28%‐33%
Management Stop offending drug ± glucocorticoids Glucocorticoids with AZA
Relapse after drug withdrawal Rare 60%‐87%
Progression to cirrhosis Rare 7%‐40%
Survival without transplantation 90%‐100% 10‐year survival, 89%‐91%
47. DILI vs AIH
2015
Stop offending drug and watch
recovery within 1-3 months.
Fulfilled Hy’s criteria (>3fold
ULN ALTs and >2fold ULN
bilirubin) or deterioration
give steroids.
Laboratory flare after steroid
withdrawal suggest classic AIH
2019
48. Pregnancy:
Pregnancy may be planned 1 year after remission.
Patient education is mandatory.
Continue Maintenance doses of glucocorticoids and/or AZA.
AVOID: MMF before and after pregnancy.
Varices in a cirrhotic patients should be screened before and during 2nd trimester of
pregnancy +/- EVL.
Surveillance for flare in the 1st 6 months postpartum.
49. Medication Safety Reports in Pregnancy
Terlipressin Uterine ischemia
Octreotide No harmful effects noted
Beta‐blockers Fetal bradycardia, fetal growth retardation
Lactulose No harmful effects noted
Rifaximin No harmful effects noted but limited data
Corticosteroids Inconsistent association with cleft abnormalities
AZA No LBW/defects. Preterm birth.
MMF Birth defects, spontaneous abortion
TAC
Premature birth, transient neonatal renal
dysfunction
50. Categories Recurrent AIH De Novo AIH
Clinical findings Graft dysfunction at 2 months‐12 years Indication for LT other than AIH
Laboratory findings Increased serum AST, ALT, IgG levels Increased serum AST, ALT, IgG levels
Serological markers Same antibodies as pre‐LT AIH ANA, SMA, anti‐LKM1
ANA, SMA common
Anti‐LKM1 rare
Histologic findings Lobular hepatitis, focal necrosis, pseudorosettes (early) Interface hepatitis
Interface hepatitis, lymphoplasmacytic infiltration (late) Lymphoplasmacytic infiltrates
Lobular collapse, confluent/bridging necrosis (severe)
Treatment Predniso(lo)ne, 30 mg daily, and AZA, 1‐2 mg/kg daily Same as recurrent AIH
Predniso(lo)ne dose reduction to 5‐10 mg daily in 4‐8 weeks
Predniso(lo)ne and AZA maintenance
Continue calcineurin inhibitor
Rescueregimens
(empiric)
MMF for AZA MMF for AZA
Switch calcineurin inhibitor Rapamycin
Rapamycin
Outcomes 5‐year patient survival, 86%‐100% Better in children than adults
Graft failure, 8%‐50% Biochemical remission, 86%
Retransplantation, 33%‐60% Retransplantation, 8%
Recurrent AIH in retransplanted liver, 33%‐100% Patient survival, 95%
The lower prevalence in Asian -different genetic background, aND European and North American higher frequency of HLA DR3 and DR4 in
Environmental factors such as better living conditions, changes in lifestyle habits, and diet remodulate the intestinal microbiome, which in turn affects the immune system and the gut-liver axis
DR3 4 PRMOINENT PREDISPOSING
SINGLE
APC activate CD4+ helper T cells by presenting foreign and self-antigens. The activated CD4+ helper T cells can then differentiate along cytokine pathways into liver-infiltrating CD8+ cytotoxic T cells, antibody-producing plasma cells, and Th17 lymphocytes.The differentiation is directed by interferon-γ (IFN-γ), TNF-α, interleukin-10 (IL-10), transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β), and IL-6. The Th17 lymphocytes can inhibit regulatory T cells and limit (red X) their ability to dampen extrinsic apoptosis. Liver-infiltrating CD8+ cytotoxic T cells bearing Fas ligand (FasL) can bind with Fas receptors on the surface of hepatocytes, activate caspases, and promote apoptosis of liver cells . Apoptotic bodies can serve as neoantigens and stimulate the activation of naïve CD4+ helper T cells in a positive feedback loop (red arrows). The apoptotic bodies can also activate Kupffer cells to produce reactive oxygen species (ROS), which in turn can activate hepatic stellate cells, promote hepatic fibrosis, alter mitochondrial membrane permeability, and trigger liver cell apoptosis).
Detected by IFA
Diagnosis
Classification
No role in decision of treatment or monitoring of therapy
Titers decrease with treatment and increase with flare or relapse
Penetration of one intact cell into another intact cell, with both cells retaining viability. Lymphocyte penetrates into hepatocytes
Rosette ; group /cluster of hepatocytes
Briging necrosis: nectosis extending from one lobule to another djacent lobule
Piecemeal necrosis = interface hepatis
Hepatic inflammation has been identified as a potential confounder generating false positive results for liver stiffness.
In the 1st 3-6 months of treatment: reflection of the inflammation rather than stage of fibrosis.
double-blind, randomized, active-controlled, multicenter study that evaluated prednisone and azathioprine against budesonide and azathioprine in autoimmune hepatitis. Treatment was followed by a 6-month, open-label phase during which all patients received budesonide in addition to azathioprine. In weeks 1 and 2 of segment A, all patients received 3 mg of budesonide TIDor 40 mg/d prednisone, respectively. After 2 weeks the dose of budesonide was tapered to 3 mg twice daily (BID), and a low-dose regimen for prednisone could be implemented ON PT ACIEVING complete biochemical remission). Patients without complete biochemical remission continued to receive 3 mg of budesonide TID and the high-dose prednisone regimen.. Prednisone dose was tapered down according to the fixed-dose regimen selected at the 2-week visit (high-dose regimen or low-dose regimen). Treatment was followed by a 6-month, open-label phase during which allpatients received budesonide in addition to azathioprine.Segments A and B were scheduled to last 6 months each.
Patients who showed biochemical remission after 3 months in segment A were eligible to enter segment B. Patients without biochemical remission at month 6 could proceed to segment B at the investigator's discretion. In segment B, patients who had received prednisone were switched to budesonide in an open-label fashion.
At 6 months, complete biochemical remission occurred in 60% of the patients given budesonide versus 38.8% of those given prednisone (P = .001; CI: 7.7);
fewer steroid-specific side effects in pt on budesonide (SSSE; 28% versus 53%) compared to prednisone (40 mg daily tapered to 10 mg daily) combined with weight-based AZA
(P < .001; CI = 12.3).
Retrospective, multicenter study of 105 naive AIH patients treated with budesonide as the first-line drug.
The control group included 276 patients treated with prednisone.
The Biochemical remission rate was significantly higher in patients treated with prednisone (87% vs. 49% of patients with budesonide, p < 0.001).
The probability of achieving Biovhemimcal remission, (assessed using the inverse probability of treatment weighting propensity score,) was significantly lower in the budesonide group (OR = 0.20; 95% CI: 0.11–0.38) at any time during follow-up, and at 6 (OR = 0.51; 95% CI: 0.29–0.89) and 12 months after starting treatment (0.41; 95% CI: 0.23–0.73).
Efficacy was assessed using logistic regression and validated using inverse probability of treatment weighting propensity score.
Prednisone treatment was significantly associated with a higher risk of adverse events (24.2% vs. 15.9%, p = 0.047).
retrospective cohort study using a comparative effectiveness design.Data from 451 adults with AIH who began treatment from 1978 through 2017 at 9 centers in 5 European countries.
Patients were assigned into a high-dose group (initial predniso(lo)ne dose ≥0.50 mg/kg/day; n = 281) or a low-dose group (<0.50 mg/kg/day; n = 170).
There was no significant difference in rates of normalization of transaminases between INITIAL the high-dose predniso(lo)ne group and the low-dose group (70.5% vs 64.7%; P =.20). After multivariable logistic regression with correction for confounders, there was no difference in the likelihood of normalization of transaminases between the groups (odds ratio, 1.21; 95% CI, 0.78–1.87; P =.38)
the dose of predniso(lo)ne to induce remission in patients with AIH is less relevant than assumed. An initial predniso(lo)ne dose below 0.50 mg/kg/day substantially decreases unnecessary exposure to predniso(lo)ne in patients with AIH.
REMISSION 80-90 % HAI score of <4/18 .
SR 19-40%
RELAPSE REAPRANC OF LAB AND HISTO FEATURE AFTER DISCONTI OF MEDS :50%IN 6M 80%IN 3Y ORIGINAL PRED+AZA90% ACHIEVS REMISSION AGAIN
FAILURE 9%: RecheckDiagnosis.Patient compliance. Co-diseases as viral.
INCOMPLETE14%: S/B EVALUATED FOR MISDIAG,POOR ADHERE,
DRUG TOX: 80% FOR PRED, 46 % AZA CYTO
FAILURE: TREAT WITH 30 PRED+150 AZA->IMPROVED LFTTAPER Y10MG N 50MG qM…………………. Aasld: trial of MMF 1st or tacrilimus
Incom: 15%
Steroids toxicity:->Add AZA to steroid regimen to spare steroids or Switch to AZA monotherapy 2mg/kg. Aasld: trial of MMF 1st or tacrilimus
.
(3) absence of initial findings of cholestasis (ie, absence of elevation of alkaline phosphatase [ALP] to >2× ULN); and (4) no other reason can be found to explain the combination of increased ALT and TBL, such as viral hepatitis ; other preexisting or acute liver disease; or another drug capable of causing the observed injury. In addition to these 4 components, it is required that the drug in question would show a higher incidence of ALT or AST elevations >3× ULN compared with the (nonhepatotoxic) control drug or placebo.8