2. The Nature of Leadership
The Meaning of Leadership
- Process – focuses on what leaders actually do.
- Property - The set of characteristics
attributed to individuals
perceived to be leaders.
– Leaders
• People who can influence the behaviors of others without having to rely on force.
• People who are accepted
as leaders by others.
3. The Nature of Leadership
The Meaning of Leadership
– Leaders
• People who can influence the behaviors of others without having to rely on force.
• People who are accepted
as leaders by others.
4. The Nature of Leadership
Distinctions Between Management and Leadership
Leadership Activity Management
Establishing direction and
vision for the organization
Creating an agenda Planning and budgeting,
allocating resources
Aligning people through
communications and actions
that provide direction
Developing a human network
for achieving the agenda
Organizing and staffing,
structuring and monitoring
implementation
Motivating and inspiring by
satisfying needs
Executing plans Controlling and problem
solving
Produces useful change and
new approaches to challenges
Outcomes Produces predictability and
order and attains results
6. The Nature of Leadership
Power and Leadership
– Power is the ability to affect the behavior of others.
• Legitimate power is granted through the organizational hierarchy.
• Reward power is the power to give or withhold rewards.
• Coercive power is the capability to force compliance by means of psychological,
or physical threat.
• Referent power is the personal power that accrues to someone based on identification,
imitation, loyalty, or charisma.
• Expert power is derived from the possession of information or expertise.
7. The Search for Leadership Traits
Traits and Approach to Leadership
–Assumed that a basic set of personal traits that differentiated leaders from
nonleaders could be used to identify leaders and predict who would become
leaders.
–The trait approach was unsuccessful in establishing empirical relationships
between traits and persons regarded as leaders.
8. Leadership Behaviors
Michigan Studies (Rensis Likert)
– Identified two forms of leader behavior
• Job-centered behavior—managers who pay close attention to subordinates’ work, explain
procedures, and are keenly interested in performance.
• Employee-centered behavior—managers who focus on the development of cohesive work
groups and employee satisfaction.
– The two forms of leader behaviors were considered to be at opposite ends of the same
continuum.
9. Leadership Behaviors
Ohio State Studies
– Did not interpret leader behavior as being one-dimensional as did the Michigan State
studies.
– Identified two basic leadership styles that can be exhibited simultaneously:
• Initiating-structure behavior—the leader clearly defines the leader-subordinate role
expectations, formalizes communications, and sets the working agenda.
• Consideration behavior—the leader shows concern for subordinates and attempts to establish
a friendly and supportive climate.
10. Leadership Grid
4
6
2
1
3
5
8
7
9
0
1 4 6 9
5
2 3 8
7
Concern for production
High
Low
Low High
1,9 9,9
1,1 9,1
Team Management
Work accomplishment is
from committed people;
interdependence through
a “common stake” in
organization purpose
leads to relationships
of trust and respect.
Middle of the Road
Management
Adequate organization performance is
possible through balancing the necessity
to get out work with maintaining morale
of people at a satisfactory level.
Impoverished Management
Exertion of minimum effort
to get required work done
is appropriate to sustain
organization membership.
Authority-Compliance
Efficiency in operations
results from arranging
conditions of work in
such a way that
human elements
interfere to a
minimum degree.
5,5
Country Club Management
Thoughtful attention to the
needs of people for satisfying
relationships leads to a
comfortable, friendly
organization atmosphere
and work tempo.
Concern
for
people
The Leadership Grid® is a method of
evaluating leadership styles. The Grid® is
used to train managers so that they are
simultaneously more concerned for people
and for production (9,9 style on the Grid®).
11. Situational Approaches to Leadership
Situational Models of Leader Behavior
–Assume that:
• Appropriate leader behavior varies from one situation to another.
• Key situational factors that are interacting to determine
appropriate leader behavior can be identified.
12. Situational Approaches to Leadership
Least-Preferred Coworker Theory (Fiedler)
–Contingency variables determining situational favorableness:
• Leader-member relations—the nature of the relationship between the leader and
the work group.
• Task structure—the degree to which the group’s task is defined.
• Position Power—the power vested in the leader’s position.
13. The Least-Preferred Coworker
Theory of Leadership
Contingency Factors Situations
Leader-member relations Good
Task structure High
Position power Strong
Bad
Low High Low
Weak Strong Weak Strong Weak Strong Weak
Favorableness
of Situation
Appropriate
Leader Behavior
Most favorable Moderately favorable Most unfavorable
Task-oriented Task-oriented
Relationship-oriented
14. Situational Approaches to Leadership
Path-Goal Theory (Evans and House)
– The primary functions of a leader is to make valued or desired rewards available in the
workplace and to clarify for the subordinate the kinds of behavior that will lead to goal
accomplishment or rewards.
– Leader Behaviors:
• Directive leader behavior—letting subordinates know what is expected of them, giving
guidance and direction, and scheduling work.
• Supportive leader behavior—being friendly and approachable, having concern for
welfare, and treating subordinates as equals.
15. Situational Approaches to Leadership
Path-Goal Theory (Evans and House)
–Leader Behaviors:
• Participative leader behavior—consulting with subordinates, soliciting suggestions, and
allowing participation in decision making.
• Achievement-oriented leader behavior—setting challenging goals, expecting
subordinates to perform at high levels, encouraging and showing confidence in
subordinates.
16. The Path-Goal Theory
Situational Factors:
Work
Situation
Follower lacks
self-confidence
Supportive
Achievement-
oriented
Participative
Directive
Leadership
Style
Impact on
Followers
Expected
Results
Lack of job
challenge
Improper
procedures and
poor decisions
Ambiguous job
Increases self-
confidence to
complete task
Encourages
setting high but
attainable goals
Clarifies follower
need for making
suggestions and
involvement
Clarifies path to
get rewards
Increased effort. job
satisfaction, and
performance; fewer
grievances
Improved performance
and greater job satisfaction
Improved performance
and greater satisfaction; less
turnover
Improved performance
and job satisfaction
17. Situational Approaches to Leadership
Decision Tree Approach (Vroom)
– Attempts to prescribe a leadership style appropriate to a given situation.
– Basic Premises
• The degree to which subordinates should be encouraged to participate in decision making depends on
the characteristics of the situation.
• No one decision-making process
is best for all situations.
– After evaluating the different problem attributes, a leader can choose a decision path on one of
two decision trees that determines the decision style and specifies the amount of employee
participation.
• Decision significance—the degree to which the decision will have an impact on the organization.
Subordinates are involved when decision significance is high.
• Decision Timeliness—the degree of time pressure for making a decision in a timely basis; may preclude
involving subordinates.
18. Situational Approaches to Leadership
Decision Tree Approach (Vroom)
–Decision-Making Styles
• Decide—manager makes decision alone and then announces or “sells” it to the
group.
• Consult (individually)—manager presents program to group members
individually, obtains their suggestions, then makes the decision.
• Consult (group)—manager presents problem to group at a meeting, gets their
suggestions, then makes the decision.
21. Situational Approaches to Leadership
The Leader-Member Exchange (LMX) Approach (Graen
and Dansereau)
–Stresses the importance of variable relationships between supervisors
and each of their subordinates.
–Leaders form unique independent relationships (“vertical dyads”) with
each subordinate in which the subordinate becomes a member of
the leader’s out-group or in-group.
23. Related Perspectives on Leadership
Substitutes for Leadership
◦ A concept that identifies situations in which leader behavior is neutralized or replaced by
characteristics of subordinates, the task, and the organization.
Characteristics that Substitute for Leadership
Subordinate Task Organization
Ability
Experience
Need for independence
Professional orientation
Indifference towards
organizational goals
Routineness
The availability of feedback
Intrinsic satisfaction
Formalization
Group cohesion
Inflexibility
A rigid reward structure
24. Related Perspectives on Leadership
Charismatic Leadership (House)
–Charisma, an interpersonal attraction that inspires support and acceptance,
is an individual characteristic of a leader.
•Charismatic persons are more successful than noncharismatic persons.
•Charismatic leaders are self-confident, have a firm conviction in their beliefs
and ideals, and possess a strong need to influence
people.
25. Related Perspectives on Leadership
–Charismatic leaders in organizations must be able to:
• envision the future, set high expectations, and model behaviors consistent with
expectations.
• energize others through a demonstration
of excitement, personal confidence,
and patterns of success.
• enable others by supporting them,
by empathizing with them, and
by expressing confidence in them.
26. Related Perspectives on Leadership
• Transformational Leadership
–Leadership that goes beyond ordinary expectations, by transmitting a sense
of mission, stimulating learning, and inspiring new ways of thinking.
–Seven keys to successful leadership
• Trusting one’s subordinates
• Developing a vision
• Keeping cool
• Encouraging risk
• Being an expert
• Inviting dissent
• Simplifying things
27. Political Behavior in Organizations
• Political Behavior
–The activities carried out for the specific purpose of acquiring,
developing, and using power and other resources to obtain one’s
preferred outcomes.
–Common Political Behaviors
• Inducement—offering to give something to someone else in return for that
person’s support.
• Persuasion—persuading others to support a goal on grounds that are objective
and logical as well as subjective and personal.
28. Political Behavior in Organizations
–Common Political Behaviors (cont’d)
• Creation of an obligation—providing support for another person’s position that
obliges that person to return the favor at a future date.
• Coercion—using force to get one’s way.
• Impression management—making a direct and intentional effort to enhance
one’s image in the eyes of others.
29. Political Behavior in Organizations
• Managing Political Behavior
–Be aware that even if actions are not politically motivated, others may
assume that they are.
–Reduce the likelihood of subordinates engaging in political behavior by
providing them with autonomy, responsibility, challenge, and feedback.
–Avoid using power to avoid charges of political motivation.
–Get disagreements and conflicts out in the open so that subordinates have
less opportunity to engage in political behavior.
–Avoid covert behaviors that give the impression of political intent even if
none exists.
