Chapter 2

1. Foundations of Individual Behavior

2. Biographical Characteristics
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Biographical Characteristics
Personalcharacteristics—suchasage,gender,and
maritalstatus—thatareobjectiveandeasilyobtained
frompersonnelrecords.

3. Ability, Intellect, and Intelligence
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Ability
Anindividual’scapacitytoperformthevarioustasks
ina job.
Intellectual Ability
Thecapacitytodomentalactivities.
Multiple Intelligences
Intelligencecontainsfoursubparts:
cognitive,social,emotional,andcultural.

4. Physical Abilities
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Physical Abilities
Thecapacitytodotasksdemandingstamina,
dexterity,strength,andsimilarcharacteristics.

5. Learnin
g
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Learning
• Involves change
• Is relatively permanent
• Is acquired through experience
Learning
Anyrelativelypermanentchangeinbehavior
thatoccursasaresultof experience.

6. Theories of Learning
2–6
Key Concepts
• Unconditioned stimulus
• Unconditioned response
• Conditioned stimulus
.c
• Conditioned response
Classical Conditioning
Atypeof conditioninginwhichanindividual
respondstosomestimulusthatwouldnot
ordinarilyproducesucharesponse.

7. Theories of Learning (cont’d)
 Operant Conditioning
 Atypeof conditioninginwhichdesiredvoluntary behavior
leadstoarewardorpreventsapunishment.
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Key Concepts
• Reflexive (unlearned) behavior
• Conditioned (learned) behavior
• Reinforcement

8. Theories of Learning (cont’d)
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Key Concepts
• Attentional processes
• Retention processes
• Motor reproduction processes
• Reinforcement processes
Social-Learning Theory
Peoplecanlearnthroughobservationanddirect
experience.

9. Theories of Learning (cont’d)
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Shaping Behavior
Systematicallyreinforcingeachsuccessivestepthat
movesanindividualclosertothedesired response.
Key Concepts
• Reinforcement is required to change behavior.
• Some rewards are more effective than others.
• The timing of reinforcement affects learning
speed and permanence.

10. Types of Reinforcement
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10
 Positive reinforcement
– Providingarewardforadesired behavior.
 Negative reinforcement
– Removinganunpleasantconsequencewhenthe
desiredbehavior occurs.
 Punishment
– Applyinganundesirableconditiontoeliminatean
undesirable behavior.
 Extinction
– Withholdingreinforcementof abehaviortocauseits
cessation.

11. Schedules of Reinforcement
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Continuous Reinforcement
Adesiredbehaviorisreinforcedeachtimeitis
demonstrated.
Intermittent Reinforcement
A desired behavior is reinforced often enough to
make the behavior worth repeating but not every
timeitisdemonstrated.
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11

12. Schedules of Reinforcement (cont’d)
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Fixed-Interval Schedule
Rewardsarespacedatuniformtimeintervals.
2–
12
Variable-Interval Schedule
Rewardsareinitiatedafterafixedorconstant
numberofresponses.

13. Behavior Modification
OB Modification
Theapplicationof reinforcementconcepts
toindividualsintheworksetting.
Five Step Problem-Solving Model
1. Identify critical behaviors
2. Develop baseline data
3. Identify behavioral consequences
4. Develop and apply intervention
5. Evaluate performance improvement
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14. OB MOD Organizational Applications
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 Well Pay versus Sick Pay
– Reducesabsenteeismbyrewardingattendance,not
absence.
 Employee Discipline
– Theuseof punishmentcanbecounter-productive.
 Developing Training Programs
– OB MOD methodsimprovetrainingeffectiveness.
 Self-management
– Reducestheneedforexternalmanagementcontrol.