Sorochan Literature Review FINAL DRAFT

Running head: COLLEGE STUDENT PHYSICAL HEALTH 1
The Influence of Exercise and Nutrition:
Physical Health Among College Students
Michelle Sorochan
University of Southern California

COLLEGE STUDENT PHYSICAL HEALTH 2
The Influence of Exercise and Nutrition:
Physical Health Among College Students
When the topic of college student health is discussed, some individuals may think of
binge drinking at fraternity parties or the “Freshman 15,” where first-year students are believed
to gain 15 pounds in their freshman year of college. However, the physical health of college
students is a combination of more than the above concerns of many administrators. Physical
health includes the exercise habits, nutritional intake, sleep patterns, and mindfulness practices of
students in college. A combination of these factors contributes to the overall physical health of
students and their ability to succeed in college. Lack of attention in physical health of college
students led to weight gain and increasing numbers of students with obesity over the past few
years (Egli, Bland, Melton, & Czech, 2011). With the young adult years being strongly
influential on health for the remainder of one’s life, college students’ habits are crucial to set up
the healthy lifestyle choices that will carry on after graduation.
As increasing research shows, “there are numerous health risk factors associated with
being overweight and obese, including hypertension, high cholesterol, diabetes mellitus,
detrimental blood lipid profiles, and cardiovascular disease” (Egli et al., 2011, p. 399). Currently,
34.9 percent of adults in the United States are considered obese, and that percentage is only
increasing (Ogden, Carroll, Kit, & Flegal, 2014). Students are attending university at a crucial
time in their lives where the habits they practice during a traditional undergraduate career will
largely influence their habits later on in life. As future university administrators, we must
understand the issues involved with student health and take an active approach to improve
students’ lives. This paper will address the following questions: How do undergraduate students
maintain their physical health while in college? What motivates college students to make

particular choices about their physical health and nutrition? This paper will examine the exercise
and nutritional habits of college students, gender differences between male and female students,
and areas for future research.
Exercise Habits of College Students
Physical exercise is an important factor of overall health in individuals. According to
Pauline (2013), a person should participate in at least 30 minutes of moderate-intensity exercise
five or more days per week. The American College Health Assessment (ACHA) surveyed
college students and their health habits in fall of 2013. The results revealed that 50.7 percent of
male students met the recommended guidelines for physical activity, while 44 percent of female
students met the recommended guidelines (2013, p. 12). The statistics show that not even half of
college students meet the recommended guidelines, which may have an effect in the classroom
as well. Pauline (2013) noted that “physical activity provides positive effects on mental health
and mood such as reduced depression and anxiety, positive well-being, enhanced vigor, and
better cognitive function” (p. 64). The positive side effects of physical activity can play a huge
role in the academics of students, yet is not a priority for many individuals. In fact, Keating,
Guan, Piñero, and Bridges (2005) reported that there has been no increase in physical activity
patterns in students in the past five years. With the large amount of literature on the topic of
physical health, colleges should be accessing information about student physical health to
address the apathy toward physical exercise and help students develop habits that they will carry
with them after graduation.
Mental Health Benefits
Physical exercise has positive effects on mental health for college students. Edman,
Lynch, and Yates (2014) found that “even low levels of physical activity might produce a

protective effect against depression” (p. 24). For those living with depression, an increase in
physical activity could have a long-lasting impact on mental health and ability to perform well in
classes. According to the ACHA report, 30.9 percent of college students felt so depressed that
they found it challenging to function (2013, p. 14). With such a large number of students who
experience the symptoms of depression, educating them on the positive effects of physical
activity could positively influence their mental health.
Exercise Motivation
Gender Differences. Of the students who regularly exercise, their motivation to maintain
an active lifestyle differed from student to student. When arranged by demographics, the
researchers found that male students were motivated by intrinsic factors, such as strength,
positive health, and enjoyment, while female students were motivated by extrinsic factors, such
as weight management and appearance (Egli et al., 2011). Kilpatrick, Hebert, and Bartholomew
(2005) studied the reasons college students participate in exercise and in a sport. Their results
showed that students who participated in exercise were motivated by “appearance, strength and
endurance, stress management, [and] weight management” (p. 90). However, students who
participated in sports were motivated by “affiliation, challenge, competition, enjoyment, and
social recognition” (Kilpatrick, Hebert, & Bartholomew, 2005, p. 90).
Kilpatrick, Hebert, and Bartholomew (2005) also noted a difference in male and female
motivation, noting that females were more likely to exercise due to weight management and
appearance, while males were influenced by challenge and competition. Pauline (2013) noted
similar differences in motivation between men and women: “women were found to be more
motivated by weight management, appearance, nimbleness, positive health, and stress
management" while “men are more motivated than women by performance and ego-oriented

factors, such as challenge, strength and endurance, competition, affiliation, and social
recognition” (pp. 71-72).
Differences in gender also occurred in social support when it came to exercise. Gruber
(2008) found that females experienced more support from their female friends when it came to
making a decision of whether or not to exercise. Gruber (2008) noted, “the women reported that
their peers were more likely to get on them about exercising than men did” (p. 564). Individuals
with more female friends did not receive a large amount of support for exercising, while students
with more male friends received greater support surrounding exercise (Gruber, 2008). Hale,
Hannum, and Espelage (2005) found that women “seek out and make use of more support, form
and sustain more supportive relationships, use support in times of need, and are sought out for
and provide support more than men do” (p. 282). Women are more influenced by their peers than
men to exercise and maintain good physical health.
Societal and Cultural Influence. McArthur and Raedeke (2009) studied the race and
gender differences in motivation of college students. Their sample of 649 college students
showed that 18 percent of the population was overweight and 9 percent were obese according to
Body Mass Index (BMI) standards (McArthur & Raedeke, 2009). McArthur and Raedeke (2009)
noted, “female and white students placed more importance on appearance-related motives
compared to male and black students, which may be in part attributable to societal and cultural
influences” (p. 88). Female students may be influenced by societal expectations of appearance,
as “young girls may diet more often and have less body satisfaction than young boys, perhaps in
response to contemporary societal standards of female body shape” (Kilpatrick, Hebert, &
Bartholomew, 2005, p. 93). Allen and Morey (2010) also noted that “women’s frequent multiple
roles, involving both work and family responsibilities, may be a particularly significant barrier to

regular physical activity” (p. 15). Cultural factors influence female exercise patterns as well.
Walcott-McQuigg, Sullivan, Dan, and Logan (1995) found that 25 percent of African American
women believed that “African American men like women with a rounded, more shapely figure,
described by the women as ‘more meat on their bones’” (p. 514). These societal and cultural
factors may have an influence on the health choices college students make during their time in
college.
Long-Term Effects. While extrinsic factors are effective for motivating some college
students to exercise, it is not a long-term motivation factor. McArthur and Raedeke (2009) noted
that these extrinsic factors are less effective for long-term activity because “health/fitness and
appearance-related benefits from exercise are distal, and not directly connected to each exercise
session” (p. 88). They reported that if students are motivated to exercise because they enjoy the
activity, the students receive an immediate reward for their physical activity (McArthur &
Raedeke, 2009). Kilpatrick, Hebert, and Bartholomew (2005) noted that “motives associated
with sport participation may be more likely to lead to long-term adherence than the motives
associated with exercise, and that some of the difficulties in long-term maintenance of exercise
programs are a result of the extrinsic goal motivations underlying exercise” (p. 92). If college
students are able to receive an immediate benefit to exercising, they are more likely to continue
with the physical activity in the long-term.
Implications for Exercise
With the amount of available information on physical activity among college students,
higher education institutions should start implementing supportive initiatives to improve the
health of students. As earlier noted, gender differences play a large factor in the motivation of
students to exercise. Female students are more likely to exercise due to extrinsic factors, while

male students are more likely to exercise due to intrinsic factors. Because females are less likely
to exercise, “it is imperative, then, that university health and wellness promotion programs aim
to (a) create optimally challenging experiences for women, (b) help them to relate their successes
to being fit and healthy, and (c) help them to connect their internal criteria to the criteria created
by health and fitness professionals” (Dinger, Brittain, & Hutchinson, 2014, p. 74). Pauline
(2013) noted that “health promotion professionals should consider gender differences when
designing physical activity programs for college aged adults” (p. 71). The differences in
motivation can influence whether or not a student continues the exercise activity in the long-
term. Exercise activities such as sports resulted in intrinsic satisfaction, which researchers noted
as the type of motivation that has long-term effects. For this reason, “[m]ore appropriate and
effective health promotion efforts may include the promotion of sport activities that are less
likely to include the types of motivations that impair participation and adherence” (Kilpatrick,
Hebert, & Bartholomew, 2005, p. 93). Initiating intramural sports tournaments or recreation
classes that teach students certain physical skills is a strategy that may be more effective in
retaining physical activity motivation for college students.
Nutritional Habits of College Students
Food intake is another crucial component of physical health in college students. While
suggested servings of each food group has changed in the past decade, generally individuals are
recommended to consume large amounts of fruits and vegetables and small amounts of
processed foods and fat. However, Kolodinsky, Harvey-Berino, Berlin, Johnson, and Reynolds
(2007) noted that “for the five major food categories, about one third of students reported eating
the recommended amounts” (p. 1410). Students also reported that on average their fruit and
vegetable intake decreased by one quarter of a serving since they began college (Yeh et al.,

2010). Yeh et al. (2010) attributed this lack of fruit and vegetable intake to the lack of fresh
meals: “Comparing individual characteristics and attributes revealed that students who currently
ate the majority of their meals at restaurants consumed nearly twice as many servings of fruits
and vegetables than students who currently consumed most of their meals at fast food
establishments” (p. 324). The influence of fast food restaurants negatively affected students in
their consumption of the recommended serving of fruits and vegetables.
Fruit and vegetable intake is not the only factor studied among college students; the study
of other healthy food habits, including whole-grain intake, is another widely examined issue.
Researchers found that the recommended serving of whole-grains in individuals leads to a
reduction of chronic health issues as well as a lower BMI (Rose, Hosig, Davy, Serrano, & Davis,
2007). Rose, Hosig, Davy, Serrano, and Davis (2007) noted that “[w]hole-grain intake is very
low in college students and similar to the level consumed in the general population” (p. 92). Lack
of whole-grain, fruit, and vegetable consumption among college students poses an issue for the
long-term health of individuals. While students generally understand the consequences of their
health choices, they had specific reasons as to why they chose their diet. Boek, Bianco-Simeral,
Chan, and Goto (2012) reported that “[t]aste (45.4%) was the most common determinant of food
likes among study participants, followed by convenience (27.0%) and low cost (11.0%)” (p.
374). For college students, satisfaction from taste and convenience seemed to be the largest
indicators of food choice.
Knowledge of Healthy Foods
The literature on the topic of nutritional knowledge shows that college students who have
a general understanding of food intake are more likely to make healthy choices when it comes to
food selection. Yeh et al. (2010) described student food choices using the behavioral choice

theory. In behavioral choice theory, “the chosen food option is considered the reinforcer of the
behavior leading to the choice” (Yeh et al., 2010, p. 322). If the costs or barriers of the food
types are all equal, individuals are most likely to choose the food item that is the most
reinforcing (Yeh et al., 2010). College students have differing opinions on which foods are the
most reinforcing; some individuals will choose convenient foods, while others choose foods with
nutritional value.
When examining students who have knowledge of nutritional benefits of foods,
Kolodinsky, Harvey-Berino, Berlin, Johnson, and Reynolds (2007) reported that they were more
likely to make healthy choices. In fact, “[t]hose who consumed greater than the recommended
amount of fruit had greater food knowledge than those who reported eating less than the
recommended amount” (Kolodinsky et al., 2007, p. 1411). While researchers found that
nutritional knowledge led to healthy food choices, the opposite causation was found in students
who did not have an understanding of nutrition. Marquis (2005) found that students who did not
have an understanding of how to eat well were more likely to choose foods that were convenient.
Knowledge of nutrition and healthy foods is a strong indication of the choices that students make
while in college.
Gender Differences in Nutrition
Food intake for college students also varied significantly by gender. Overall, females
maintained healthier nutritional choices than males. Li et al. (2012) reported that “female
students consumed a lower percentage of energy from fat and fewer servings of fruits and
vegetables than male students” (p. 249). While female college students tend to consume less
fruits and vegetables, they also consume less fatty foods than males, which overall contributes to
a healthier nutritional balance in their diet. Li et al. (2012) suggested that “male students have a

more urgent need to reduce fat content, whereas female students should try to increase fiber
intake as well as fruit and vegetable consumption” (p. 250). A difference in the amount of
protein consumed was also significant for men versus women; female students ate less than the
recommended value for protein compared to male students, who ate more than the recommended
amount of protein on average (Kolodinsky et al., 2007).
There were also differences in the preferences of where male and female students ate on
campus. Boek, Bianco-Simeral, Chan, and Goto (2012) found that “males (70.1%) more than
females (51.2%) preferred the large dining facility, whereas females (22.1%) were more likely
than males (7.6%) to enjoy eating at a café dining setting” (p. 373). The study noted that foods at
the large dining facility were typically fast food restaurants that were geared more toward
convenience, while foods at the café were homemade from scratch with healthier and fresher
ingredients (Boek, Bianco-Simeral, Chan, & Goto, 2012). Li et al. (2012) also found that female
students were more likely than their male counterparts to eat in a campus dining hall, eat less fast
food, read food labels, and eat breakfast. Eating breakfast was found to be an indicator of weight
management and positively correlated to lower BMI among college students. Reading food
labels indicated an understanding of nutritional health, which lead to healthier food choices (Li et
al., 2012). Differences were also present in attitudes toward healthy behavior among male and
female college students. Cluskey and Grobe (2009) found that “males more often suggested that
being healthy was common sense and that they did not worry about it much,” while “females
more often described efforts to determine strategies that they hoped would foster healthful
behaviors” (p. 329). These gender differences in food choice, location, and attitude toward
healthy behaviors interact with one another to influence college students in their nutritional
intake.

University Influence
While college students are generally responsible for making their own choices regarding
food, the university system and setting play an influential role in determining what students
ultimately choose. Boeks et al. (2012) found that “the majority (58.6%) of study participants
preferred to purchase food from the large food court on campus over other locations” (p. 373).
As previously noted, the food court often contains fast food restaurants that offer little nutritional
value for students. Though students are aware that little nutritional benefit is provided by fast
food consumption, both male and female college students noted that they choose to eat at these
locations due to their convenience, low price, and pleasure (Marquis, 2005). Cluskey and Grobe
(2009) reported that “campus food was not perceived as offering healthful options among the
alternatives offered, which included fast-food courts, all-you-can-eat cafeterias, or snack stores”
(p. 328). Generally, universities’ lack of concern surrounding unhealthy food options negatively
influenced college students in their choices for nutritional food intake. In fact, Waldron & Dieser
(2010) found that all of their participants mentioned that they understood eating healthy meals
was important, but attending a university was a major constraint to healthy eating. Although
students acknowledged the benefits of healthy eating, lack of food options at their respective
institutions created a challenge for them to adequately consume their preferred healthy food
choice.
Implications for Nutrition
Researchers have studied nutritional and food intake of college students for many years,
and even the most recent studies found that college students are still not receiving proper
nutrition. The differences in food consumption by gender are an important factor to consider
when implementing programs to aid college students. Li et al. (2012) noted that gender-specific

“intervention strategies may remain necessary because the areas in need of improvement in terms
of eating habits and nutrient intake are different” (p. 249). University food options were also
found to largely impact student health. Li et al. (2012) suggested that “university food service
organizations should be encouraged to promote nutrition education and more healthful food
choice options” (p. 250). Providing easily accessible fruit and vegetable options in dining halls or
even alongside fast food restaurants can help college students select convenient, nutritional food
choices. Lastly, because a large number of college students select certain foods based on taste,
Boek et al. (2012) noted that “it is time nutrition educators consider the importance of addressing
taste and convenience, in addition to food quality and nutrition, when attempting to influence
college students’ food choices” (p. 376). Providing tasty, yet healthy recipes for students in
dining halls and cafés can help individuals prioritize nutrition and satisfaction while selecting
their meals.
Conclusion
College students are faced with a large amount of fitness and food options at higher
education institutions. While some students maintain healthy standards of exercise and nutrition,
the majority of college students do not meet the guidelines. Students are largely motivated by
extrinsic factors, such as peers and environment, to maintain their physical health. Current
literature provides an in-depth understanding of college student physical health, but additional
studies could provide more information. Future studies include researching how previous family
life influences students’ health habits while in college as well as whether sharing meals with
other students has an influence on nutritional content (Marquis, 2005). Cluskey and Grobe
(2009) also suggest that “efforts to understand the college transition and interventions addressing
the broad context of behavior are needed in order to help college students develop lifelong

healthful habits” (p. 328). Lastly, because several studies used BMI as a scale to rate college
student obesity, Racette, Deusinger, Strube, Highstein, and Deusinger (2008) suggest that
additional studies should include an in-depth analysis about college weight gain due to “adipose
tissue, lean body mass, and bone mineral content,” as an increase in muscle can often show as an
unhealthy weight gain in the BMI scale (p. 42). Providing effective and convenient health
options for students at higher education institutions will hopefully improve the physical health of
students and give them an opportunity to create life-long habits to take with them after they
finish their college careers.

References
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