The Internalisation of Motivation - Final

The Internalisation of Motivation:
A study of airline pilots using
self-determination theory as a
framework
A 152.786 (60 credit) research report presented in partial fulfilment of the
requirements for the degree of Master of Management at Massey University
MATTHEW WILLIAM BIRCHALL
04288424
2013

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Abstract
Self-determination theory may be used to describe human motivation and action as a
means of satisfying three basic psychological needs; autonomy, relatedness and
competence. Whilst all human beings are assumed to be self-actualising in nature,
socio-contextual factors that support these basic needs are said to encourage the
internalisation of motivation. When a motivation is internalised, it forms part of
integrated self. A continuum of motivation orientations is said to exist; these
orientations vary in the degree to which motivation is internalised. Whilst the
motivation orientation of workers in various settings has been explored, few have
focused on professionals as a study group. This paper investigates the motivation
orientation of airline pilots as a means of explaining varying degrees of worker
engagement that tend to exist within organisations. As a population, airline pilots
have a propensity to possess a highly internalised motivation orientation which
remains relatively stable across career tenure. Engaged members of this group, who
chose to take on responsibilities in addition to their regular line flying duties, reported
a higher occurrence rate of satisfaction of the need for competence. Further, their
motivation orientation to work was of a more internalised than the rest of the
population surveyed.

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Table of Contents
ABSTRACT I
TABLE OF CONTENTS II
LIST OF FIGURES III
LIST OF TABLES III
CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION 1
CHAPTER 2. LITERATURE REVIEW 4
MOTIVATION: A DEFINITION OF A CONCEPT 4
MOTIVATIONAL THEORY: HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT 5
SELF-DETERMINATION THEORY: FUNDAMENTAL NEED SATISFACTION 8
PROFESSIONALS AS A STUDY GROUP 13
A FOCUS ON AIRLINE PILOTS 14
THE MOTIVATION ORIENTATION OF AIRLINE PILOTS 15
RESEARCH QUESTIONS 19
CHAPTER 3. RESEARCH METHOD 20
PARTICIPANTS AND PROCEDURE 20
MEASURES 20
ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS 22
RESPONSES 22
CHAPTER 4. RESULTS 23
QUANTITATIVE RESULTS 23
QUALITATIVE RESULTS 25
CHAPTER 5. DISCUSSION 29
THE MOTIVATION ORIENTATION OF AIRLINE PILOTS 29
VARIATION ACROSS CAREER TENURE 31
VARIATION BETWEEN GENDERS 32
AIRLINE PILOT ENGAGEMENT AND MOTIVATION ORIENTATION 32
LIMITATIONS 34
IMPLICATIONS FOR INDUSTRY 34
WEIMS AS A MEASURE OF INTERNALISATION 35
CHAPTER 6. CONCLUSION 37
REFERENCES 39
APPENDIX ONE – COVER LETTER 45
APPENDIX TWO – WORK MOTIVATION SURVEY 46
APPENDIX THREE – ETHICS LOW RISK NOTIFICATION 48
APPENDIX FOUR – QUALITATIVE DATA TABLES 52

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List of Figures
Figure 1: The self determination continuum (Ryan & Deci, 2002) ____________________________ 11
Figure 2: Work self-determination index (W-SDI) formula (Vallerand, 1997)___________________ 21
Figure 3: W-SDI box-plot transposed against the self-determination continuum_________________ 29
List of Tables
Table 1: Descriptive statistics – W-SDI_________________________________________________ 23
Table 2: T-Test – W-SDI variation between genders and extra duties _________________________ 23
Table 3: ANOVA – W-SDI variation across career tenure __________________________________ 23
Table 4: Pearson correlation – W-SDI and career tenure __________________________________ 24
Table 5: Spearman correlation – W-SDI, gender and extra duties ____________________________ 24
Table 6: Pearson correlation – Qualitative responses and W-SDI ____________________________ 25
Table 7: Spearman correlation – Qualitative responses and gender/extra duties ________________ 25
Table 8: T- Test - Intrinsic vs. extrinsic regulation mean variation ___________________________ 25
Table 9: T- Test - Total basic needs satisfied ____________________________________________ 26
Table 10: ANOVA - Mean variation across career tenure __________________________________ 26
Table 11: Chi-Square Test – Basic need frequency between gender and extra duties _____________ 26

Chapter 1. Introduction
Individuals that choose to commit themselves to extracurricular organisational tasks
form the backbone of many businesses. These tasks include involvement in coaching
and training as well as the supervision and management of fellow employees. Such
individuals are also likely to feature in the succession plans of firms and consequently
are essential for future organisational success. Understanding the motivation profile of
these individuals has the potential to aid in their identification from within the
workforce. Additionally, such an understanding may well assist in informing the
methods managers of professional employees may adopt in order to encourage others
to become similarly involved.
One industry where high performance and succession planning is absolutely necessary
is the aviation and air transport industry. Aviation is an exciting, dynamic sector
characterised by big ideas, big money and big failures. New Zealand tourism, which
contributes $7.3 billion to national GDP, relies heavily on the air transport sector, as
do many other areas of society. As a nation, New Zealand witnesses over 300,000
domestic flights per year and 55,000 international ones (Ministry of Tourism, 2008).
Without aviation, we would not be able to connect with one another, nor the world.
Professional airline pilots are a necessary component of the airlines that provide these
services. The motivation profile of professional airline pilots is a critical component of
their personalities which has led to them achieving in a highly competitive career. A
pilot’s experience is generally measured by the number of hours they have spent
behind the controls on an aircraft. Newly trained commercial pilots will likely have
over 200 hours of flying experience but most airlines currently require upwards of
1000 hours before an individual is granted a job interview. The sector where most
pilots will bridge this gap in experience is known as “general aviation” (GA) and
includes responsibilities such as flight instructor and scenic or parachute drop pilot.
This period of a pilots career can be particularly taxing given the cyclical nature of the
industry which means most budding aviators can expect to spend up to three years
employed in GA before being able to progress to an airline (Ody, 2012). Similarly, the
fiscal rewards are minimal; data suggests that these pilots get paid around $26,000 per
year (Ministry of Business, Innovation and Employment, 2010). Thus, to survive this
gruelling period, pilots require a certain motivation profile in order to achieve.

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With the aviation industry set to grow at a considerable rate, the demand for airline
pilots is also expected to increase leading to a potential global skills shortage. Boeing
(2012) suggests that the Asia-Pacific region will have need for well over 180,000
pilots between now and 2032. Given our close proximity to this considerable market it
could be argued that we are likely to see substantial demand being placed on our own
workforce in the coming years. This increasing demand will see airlines more heavily
engaged in recruiting and identifying those that are able to contribute in such a way
that they add value to their organisation. Whilst professional aviators likely possess
highly motivated personalities, the ability to recognise those with a motivation profile
that may result in them contributing in additional ways to the organisation, will be
essential.
Tom Wolfe (1979) coined the term “The Right Stuff” to describe the mental and
physical characteristics of great airmen of the day. Whilst many of his findings have
since been found to be the “wrong” stuff, the term still remains to describe the
collection of traits that make up the ideal pilot. This description is forever evolving and
continues to develop with greater emphasis placed on airline operational requirements.
One aspect of “the right stuff” that has yet to be explored comprehensively is the
motivation profile of airline pilots – what drives these professionals to partake in their
chosen field and why? Motivation, in its various forms, is responsible for all human
behaviour. It is a complex and multi-faceted concept that is still being understood and
yet has the power to inform all human action.
An examination of the literature as it pertains to work motivation reveals a plethora of
theory and research. The majority of this knowledge, most of which has been
developed in the last century, focuses on secondary elements and outcomes of human
motivation. Similarly, many theories consider motivation to vary only in terms of
quantity rather than type (Gagne & Deci, 2005). Self-determination theory, on the
other hand, is a need based theory and seeks to understand human motivation as a
means of satisfying basic psychological needs. Self-determination theory (SDT: Ryan
& Deci, 2002) proposes a taxonomy of motivation orientations that vary to the degree
to which they are internalised; a more comprehensive way of understanding the
difference between extrinsic versus intrinsic motivation. It is proposed that socio-

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contextual environments that support the three basic psychological needs for
autonomy, relatedness and competence, result in individuals adopting an internalised
motivation profile. Internalised motivation profiles have been shown to lead to a
higher frequency of worker engagement and commitment (Deci, 2012).
This report is structured in six chapters; chapter one is an introduction. Chapter two
explores the literature as it relates to human work motivation. In this section, several
theories of work motivation are discussed and the importance of self-determination
theory as a need based theory is explored. This is followed by a discussion on
professionals as a study population and, more specifically, airline pilots. Three
research questions emerge from this literature review. Chapter three explains the
mixed research methodology adopted in this study and introduces both a quantitative
and qualitative measure of work motivation orientation. The ethical considerations of
this research are also discussed. In chapter four, the results of both the quantitative and
qualitative measures are presented. This leads to the discussion in chapter five in
which the motivation orientation of airline pilots is examined in detail and the possible
implications for industry are considered. The limitations of this study and suggestions
for further research are also presented. Finally, chapter six concludes this paper.

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Chapter 2. Literature Review
Motivation: A Definition of a Concept
Much of the literature on human motivation begins by discussing the
etymology of the word itself. Derived from the Latin word movere, meaning
movement (Steers, Mowday and Shapiroi, 2004), the inference is that motivation is
concerned with motion – the motive force that impels an individual to act. Indeed, this
aligns with Pinder‘s (1998) definition of motivation as a set of “energizing forces”. A
more complete definition is offered by Mitchell (1982) who suggests that motivation is
the set of psychological forces that result in the arousal, direction and persistence of
voluntary actions in a way that is goal directed. Robbins (1993) considers motivation
in the organisational context as the individual will to achieve organisational goals but
he suggest that the degree to which such motivation exists is dependent on the
motivators ability to also satisfy individual needs. In essence, motivation is a
psychological state that compels behaviour. It should also be emphasised that
motivation is not the unitary concept some believe it is. Instead, it can vary in terms of
level - high versus low motivation; orientation – an external versus internal source of
motivation and, it will differ depending upon the context within which it is examined,
or what Vallerand (1997) refers to as the three levels of generality; global, situational
and contextual. For example, an individual may have an intrinsically motivated
personality in the global, or general, sense but the motivation to work, the situational
sense, but come extrinsically. Thus, for the purposes of this paper, motivation is
defined as an individual energy that compels one to behave in a particular manner
which varies in terms of level, orientation and generality. Motivation is a tremendously
complex and extensive concept.
A significant amount of literature pertains to motivation as it relates to the workplace.
In fact, Baron (1991) argues that work motivation has been the subject of more theory
and debate than any other topic. The ability to understand what motivates the worker is
clearly important. As Maier (1955, p.205) suggests, “job performance = ability x
motivation”. As such, any training to improve worker ability is wasted if that worker
does not have an appropriate motivation profile (Latham, 2012). A motivated

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workforce can be a major competitive advantage for an organisation and can lead to
increased financial return (Tremblay, Blanchard, Taylor, Pelletier, & Villeneuve,
2009). Motivation leads to employee commitment (Meyer, Becker & Vandenberghe,
2004) which in turn results in lower employee turnover. Reduced turnover is essential
to ensure firm viability. Fitz-enz (1997) suggests that organisations face costs in excess
of $1million for every ten managerial or professional employees they lose. In addition
to this fiscal cost, the potential loss of uncategorised knowledge must also be
considered. It is evident that motivated employees are essential for the long-term
survival of any organisation (Kowack, 1995) and as Pritchard and Ashwood (2008)
rightly point out, it is not a “management fad” but a fundamental concept that all
managers should understand. Unfortunately, studies show a divergence between what
managers believe motivates their employees and the actual factors likely to motivate
their workforce (Kowach, 1995). Thus, it is necessary to prosper a fundamental
understanding of this multifaceted issue.
Motivational Theory: History and Development
The desire to understand what drives human action and purpose dates back millennia.
Greek philosophers first considered motivation under the guise of hedonism; by which
beings seek to maximise pleasure and avoid pain (Steers, Mowday, & Shapiro, 2004).
The advent of the industrial age in the late 19th
century meant the study of motivation
migrated from a philosophy to the newly instituted branch of science – psychology
(Steers et al., 2004) – with this, the study of work motivation was born. As humans
developed the ability to produce goods and services on an ever growing scale, the need
to squeeze ever increasing efficiencies out of the human resource became critical. The
first significant theory of work motivation formed part of Taylor’s (1911) principles of
scientific management. One such principle proposed that financial incentives were a
key means of influencing employee motivation and productivity. The power of fiscal
reward on employee behaviour continues to spark lively debate in the modern
literature.
In the late 1920s a plethora of research was commissioned into work motivation.
These studies were based on the realisation that money was not the only motivational
incentive important to workers (Latham, 2012). This idea was germinated in part by

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Vitelas (1932) who argued that the use of financial incentives resulted in diminished
economic returns for organisations as well as poor employee attitudes towards
management. He suggested that instead, the focus should be on workers “feelings and
experiences”. Around the same time, studies by Elton Mayo (1933) highlighted the
now well-known, Hawthorne effect; the psychological reaction to increased attention
which causes participants to improve their performance when they are aware that they
are being observed. It was studies such as these that began to highlight the concept of
employee self-determination and participation as strong motivating factor in people’s
work behaviours. The biggest failing of this period was the lack of theoretical
grounding in research projects. This all changed in the late 1940’s with the
introduction of Maslow’s (1943) Needs Hierarchy. Henceforth, motivation theory
tended to develop in one of four general arenas; need based theories, equity theories,
equality theories and job-design theories. Many academic works developed during the
latter half of the 20th
century are still considered relevant today.
Need based theories, such as Maslow’s, assumed human motivation is based on the
desire to fulfil certain personal needs. McGregor (1957) developed his Theory X and
Theory Y system for need identification in work motivation. In this theory he
suggested that the typical way of managing staff, Theory X, in which it is assumed that
employees are unmotivated and apathetic, does little to satisfy and thus motivate
employees. Instead, Theory Y places more effect on the human side of the enterprise
by emphasising self-direction and control. This led to the development of such
programmes as management by objectives, job enlargement, self-appraisals and self-
evaluation (Latham, 2012). A deeper understanding of motivation, as the result of
human need satisfaction, was not to occur until the late 1970’s when Ryan Deci
reconsidered this section of the literature.
Equity theories of motivation, consider only the extrinsic rewards, such as money,
associated with workplace motivation. They are not only concerned with the level of
reward but the relationship the level of reward has with the perception of what others
receive (Ramlall, 2004). Adams (1965) was instrumental in the development of equity
theory. He suggested that individuals compare their input with the inputs of others and
the subsequent output of both themselves and other individuals. There should be a fair
and equitable relationship between the two. Where there is not a fair and equitable

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relationship, worker motivation is likely to suffer (Pinder, 1984). Whilst individuals
may relate to equity theory on a personal level, this theory does not tackle the
underlying reasons for such behaviour.
Expectancy theory (Vroom, 1964) suggests that the level of an individual’s motivation
is determined by their expectation that an outcome will occur, the “valence”, or
desirability, of that outcome and the instrumentality of those outcomes. Much like
equity theory, one may be able to relate to expectancy theory in a real world
environment but it must still be considered secondary theory.
Finally, job design theories propose that the manipulation of worker tasks will lead to
changes in motivation. By enriching worker positions with additional tasks and
increased autonomy, motivation is said to increase. Fredrick Herzberg was one of the
first to tackle this sect of the literature and presented Motivator-Hygiene theory
(Herzberg, Mausner &Snydermann, 1959). Motivators are the intrinsic features of a
job, such as a sense of achievement. Hygiene factors are the extrinsic motivators and
include money, supervision and status. Empirical research carried out by Herzberg
suggested that motivators, instead of hygiene factors, should be used to increase
employee motivation and tasks should be designed with this in mind.
Despite these theoretical developments and much empirical research, three key areas
of contention still appear to dominate the literature; money and its importance in
motivating employees. Indeed, as Aguinis, Joo and Gottfredson (2013) point out, it is
not an argument of whether money has a positive effect on employee motivation, but
the degree to which it impacts employee motivation. Similarly, the notion of intrinsic
versus extrinsic motivation is argued. Many works on employee motivation (e.g.
Cleavenger & Munyon, 2013) refer to intrinsic motivation in a very flippant manner,
implying that intrinsically motivated employees will perform better. However, by its
very definition, intrinsic motivation does not involve an external incentive, such as
money for work, and as such, it not necessarily applicable to the work context
(Latham, 2012). Finally participative decision making and other such job design
initiatives, and the influence they have on employee motivation are, again, not
necessarily contested but congruent theory has yet to be formulated.

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Self-determination Theory: Fundamental Need Satisfaction
Theory, therefore, that is more fundamental than those described above, and yet
generic enough to be applicable to a number of contexts, is necessary in order to
understand why people choose to work. Such a theory should understand the root
causes of human motivation and subsequently apply this knowledge to the
organisational context. Nothing is more fundamental than basic human needs. These
needs compel us to behave in particular ways in our everyday lives. When Locke
(1997) attempted to integrate work motivation theories into a single model, “human
needs” were placed first before all other moderators. Whilst Locke’s model places a
significant amount of emphasis on goal-setting theory, the fundamental place of need
satisfaction in motivation theory is highlighted by this model. This statement has never
been contested, but early need based theories (e.g. Maslow’s needs hierarchy and
McClennand’s needs theory) did not quite deliver. Self-determination theory (SDT;
Ryan & Deci, 2002) is a need based theory that is comprehensive and applicable to all
of life’s domains including education, health, exercise, religion, and work. SDT is able
to explain the “why” of motivation (Tremblay et al., 2009). It considers both basic
psychological needs and the impact the social-contextual environment has on these
needs.
Developed by Edward Deci and Richard Ryan of Rochester University, the self-
determination theory of motivation operates on the assumption that all human beings
are self-actualising in nature; that is they all have natural growth tendencies and seek
to achieve. As such, humans tend to seek out challenge in order to realise their
potential. However, it cannot be assumed that this tendency operates automatically and
instead it depends on socio-contextual factors that may either inhibit or facilitate
growth (Ryan & Deci, 2002). These social-contextual factors will impact the three
basic psychological needs that are essential for growth and well-being; competence,
relatedness and autonomy. Competence refers to the desire to be effective in action and
to feel confident in these actions. It is this need that drives individuals to seek out and
enhance their own skill sets. Relatedness refers to the need to interact with and feel
connected to other individuals in one’s own community and, the sense of security
associated with these feelings. Finally, autonomy refers to the need to be the source of
one’s own actions and behaviours – it is not a desire for independence but merely the

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need to express oneself even though such action may be influenced by an external
force.
Whilst other theories of motivation seek to describe the level or intensity of
motivation, SDT differs in that it seeks to describe different orientations or types of
motivation (Gagne & Deci, 2005). In this sense, self-determination theory makes one
fundamental differentiation; the differentiation between autonomous motivation,
which is fully endorsed and internalised by the individual, and controlled motivation,
in which the individual is coerced or seduced into behaving in a particular way.
Autonomous motivation implies a high degree of self-determination, that is, the
individual feels connected with and encouraged to partake in a behaviour because they
associate it with their sense of self. A significant number of studies have shown that
autonomous motivation is associated with greater persistence at task, greater
flexibility, increased creativity, better job performance, better mental health and well-
being and, a higher quality of close personal relationships (Deci, 2012). Controlled
motivation, on the other hand, may be likened to the “stick and carrot” analogy. An
individual may be impelled by the “stick” or seduced by the “carrot” and whilst both
methods may motivate the individual, both are external in nature (i.e. not internalised)
and thus posited to not be as powerful as autonomous motivators.
A significant amount of empirical research suggests that social environments that
support the three basic psychological needs lead to greater enjoyment, participation
and performance (Baard, 2002). Further, a study by Baard, Deci and Ryan (2004) into
a Fortune 500 company found that a higher perceived level of managerial autonomy
support led to a higher level of performance, as well as the improved mental well-
being and health of employees. Fernet, Austin and Vallerand (2012) found that
autonomous motivation was more likely to lead to employee commitment and was
negatively correlated with employee exhaustion. However, several critics have
questioned the applicability of SDT to other nationalities whose cultural values tend to
differ from those in Western countries. However, studies have shown that support for
the three basic psychological needs is equally applicable across cultures. For instance,
Deci, Ryan, Gagne, Leone, Usunov and Kornazheva (2001) showed that such support
increased worker pleasure in an organisation based in a former Eastern Bloc country.

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SDT consists of several mini-theories, all of which share the same assumptions about
growth orientation and the basic psychological needs. One such mini-theory which,
preceded the development of SDT, is cognitive evaluation theory (CET; Deci, 1971).
CET was initially proposed to explain the effect of extrinsic motivators on intrinsic
motivation (Gagne & Deci, 2005). The first studies into such effects were done in
1971 by Edward Deci after a relatively quiet period in motivation theory research
(Deci, 2012). However, the theory fell into disrepute with some in the organisational
behaviour fraternity because of its predominantly laboratory based experiments and the
fact that work assignments are never “done freely” as the definition of intrinsic
motivation would suggest (Latham, 2012). In organisational contexts, there will
always be external elements to motivation, for example in the form of wage payments,
the implementation of deadlines, and contribution to the community or other such
mechanisms. As such, a second mini-theory, organismic integration theory (OIT; Ryan
and Deci, 2002), was formulated as a solution to these criticisms.
OIT is pivotal for understanding organisational motivation where external motivators
are at play. This mini-theory seeks to explain the internalisation of motivation; that is,
the degree to which a task forms part of the integrated self. The more internalised a
motivation, the higher the degree of self-determination associated with that task. As an
answer to critics of CET, OIT is more applicable to organisational contexts where
employees may be induced to work through external means (e.g. wage and salary
payments). However this external motivation may be internalised in such a way that a
form of autonomous motivation is prospered. By developing social contexts that
support the three basic psychological needs, managers may encourage the
internalisation of a behaviour or task. Expanding on this, to describe motivation
orientation as either extrinsic or intrinsic is rather simplistic, however, many scholars
adopt this dichotomy. OIT proposes a taxonomy of motivation orientations that vary to
the degree by which they are internalised (Ryan & Deci, 2002). Ryan and Deci (2002)
propose a motivation continuum to reflect these varying motivation orientations (see
figure 1). Studies have confirmed the construct validity for this model (e.g. Vallerand
and Ratelle, 2002; Ryan & Deci, 2002).

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Figure 1: The self determination continuum (Ryan & Deci, 2002)
Six motivation forms are described. Amotivation represents the lowest level of
internalisation. In fact, amotivation is best described as a state where motivation to act
is absent (Ryan & Deci, 2002). Individuals may act passively or without will and
likely see no value in the behaviour. Extrinsic motivation is divided into four
components; external regulation, introjected regulation, identified regulation and
integrated regulation. External regulation could be likened to the traditional definition
of extrinsic motivation in that it implies that an individual is motivated to seek reward
or to avoid punishment. Introjected regulation represents a motivator that one
internalises, but does not accept as forming part of one’s own value system. Such
motivators encourage individuals to seek ego enhancements or to avoid guilt and
shame (Ryan & Deci, 2002). External and introjected regulation are forms of
controlled motivation, as described above using the “stick and carrot” analogy. An
identified regulation is where the individual begins to consciously value a behaviour
and thus a higher degree of self-determination is associated with this level of
regulation. Whilst internally driven, individuals are still likely to compartmentalise
such regulations from their core beliefs. Intergrated regulation describes the most self-
determined form of extrinsically motivated behaviour. The individual fully identifies
with the activity or behaviour and it aligns with their own beliefs and values however,
it is still considered to be externally motivated due to an extrinsic influence regulating
the behaviour. Finally, an individual may experience intrinsic motivation when they
find an activity inherently interesting or enjoyable (Ryan & Deci, 2000). These three
motivation orientations (identified, integrated and intrinsic) represent autonomous
motivation and thus are likely to lead to positive organisational outcomes.
However, whilst Koestner and Losier (2002) support the theory that autonomous
motivation is essential to high performance, they emphasise that managers must
consider the differences that exist between introjected/identified regulation and pure

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intrinsic regulation. In studies into several workplaces, they found that whilst
intrinsically motivated individuals tended to partake in an activity for the pleasure it
provided, individuals that internalised a motivation to the point where it was
introjected or identified tended to do so because the behaviour was highly valued by
their social group. In turn, indentified regulation lead to more long term significance of
ones pursuits and the fostering of positive emotions in one’s achievements. Intrinsic
motivation on the other hand, whilst it promoted highly energising emotions, lead only
to short term performance of task. Thus, intrinsically motivated employees, whilst high
in autonomy, may not be the best type of individual for organisations to employ
because of their motivations short-term nature. They further hypothesised that whilst
managers should provide “autonomy support” (Grolnlich & Ryan, 1989) for their
employees, which is important in promoting intrinsic motivation, the introduction of
structure, in the form of guidelines, expectations and rules, encouraged identified
motivation.
The final distinction worthy of recognition is the suggestion that an individual’s
motivation orientation can also exists at varying levels of generality (Vallerand &
Ratelle, 2002). Such a view furthers Deci’s (2012, July 4) proposition that motivation
should be understood as a complex construct rather than a unitary concept. Vallerand
and Ratelle (2002) suggest that there are three levels of generality that should be
considered; global, contextual and situational. Global motivation is considered to be
associated with personality and is thus very stable. Contextual motivation is the
development of a certain motivation orientation as it relates to specific context (e.g.
work, a social club or exercise) and is again said to be stable but nonetheless can be
influenced by social factors. Finally, situational motivation refers to the motivation
orientation of individuals doing specific things at a specific time. This level of
motivation is unstable and very susceptible to the environment. The hierarchical nature
of this model suggests that higher levels of generality are likely to impact those lower
down. For instance, an individual who is generally motivated in an intrinsic manner is
likely to replicate such an orientation in certain contextual and situational
circumstances. Thus, when researching individual motivation, not only must one
consider the varying motivational orientations that exist, but one must be specific
about which level of generality is being measured. Whilst measures exist that evaluate
general causality orientation at a global level, such a measure may not be a fair

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representation of an individual’s motivation orientation at the contextual level (e.g.
within an organisation). This paper focuses on motivation orientation at the contextual
level.
Professionals as a Study Group
Whilst self-determination theory has been used to study workers within organisations
from many perspectives and in many settings, few have focused specifically on
professionals as a population. Professionals are a unique set of subjects. Forsyth and
Danisiewicz (1985) define professionals as individuals involved in an occupation that
requires a certain specialist knowledge which they then apply in such a way that it
provides an exclusive and essential service to a client. Similarly, they are likely to have
control over their skill-set in such a way that minimum standards of training and
performance are well defined and codes of ethics may exist. These specifications are
likely to be regulated by a professional association or the state (Wilensky, 1964). As a
result of these traits, Bloor and Dawson (1994) suggest that professionals may develop
their own “sub-culture” within organisations. This in turn effects the way these
individuals interpret and enact organisational discourse. Hein (2012) describes such
employees as “highly specialised and creative” and chose to study the motivation
profiles of such employees in order to improve the business literature on the
management of these individuals. This author classified the majority of these
individuals as “Prima Donnas” which they defined as professionals who considered
work to be a “calling” or medium through which they could make a difference (Hein,
2012). From a self-determination theory point of view, such individuals are likely to
possess a highly integrated view of their work setting; it is part of who they are and
thus their work motivation is likely to be highly internalised.
Self-determination theory has been applied to just a few professional work settings.
For instance, in a study of early childhood teachers, Wagner and French (2010) found
that those that perceived the setting within which they worked, as prospering their
need for autonomy, relatedness and competence were more likely to internalise the
motivation to commit to additional professional education. Similarly, Wyatt (2013)
studied Omani teachers and suggested that the government training initiatives used to
attract and train new teachers were successful because they represented support for the

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three basic psychological needs. Further, these individuals tended to internalise their
motivation and find their jobs more satisfying due to the high degree of self-
determination they associated with it. Finally, Jirwe and Rudman (2012) found the
majority of student nurses had chosen to enter the profession for intrinsic reasons and
those that exhibited an internalised motivation profile experienced less stress on the
job. Further studies that focus on professionals as a population are likely to add depth
to this discussion.
A Focus on Airline Pilots
Airline pilots represent one such professional group worthy of further investigation.
They align with the definition of professional described above in that they provide an
essential and specialised service which requires the application of esoteric knowledge.
Additionally, this group is highly regulated by the state and have strict operating
regulations and strong professional associations. Secondly, the career path that airline
pilots are required to endure suggests that a level of internalised motivation is essential
to career success. Entry into this occupation is difficult; according to Ministry of
Business, Innovation and Employment (2010) data, initial training is likely to cost up
to $120,000 per individual and the subsequent income is extremely low in relation to
this outlay. The aviation industry, which is highly susceptible to the global economic
state, can endure long periods of consolidation or negative growth resulting in hiring
freezes and even redundancies. As such, pilots can be stuck in low paying jobs, such as
flight instructor, for many years. The average time spent in such positions is around
three years (Ministry for Business, Innovation and Employment, 2010) implying that
prospective airline pilots have to greatly enjoy their occupation in order to succeed.
It may be due to this necessity for intrinsically motivated individuals that the global
aviation industry is now staring down the barrel of the biggest pilot shortage since the
1960’s (Carey, Nicas and Pasztor, 2012). Whilst this last shortage was a direct result of
the Vietnam War, the latest increase in demand appears to stem from a perfect storm of
retirements, industry expansion due to a growing middle class and a lack of new
recruits entering the industry due to the increasing cost of training. Indeed Boeing
(2012) describe the demand as “unprecedented” and predicts that more than 460,000
commercial airline pilots will be required over the next 20 years, of which 185,600

15
will be required in the Asia Pacific region, one of the fastest growing in the world.
Indeed, recently the national carrier, Air New Zealand, applied to Immigration New
Zealand to have pilots added to essential skills shortage list (One News, 2013). Thus
the ability for airline management, aviation training organisation and professional
associations to attract new recruits in the coming years is going to be imperative - you
can’t run an airline without pilots. One significant aspect of this challenge is
understanding the motivation orientation of current airline pilots and how this might
change over their career.
The Motivation Orientation of Airline Pilots
Very few studies have looked specifically at the motivation orientation of airline
pilots. Theoretical interest developed as far back at 1947 when Anderson posited that
those that fly for intrinsic reasons are likely to experience less stress in scenarios that
require high performance. Helmrich (1982, August) again briefly discussed intrinsic
motivation and how it might relate positively to performance and job satisfaction in
pilots. Likewise, Jones (1986) used motivation to try and understand performance
difficulties in aviators. The only empirical research has come from Fredrick-Recascino
and Hall (2003) but their focus was on trainee pilots and thus in an educational setting
rather than an organisational context. Nonetheless, they did find that student
motivation accounted for a significant amount of variance in performance and that as
student advanced through their training, their level of motivation tended to increase.
Finally, a study by Prouse (2010) into work engagement in a New Zealand airline
found that meaningfulness was important to engagement and similarly, psychological
safety was found to be an important contributor to intention to leave the organisation.
From the information above, it would be fair to suggest that the motivation orientation
of airline pilots would generally be of an internalised nature. Indeed, it is likely that
such an orientation would have likely developed early in the pilot’s career. As with
many other professional groups, pilots choose to become involved in their profession
and thus it involves a high level of autonomy. Flying is a part of these individual’s
lives and as such there is a high degree of self-determination involved. Other
professionals exhibit similar tendencies. For example, a study of teachers by Timms
and Brough (2012) found that these individuals displayed a higher degree of self-

16
determination and thus satisfaction with their job. However, research by Deci and
Ryan (1980) suggests that the introduction of external rewards, to an activity that is
intrinsically motivated, is likely to undermine this motivation. Whilst several authors
have questioned the validity of this statement, particularly as it relates to organisational
contexts (eg. Latham, 2012; Eisenberger & Cameron, 1996) a meta-analysis of 128
studies by Deci, Koestner and Ryan (1999) confirmed its validity. It is posited that this
shift away from intrinsic motivation occurs because the basic psychological need for
autonomy is thwarted when an external reward is introduced (Ryan & Deci, 2002).
The concept of perceived locus of causality (PLOC; DeCharms, 1968) is used to
describe individual perception of the likely source of behavioural initiation and
regulation, be it internal or external. It is claimed that the introduction of an external
reward (e.g. salary or wage) can cause of shift of this PLOC to an external source
which is then likely to result in a reduction of the individual’s autonomous control
over their situation (Deci & Ryan, 1980). Given that extrinsic reward is likely to
increase as professional pilots spend longer in the industry, application of this theory
would suggest that their motivation orientation to work would become less internalised
across career tenure. However, professionals differ from the regular working
population in that many of them choose to pursue their individual career. As such, a
blanket statement like that made by Ryan and Deci (1980) may not necessarily be
applicable to this sect of the workforce.
Another reality of modern organisational life is the managerial imperative to monitor
and foster organisational diversity. Clegg, Kornberger, & Pitsis (2008) define diversity
as variety in culture, gender, spirituality, language, sexuality and age but, as they
highlight, gender inequality is the most emotive aspect of diversity that many
organisations chose to focus on. Statistics suggest that only around 6% of professional
license holders in New Zealand are female (Ody, 2012). This is an extremely low
figure when compared to other once male dominated professions (Doctors – 39%
(Health Workforce, 2012) Lawyers – 41%, Senior University Academics – 19%,
Sworn Police – 17% (Human Rights Commission, 2010)). Given that women make up
46% of the workforce in New Zealand (Human Rights Commission, 2010) it is clear
that, along with the recruitment of airline pilots, diversity is likely to be another major
issue facing aviation industry management in the future.

17
A study of 1114 airline pilots in Australia found that whilst there was a full range of
opinions towards female pilots, the airline industry was still dominated by an overly
masculine culture (Mitchell, Kristovics and Vemeulen, 2006). Mitchell et al. (2006,
p.55) also identify a “glass ceiling” which continues to operate within the industry and
requires women to continually prove themselves in order to advance their career.
When examining these finding from a self-determination perspective, it is clear that
the motivation orientation of female pilots may differ from that of their male
counterparts. As Ryan and Deci (2002) suggest, it is very much the social context, and
how well this context supports the three basic psychological needs, that determines an
individual’s motivation orientation. Should the above findings be applicable to New
Zealand, it could be argued that the SDT need for competence would be thwarted by
an operating culture where female airline pilots are expected to prove themselves more
than male airline pilots. Likewise, the need for relatedness may be equally effected by
an overly cliquey professional culture. Thus, it is possible that the motivation
orientation of female pilots could differ from that of their male counterparts.
A study by Deal, Stawiski, Graves, Gentry, Weber and Ruderman, (2013) into work
motivation orientation of employees failed to identify any differences between
genders, a finding in line with Ryan and Deci’s (2002) claim that SDT is equally
applicable across demographics. However, a study by Ng & Sears (2010), using a self-
determination theory framework, found that women had a tendency towards a
motivation profile that valued extrinsic and socially accepted motivators, indicating
that their motivation orientation different from that of men.
A final aspect of motivation worthy of further exploration is the concept of employee
engagement. Whilst occupying a separate sect of the literature it itself, an incontestable
link between motivation and engagement is evident. Work engagement is defined as an
individual state of mind characterised by vigour, dedication and absorption in ones job
(Schaufeli, Salanova, Gonza ́lez-Roma ́, & Bakker, 2002). Vigour can be described as
existing in a highly energetic state whilst working; dedication is when one is involved
heavily in their work to a point where it is considered significant and challenging;
absorption is characterised by engrossment to a point where time passes quickly
(Schaufeli et al., 2002). In essence, an engaged worker is one who is highly motivated

18
about their work and from a self-determination perspective, it represents those that
identify closely with their job. Such employees will likely exhibit a high degree of
self-determination in their motivation orientation.
Whilst studies of worker engagement are very much in their infancy, several authors
have looked to explore the relationship between engagement and job performance.
These studies were summarised by Harter, Schmidt and Hayes (2002) in a meta-
analysis which concluded that a positive correlation existed between worker
engagement and job performance. More recently, whilst still acknowledging the lack
of quantitative data to back up their claim, Bakker and Demerouti (2008) highlight
several studies that further enhance the proposition that engagement leads to
performance. These authors posited that the predominant driver of work engagement is
a set of “job resources” which they describe as the “physical, social, or organizational
aspects of the job that may. . .stimulate personal growth, learning, and development”
(p. 211). Their studies show that job resources such as social support, feedback, skill
variety and autonomy relate with engagement.
This definition aligns closely with Ryan and Deci’s (2002) statement, and the
fundamental proposition of self-determination theory, that all humans are growth
seeking organisms. Likewise, the job resources they describe mimic the three basic
psychological needs – autonomy, competence and relatedness - that Ryan and Deci
(2002) suggest are essential to motivation. Thus, it has been argued that a strong
parallel exists between employee engagement and aspects of self-determination theory
(Meyer & Gange, 2008). Further, Timms and Brough (2012) found a close relationship
between worker self-determination and employee engagement in teachers. Based on
the evidence presented above, it may be assumed that airline pilots are generally fairly
engaged in their work. However, a separate group of individuals is likely to exist
within any organisation, and aviation is no different; those who choose to take on
responsibilities in addition to their regular duties. In aviation, such roles include flight
instructor/examiner, pilot-manager, or project worker. Anecdotal evidence suggests
that these individuals are required to commit significant amounts of their own time
towards their role, generally with limited monetary reward. By the above definition,
they are engaged workers in that they display behaviours that highlight vigour,
dedication and absorption in their work. Deal et al. (2013) explored the motivation of

19
managers and found that involvement in such activities resulted in higher frequencies
of intrinsic, identified, and introjected motivation. Airline pilots may exhibit a similar
tendency.
Research Questions
Based on this review of the literature, this study will seek to explore the motivation
orientation of airline pilots and how it varies across a population. It has been shown
that as well as potential variation across career tenure, motivation orientation may also
vary between genders and differ dependant upon the degree of obvious engagement an
individual might exhibit in their work. As such, the following research questions will
form the basis for this paper.
Research Question One:
Does the motivation orientation of airline pilots vary as a function of career length?
Research Question Two:
Does the motivation orientation of airline pilots vary between genders?
Research Question Three:
Does the motivation orientation of airline pilots vary in those that take on
responsibilities in addition to their regular line flying duties?
This literature review has revealed three research questions. A research methodology
that is able explore them further is discussed in the following chapter.

20
Chapter 3. Research Method
Participants and Procedure
This study examined airline pilots employed by a New Zealand owned regional airline.
This organisation operates a number of medium sized turbo-propeller aircraft on
domestic passenger routes across the country. Typically, the organisation undertakes
upwards of 1200 flights per week. Access was granted by airline management to
sample the 210 airline pilots working for this organisation. Evaluation was via a
survey mailed to the participants (see appendix two). Each package contained a
covering letter (see appendix one) explaining the purpose of the study, expected
benefits and assurance of confidentiality. Additionally, return envelopes were included
and were able to be submitted via the company’s internal mail service, consequently
reducing the need for individuals to seek out a post-box. Participation was voluntary. It
was believed a mail survey, as opposed to an online survey, was most appropriate due
to the lack of computer access within the subject’s place of work. Participants were
given over four weeks to return their completed documentation. Mid-way through this
time period, a reminder email was sent to those involved.
Measures
Several pieces of biographical data pertinent to this study were collected including
birth year, gender and career tenure. Subsequently a pre-defined measure, known as
the Work Extrinsic and Intrinsic Motivation Scale (WEIMS; Tremblay et. al., 2009;
see “Why do you do your work?” section of appendix two), was utilised to determine
the motivation orientation of each subject. As the authors suggest, subjective self-
report measures of this type are those most readily utilised to measure motivation, and
they are likely the most accurate (Tremblay et al., 2009). Blais, Lachance, Vallerand,
Brie`re, & Riddle (1993) were the first to develop and test a motivation measure based
on SDT. Whilst many criticised the applicability of SDT to the work environment, the
Blias measure utilised the motivation continuum suggested in organismic intergration
theory (Ryan & Deci, 2002) and measures an individual’s motivation orientation based
on the six reference points of this continuum; amotivation (AMO), external regulation
(EXT), introjected regulation (INTRO), identified regulation (IDEN), integrated

21
regulation (INTEG) and intrinsic motivation (INT) . The WEIMS is the English
translation of this measure and uses an 18 point questionnaire to measure each of these
motivation constructs. Subjects were asked to identify why they worked in their
current job and were requested to rate 18 statements on a seven point Likert scale
ranging from “corresponds exactly” to “does not correspond at all”. Six groups of
three questions relate to each of the six constructs suggested by OIT. For example,
statements such as “for the income in provides me” measured external regulation
whereas “because I derive pleasure from learning new things” was used to measure
intrinsic motivation.
Data was entered into SPSS software for analysis. Once this data was collated, it was
calculated into a single score using a formula proposed by Vallerand (1997; see figure
two). The work self-determination index (W-SDI) is a measure of an individuals
propensity to self-determined work behaviours (i.e. intrinsic motivation) which is
indicated by a positive score or, non-self determined work behaviours (i.e. extrinsic
motivation/amotivation) indicated by a negative score. By utilising a seven-point scale,
a possible score range of ±37 existed. Previous studies have suggested that the internal
consistency of the W-SDI, as measure by Cronbach’s alpha, is .84 and that this
measure displays a high degree of reliability and validity (Tremblay et al., 2009).
W–SDI = (+3 x IM) + (+2 x INTEG) + (+1 x IDEN) + (-1 x INTRO) + (-2 x EXT) + (-3 x AMO)
Figure 2: Work self-determination index (W-SDI) formula (Vallerand, 1997)
In order to increase the richness of the data obtained, a mixed research methodology
was adopted. In addition to the quantitative information acquired using the WEIMS,
subjects were also asked to answer, in their own words, what motivated them to work,
whether or not this had changed over their career and, if so, how (see second page of
appendix two). A significant amount of qualitative data was collected and several
themes were identified that were able to add additional insights into the quantitative
results. It also added strength to the W-SDI as a measure of internalised motivation.

22
Ethical Considerations
The ethical risks associated with this study were minimal. Consideration was given to
the relationship that existed between the researcher and the research participants – the
fellow colleagues of the researcher. A potential conflict of interest was possible but as
no power relationship existed in this instance, participants were unlikely to feel
compelled to be involved in this research. Further, the researcher did not have regular
contact the with majority of the population. Confidentiality of the participants was
paramount and as such, demographic data collected on each survey was not so detailed
that any one individual, or group of individuals, could be identified. Given the size and
spread of the population, this was very unlikely. Informed consent was obtained from
each participant. Whilst the companies internal mail service was utilised for survey
return, envelopes were directed to a private and secure address.
In a similar sense, the industrial landscape of this group of professionals also needed to
be respected. As such, senior representative from the two industrial unions
representing these professionals were contacted and informed of the intent of the study
and the methods adopted to protect the confidentiality of the subjects. Likewise,
permission and backing was also received from airline management.
A low risk notification was submitted to the university’s human ethics committee and
low risk approval was granted before any material was sent to the subjects. The
completed form is attached at appendix three.
Responses
The mail survey utilised returned 79 responses (75 usable) – a response rate of 38%.
The usable sample consisted of 84% males (versus 85% within the population) with an
average age of 39 years (range: 23-62) and an average career tenure of 8.4 years
(range: 1-26). Just under a third (29%) of those sampled were actively involved in
workplace duties in addition to their regular line flying duties. With the subjects
distributed evenly across the company’s various bases and demographics, it was felt
that this sample was an accurate representation of the population. The results of these
responses are discussed in the next chapter.

23
Chapter 4. Results
Quantitative Results
Range Minimum Maximum Mean Std. Deviation
W-SDI 27.000 -3.667 23.333 12.24889 5.453074
Table 1: Descriptive statistics – W-SDI
An analysis of the 18 point WEIMS measure (see appendix two), using Cronbach’s
alpha, suggests a high reliability rating (α = 0.81). By applying the formula specified
by Vallerand (1997) to these results, a single score, known as the work self-
determination index (W-SDI) was calculated for each case. The mean W-SDI score of
the population was a positive figure indicating subjects possessed a “self-determined”
work motivation profile. Several outliers did result with a negative score indicating a
non-self-determined work profile. Whilst the range of these scores might seem
significant, a relatively low standard deviation score suggests responses were tightly
centred on the mean.
Levene's Test for
Equality of Variances
t-test for Equality of Means
95% Confidence
Interval of the
Difference
F Sig. t df Sig. (2-
tailed)
Mean
Difference
Std. Error
Difference
Lower Upper
Male v.
Female
Equal
variances
assumed
.389 .535 1.177 73 .243 2.015873 1.713110 -1.398350 5.430096
Yes v.
No
Equal
variances
assumed
1.005 .319 2.548 73 .013 3.399943 1.334370 .740546 6.059339
Table 2: T-Test – W-SDI variation between genders and extra duties
Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig.
Between Groups 1066.543 32 33.329 1.235 .258
Within Groups 1133.922 42 26.998
Total 2200.465 74
Table 3: ANOVA – W-SDI variation across career tenure

24
W-SDI Career Tenure
Pearson Correlation 1 -.083
Sig. (2-tailed) .481W-SDI
N 75 75
Pearson Correlation -.083 1
Sig. (2-tailed) .481Career Tenure
N 75 75
Table 4: Pearson correlation – W-SDI and career tenure
W-SDI Gender Extra Duties
Correlation Coefficient 1.000 -.124 .264*
Sig. (2-tailed) . .291 .022W-SDI
N 75 75 75
Correlation Coefficient -.124 1.000 .281*
Sig. (2-tailed) .291 . .015Gender
N 75 75 75
Correlation Coefficient .264*
.281*
1.000
Sig. (2-tailed) .022 .015 .
Spearman's rho
Extra Duties
N 75 75 75
*. Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).
Table 5: Spearman correlation – W-SDI, gender and extra duties
Whilst mean W-SDI scores between male airline pilots and female airline pilots did
vary, a t-test of these figures indicates no statistically significant variation across the
sample. Likewise, a one-way ANOVA suggests little variation between means across
career tenure. Similarly, no significant correlation exists between these two variables.
Despite these findings, an analysis of those involved in extra duties within the
organisation did present some statistics of interests. This study shows that those that
partook in such duties had a higher W-SDI score than those that did not. The statistical
significance of this variation is proven by an independent t-test. A bivariate analysis
also showed a positive relationship between these two variables.

25
Qualitative Results
W-SDI Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic
Regulation
Total Basic Needs
Satisfied
Pearson Correlation 1 .581**
.408**
Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .001W-SDI
N 75 61 63
Pearson Correlation .581**
1 .443**
Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .000Internal vs. External Regulation
N 61 61 60
Pearson Correlation .408**
.443**
1
Sig. (2-tailed) .001 .000Total Basic Needs Satisfied
N 63 60 63
**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
Table 6: Pearson correlation – Qualitative responses and W-SDI
Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic
Regulation
Total Basic Needs Satisfied
Correlation Coefficient -.034 .087
Sig. (2-tailed) .797 .499
Male v.
Female
N 61 63
Correlation Coefficient .337** .026
Sig. (2-tailed) .008 .840
Spearman's rho
Yes v.
No
N 61 63
**Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
Table 7: Spearman correlation – Qualitative responses and gender/extra duties
Levene's Test for
95% Confidence
Interval of the
Difference
tailed)
Mean
Differenc
e
Std.
Error
Differenc
e Lower Upper
Male v.
Female
Equal variances
assumed
2.695 .106 .502 59 .618 .112 .223 -.334 .557
Yes v.
No
Equal variances
assumed
3.052 .086 2.733 59 .008 .466 .171 .125 .808
Table 8: T- Test - Intrinsic vs. extrinsic regulation mean variation

26
Levene's Test for
95% Confidence
Interval of the
Difference
tailed)
Mean
Differenc
e
Std.
Error
Differenc
e Lower Upper
Male v.
Female
Equal variances
assumed
2.695 .106 .502 59 .618 .112 .223 -.334 .557
Yes v.
No
Equal variances
assumed
2.217 .142 -.801 61 .426 -.260 .325 -.911 .390
Table 9: T- Test - Total basic needs satisfied
Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig.
Between Groups 5.200 18 .289 .627 .858
Within Groups 19.357 42 .461Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic Regulation
Total 24.557 60
Between Groups 16.540 18 .919 1.055 .424
Within Groups 38.317 44 .871Total Basic Needs Satisfied
Total 54.857 62
Table 10: ANOVA - Mean variation across career tenure
Chi-Square Tests
Gender Extra Duties
Value df Asymp. Sig.
(2-sided)
Value df Asymp. Sig.
(2-sided)
Autonomy
.554 1 .457 3.382 1 .066
Relatedness
1.338 1 .247 1.325 1 .250
Competence
.063 1 .803 5.038 1 .025
Table 11: Chi-Square Test – Basic need frequency between gender and extra duties
Subjects were also asked to complete a qualitative section in this study (see appendix
two). Two analyses were conducted on this data (see appendix four: Qualitative data
tables). The first looked to confirm the validity of the W-SDI as a measure of
internalisation of motivation. In order to do this, two themes were identified within the
response set; the first, labelled intrinsic, was used to categorise those responses
associated with motivators that were inherent to the role of an airline pilot and
represented an internalised motivation profile. When queried as to what motivated
these individuals to work, their responses included “for the love of flying”, “enjoy the
responsibility” and “the challenge of problem solving”. Conversely, responses that
identified extrinsic motivators to work were also highlighted and included “income”,

27
“lifestyle outside of work” and “minimum work hours”. These themes were then
allocated a score based on the degree of internalisation they represented. Thus, those
that identified only intrinsic motivators received a “high” score, those that identified
both intrinsic and extrinsic motivators a “moderate” score and, finally, those who only
identified extrinsic motivators were given a “low” score.
A Pearson product-moment correlation was run to determine the relationship between
each individual’s W-SDI score and their qualitative responses based on this
theme/score analysis. There was a statistically significant relationship between these
measures. Further, comparing these qualitative data scores against the biographic data
collected mimicked the results obtained using the WEIMS; variation between genders
showed no statistical significance, likewise there was insignificant variation across
career tenure. However, again a statistically significant relationship was found between
the qualitative scores of those who partook in extra duties for the company versus
those that did not.
Secondly, data was examined from a self-determination perspective. Themes of
autonomy, relatedness and competence, the three basic psychological needs, were
identified and scored. Autonomy themes, concerned with an individual being the
source of their own behaviour, included responses such as “there is a lot of self-
reliance involved”, “I enjoy my job” and “to satisfy my own desire to fly”. Similarly,
relatedness themed responses, associated with the want to form cohesive groups,
included “I enjoy the team at this airline” and “spending time with fellow workmates”.
Finally, themes of competence, the need to realise achievement, presented itself in
comments such as “I like being good at whatever I do” and “the ability to develop my
skills and challenge myself”. Those that indicated that all three of these needs were
satisfied were given a “high” score and this score was reduced the lower the
occurrence of need satisfaction identified.
A bivariate analysis indicated a strong relationship between these scores and individual
W-SDI scores. Mean variation between genders was insignificant, as was variation
across career tenure. Interestingly, there was also no variation in those that partook in
extra duties versus those that did not. A chi-square analysis of frequency variation of
basic psychological need satisfaction between genders revealed no statistically

28
significant variation. Further, a chi-square analysis of these results as they related to
the “extra duties” group revealed similar statistics with regards to relatedness and
autonomy. However, individuals that took on extra duties were more likely to report
the satisfaction of the need for competence.
In order to better understand these results, the subsequent chapter contains a discussion
in which these outcomes are linked to the current literature. The implications for
industry and limitations of this study are also discussed.

29
Chapter 5. Discussion
The Motivation Orientation of Airline Pilots
Figure 3: W-SDI box-plot transposed against the self-determination continuum
The results of this study suggest some interesting conclusions may be drawn regarding
the motivation orientation of airline pilots. By transposing the single score results of
this study (i.e. W-SDI scores) against the self-determination continuum proposed by
Ryan & Deci (2002; see figure 3) it may be concluded that the motivation orientation
of the airline pilots studied is of a highly internalised nature; motivation to work forms
part of the integrated self and thus the “profession” is part of what makes these
individuals who they are. In general, the average airline pilots studied exhibited an
identified regulation motivation profile. Identified regulation represents the conscious
valuing of a behaviour and there is a perception that the locus of behaviour causality is
of an internalised nature (Ryan & Deci, 2002). This differs from integrated regulation,
the most internalised form of extrinsic motivation, in that it can be compartmentalised
or separated from other aspects of an individual’s life. This may be a positive finding;
Koestner and Losier (2002) suggest that identified regulation leads to longer term
significance in one’s professional pursuits and fosters positive pride in one’s
achievements; two elements, it could be suggested, essential for a long fulfilling career
and a possible explanation for the seeming stability of airline pilot motivation
orientation across career tenure.

30
Self-determination theory suggests that a highly internalised motivation profile is the
result of a socio-contextual environment that supports the three basic psychological
needs; autonomy, relatedness and competence. Indeed this was the case in this study
with qualitative data showing a high proportion of subject indicating the satisfaction of
their need for autonomy (49%) and competence (63%). Interestingly, just a small
proportion (25%) suggested that their need for relatedness had been satisfied. Whilst
studies by Ryan and Deci (2002) indicate that relatedness is important for a highly
internalised motivation profile, the result of the current study align closely with those
of Koestner and Losier (2002) who found that relatedness was not as important as the
other two needs. However, results suggest improvements to the socio-contextual
environment, in regards to the stimulation of the relatedness need, may further the
internalisation of these individual’s motivation profiles; as such there may be room for
improvement.
The high W-SDI scores of this professional population stand out when compared to
those of a “regular” workforce. For instance, studies by Tremblay et al. (2009) suggest
an average W-SDI score of just 2.96 for clerical workers in the Canadian defence
force, significantly lower than the 12.25 rating of the airline pilots in this study. This
implies that professionals associate closely with their line of work and their decision to
pursue such work has resulted in a highly internalised motivation profile. The choice
to be involved in this career appears to stem from their desire to achieve. Many
subjects describe “the challenge” the work provides, the “want to achieve … goals”
and “the satisfaction [they] feel by maintaining very high personal standards”. Such
statements highlight the internalised motivation profiles that pilots appear to exhibit.
They do their job by choice and to satisfy their need for competence. Studies of other
professionals, such as teachers and nurses, have made similar conclusions (Hein, 2012;
Wyatt, 2013; Jirwe & Rudman, 2012). Further, this supports Bloor and Dawson’s
(1994) claim that professionals represent their own sub-culture within organisations
and society.
However, none of the individuals sampled in this survey exhibited a purely intrinsic
motivation profile. Indeed, whilst several responses discussed the “love/passion of
flying”, only in one response was this identified as the only reason to work. This is to
be expected due to the extrinsic rewards (e.g. salary, superannuation etc.) that are

31
offered to employees of an organisation. This finding aligns with the meta-analysis by
Deci et al. (1999) which suggests that such rewards undermine autonomous
motivation. In order to make any conclusive statements, further research that explores
the motivation orientation of pilots before they receive any external reward (e.g.
student pilots) may be necessary.
Variation Across Career Tenure
Findings suggest that the motivation orientation of airline pilots remains relatively
stable throughout their career. The sample represented a wide range of career lengths,
some as long as 26 years, and it would appear that little change to individual
motivation orientation occurs in this period. This is despite the fact that as an airline
pilot spends more time in their career, they are likely to receive additional extrinsic
motivators as their experience and qualifications amass. Such a finding suggests that
whilst the introduction of extrinsic motivators may have an impact on the
internalisation of motivation, this impact is limited. The meta-analysis (Deci et al.,
1999) already mentioned above, which suggested that the introduction of extrinsic
motivators reduces internalisation, may only portray part of the picture. Thus, whilst
the introduction of extrinsic motivators may reduce the internalisation of motivation,
this may only be an initial reduction which may not continue as additional external
motivators are introduced.
Subjects were asked if their motivation to work had changed over their career. Whilst
several responses explicitly stated that “no” it had not, an even smaller number of
responses indicated that it had. Where this was the case, many referred to the need to
achieve new goals and continually seek challenges, as opposed to a change to a more
externally focused motivation profile. For instance, one individual stated “yes as goals
are achieved, new ones are brought in to replace them”. Another suggested that “yes,
earlier in my career from a desire to reach a goal and now the satisfaction of doing the
job well”.
These results do indicate that pilots have a highly internalised motivation profile that
drives them to continually strive for challenge, and that this remains reasonably stable
throughout their career. However, to truly understand whether this orientation changes

32
in pilots, further research would need to explore motivation in the pre-airline stage (i.e.
working in general aviation and training as a student pilot). As one subject stated –
“general aviation tends to breed successful people and motivation is key to this
success”. In doing so, a true appreciation of the impact of extrinsic motivators on an
already autonomous group would be better understood.
Variation Between Genders
In a similar vein, no variation of motivation orientation was found to exist between
genders. This is interesting due the literature suggesting that an overly masculine
culture exists within the aviation industry (Mitchell et al., 2006) and as such, it could
be concluded that the need for relatedness may be thwarted in female pilots. However,
qualitative data gathered suggested very few airline pilots considered their motivation
to work as being associated with their need for relatedness (just 25% identified a
relatedness themed motivator). It may be because of this that, despite an overly
masculine environment, female pilots are, like their male counterparts, more interested
in satisfying their need for competence and autonomy. Deal et al. (2013) made a
similar conclusion by suggesting that SDT need satisfaction did not vary between
genders. Another explanation is that a difference in cultures (either organisational or
national) exists between the Mitchell et al. (2006) study and the organisation sampled
in this paper.
Airline Pilot Engagement and Motivation Orientation
In this paper, it was proposed that engaged employees were those that took on work
tasks in addition to their regular line flying duties. This section of the workforce
encompasses those airline pilots that chose to do extra and thus represents a valuable
resource to the organisation. Such employees represented 29% of the workforce in this
study. Results showed that these individuals reported higher W-SDI scores and thus a
higher degree of internalised motivation to work. Such findings align with those of
Timms and Brough (2012) who found those with higher degrees of self-determination
exhibited higher engagement. Likewise, Deal et al. (2013) suggested that
organisational managers and those involved in such duties were more likely to exhibit
an intrinsic, identified or introjected motivation profile.

33
These employee were also more likely to discuss the satisfaction of their need for
competence when queried further about their motivation to work. The implications of
this finding is significant, however, such a relationship does not imply directional
causality. Whilst it could be suggested that these individuals possess a particular global
level motivation profile (Vallerand, 1997) that pre-disposes them to take on additional
tasks, it is equally possible that because they have been given an opportunity to take-
on extra work, thus satisfying their need for competence, that their motivation to work
has become more internalised; a contextual level of motivation. To explore each of
these suggestions further would require the analysis of individual motivation profiles
from a different perspective. As Vallerand (1997) has suggested, individual motivation
is likely to exist at three hierarchical levels; global, contextual and situational. The first
suggestion, that those involved in extra duties have a motivation profile predisposed to
such actions, would need to be further investigating using a “global” motivation
measure. Such a measure focuses on stable personality type traits of motivation. The
second suggestion is focused on the contextual level of motivation and is the level of
the motivation hierarchy that was explored using the WEIMS.
As such, whilst it can be concluded that those with extra duties have a higher W-SDI
score, this may either be due to the context they operate within, or because their
general motivation profile requires additional satisfaction. Qualitative responses by
these individuals back up the later proposition with some implying that they have been
further motivated because of the additional responsibilities they have adopted. One
individual suggested that “I thought I’d get really bored [as an airline pilot], but taking
on a position of responsibility has provided me with some variation, and as a result I
feel far more motivated about the job”. Likewise, another stated that they had “sought
out additional roles to add stimulation above that offered in line flying which has been
essential for [them] in terms of maintaining that motivation”. Thus, stimulating
individual requirements for competence satisfaction is likely to breed engaged
workers.

34
Limitations
The methodology utilised in this research report does have several limitations that
should be understood. Firstly, the self-report style survey adopted is subject to several
biases; social desirability bias suggests that any reports will align with what
individuals believe to be the socially desirable response – this is particularly relevant
when questioning an individual’s motivation to work. Similarly, individuals are likely
to be influenced by their feelings at a particular time, as such, this snap-shot style
method only provides details of an individual’s motivation at the time they completed
the survey. A low response rate was also a very real concern that was mitigated
through several means.
Secondly, the population of airline pilots sampled, work for an airline supplying
regional air travel to the New Zealand provinces. Many of the participants live within
these regions and have chosen to forgo other career opportunities (e.g. mid and long
haul flying) in order to maintain their current lifestyles. Because of this, there is the
possibility that their motivation to work is slightly skewed from other members of the
population. Additionally, because of cultural differences that exist around the world,
there is no guarantee that the findings of this study are applicable to airline pilots of
other nationalities.
Finally, due to time constrains, theme analysis of the qualitative data did not receive
any peer critique and as such may be subject to the biases of the researcher.
Implications for Industry
In an industry where long career tenures are the norm, employee engagement and
motivation is essential. Understanding the motivation orientation of airline pilots has
the ability to inform efforts to motivate and engage these valuable staff members. The
high degree of autonomy associated with becoming an airline pilot is evident. This is
an occupation these individuals choose to do and such autonomy in occupational
choice has meant individuals possess a highly internalised motivation profile. Such
self-determined behaviours should be seen as a positive by those charged with
managing these individuals as it likely leads to better overall employee performance

35
(Deci, 2013; Fernet et al., 2012; Baard, 2002). However, as SDT posits, environments
that stimulate the three basic psychological needs are more likely to encourage self-
determined behaviour. Airline pilots are no exception with those that report a higher
degree of internalised motivation also reporting that work satisfies their need for
autonomy, competence and, to a lesser extent, relatedness. Managers looking to further
stimulate motivation would do well to continue to support these needs. The lack of
focus most individuals chose to place on relatedness suggests that this need, in the
airline pilots surveyed, is currently being thwarted and programmes aimed at
improving this perception may be necessary.
Finally, those employees engaged to such an extent that they choose to take on
additional tasks are valuable and such behaviours need to be encouraged. This study
suggests that by seeking out individuals who possess a higher degree of internalised
motivation, or by encouraging such a motivation profile by offering means of
stimulating individual need for competence, can go a long way to internalising the
motivation orientation of airline pilots. As with most things in life, all human
motivation is based on a degree of selfishness - the “what’s in it for me?” element.
Airline pilots are no different. Whilst these sentiments may be sub-conscious, human
need satisfaction is necessary to engage and motivate workers.
WEIMS as a Measure of Internalisation
To date, little published material has utilised the WEIMS (Tremblay et al., 2009) as a
measure of internalisation of motivation; whilst a French language version of this
measure has been utilised extensively (Blias et al., 1993) the WEIMS is the first
English language iteration of this measure. The results of this study show a strong
relationship between W-SDI scores and the qualitative data also collected. This
suggests that the WEIMS is an effective means of measuring individual internalisation
of motivation. For instance, this study highlighted several outliers, the motivation
profile of which may be classified as “not-internalised”. These workers are unlikely to
relate to their work, nor indeed enjoy their work. The qualitative responses of these
individuals mimic these indications; they suggest that “the need to eat” and “money
and minimum work hours . . . and opportunity to pursue other recreational activities”
are the reasons they come to work. One even highlighted a recent degradation in

36
working conditions that no longer allowed them to enjoy a good “work/life balance”.
The converse was also found to be true. Such findings further highlight the accuracy of
the WEIMS as a measure of internalisation of motivation and validates the work by
Tremblay et al. (2009) in its development.

37
Chapter 6. Conclusion
According to self-determination theory, all human beings are self-actualising in nature
and so seek challenge in order to grow. It is this underlying tendency that motivates
human behaviour. However, socio-contextual factors that stimulate the three basic
psychological needs – autonomy, relatedness and competence – influence the degree to
which a motivation is internalised (Ryan & Deci, 2002). Internalised motivation is the
most powerful form of motivation and impels an individuals to act because the
behaviour forms part of the integrated self. Fundamental need based theories, such as
this one, are necessary to truly understand the reason for human work motivation.
This paper sought to understand the motivation profile of airline pilots, particularly
those who choose to take on responsibilities in addition to their regular line flying
duties. It was posited that this group of employees are engaged to such an extent that
they chose to behave in a different manner to their colleagues and that this was of
benefit to their organisation. An analysis of the motivation profile of airline pilots
suggests these professionals possess a highly internalised motivation orientation. As
individuals, their career is part of who they are and their motivation to act is driven by
this desire and the need to seek continual challenge. This motivation does not vary
across career tenure, nor does it differ between genders.
Despite this, many may still separate their profession from other aspects of their life.
However, a particular section of this workforce, those that take on tasks in addition to
their regular line flying duties, possess a motivation orientation more internalised than
their peers. It could not be concluded whether this was because their personality
predisposed them to such a motivation orientation, or because the added responsibility
shifted this orientation to a more internalised state. They did, however, report a higher
occurrence of satisfaction of their competence need when quizzed as to what motivated
them to work.
This paper concludes that managers that are able to recognise airline pilots that seek
further challenge within their occupation and, subsequently stimulate this desire, will
encourage the internalisation of motivation in their workers. This is turn is likely to
lead to greater employee engagement and subsequent successful organisational

38
outcomes. However, further research is necessary explore the “global” level
motivation orientation of these individuals as a means of explaining potential
differences in their personalities. Such data may be used to identify and prosper these
valuable employees.

39
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45
Appendix One – Cover Letter

46
Appendix Two – Work Motivation Survey
Airline Pilot Motivation Survey
☐ MALE
Gender:
☐ FEMALE
Birth Year: _______
Base: ☐ AUCKLAND
☐ NEW PLYMOUTH ☐ TAURANGA
☐ WELLINGTON ☐ NAPIER
☐ CHRISTCHURCH ☐ NELSON
How long have you been employed as a Part 121 and/or Part 125
airline pilot?
(whole years)
_______
☐ YESAre you currently involved in any company appointed responsibilities
in addition to your regular line flying duties?
(e.g. manager, instructor, examiner, recruiter, project worker etc.) ☐ NO
Why do you do your work?
Using the scale below, please indicate to what extent each of the following items corresponds to the
reason why you are presently involved in your work
Does not
correspond at all
Corresponds
moderately
Corresponds
Exactly
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1. Because this is the type of work I choose to do to attain a certain lifestyle. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
2. For the income it provides me. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
3. I ask myself this question, I don’t seem to be able to manage the important tasks
related to this work.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
4. Because I derive much pleasure from learning new things. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
5. Because it has become a fundamental part of who I am. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
6. Because I want to succeed at this job, if not I would be very ashamed of myself. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
7. Because I choose this type of work to attain my career goals. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
8. For the satisfaction I experience from taking on interesting challenges. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
9. Because it allows me to earn money. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
10. Because it is part of the way in which I have chosen to live my life. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
11. Because I want to be very good at this work, otherwise I would be very
disappointed.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
12. I don’t know why, we are provided unrealistic working conditions. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
13. Because I want to be a “winner” in life. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
14. Because it is the type of work I have chosen to attain certain important objectives. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
15. For the satisfaction I experience when I am successful at doing difficult tasks. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
16. Because this type of work provides me with security. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
17. I don’t know, too much is expected of us. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
18. Because this job is part of my life. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Please turnover page

47
What motivates you to work and has this changed over your career as an airliner pilot? If so, how?

48
Appendix Three – Ethics Low Risk Notification
Low Risk Notification 2013 Page 1 of 4
Te Kunenga ki Pürehuroa
NOTIFICATION OF LOW RISK RESEARCH/EVALUATION
INVOLVING HUMAN PARTICIPANTS
(All notifications are to be typed)
(Do not modify the content or formatting of this document in any way)
SECTION A:
1. Project Title Internalisation of Motivation: A study of airline pilots using self-determination theory
as a framework
Projected start date
for data collection
1/07/2013 Projected end date 31/07/2013
(Low risk notifications will not be processed if recruitment and/or data collection has already begun.)
2. Applicant Details (Select the appropriate box and complete details)
ACADEMIC STAFF NOTIFICATION
Full Name of Staff Applicant/s
School/Department/Institute
Region (mark one only) Albany Palmerston North Wellington
Telephone Email Address
STUDENT NOTIFICATION
Full Name of Student Applicant Matthew William Birchall
Postal Address 14/370 Oriental Parade, Oriental Bay, Wellington 6011
Telephone 027 4656 993 Email Address mat.b@clear.net.nz
Employer (if applicable)
Full Name of Supervisor(s) Dr. Paul Toulson
School/Department/Institute School of Management
Region (mark one only) Albany Palmerston North x Wellington
Telephone Ext. 2389 Email Address p.toulson@massey.ac.nz
GENERAL STAFF NOTIFICATION
Full Name of Applicant
Section
Region (mark one only) Albany Palmerston North Wellington
Full Name of Line Manager
Section

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