Why These Twenty Seven Part 2

Why These Twenty-Seven?
The Formation Of The New Testament Canon
Part Two
A “Lessons To Go” Scripture study
By Mark S. Pavlin

A national treasure: the Library of Congress Gutenberg BiblePart One of this study began answering questions that
many Christians never even think of asking, namely...

...Why does the canon-
ical New Testament (NT)
consist of these 27
books and not some
others?
Why do most Christians
accept these and only
these as authoritative?
On who’s say-so were
these 27 books and no
others added to the
Hebrew Scriptures to
make up the Christian
Bible?

A national treasure: the Library of Congress Gutenberg Bible
Part Two continues the exploration of these
foundational questions, leading to the summation:
The Church built up the canon
and the canon built up the Church.

1) The first Christians, because they were Jews, were, from the outset
“People of the Book”, meaning the Old Testament (OT)*
2) Christians wanted to spread the Good News by all means, to convince
others that Jesus is Lord and to defend their faith in a pagan culture
3) The success of the spread of “The Way” coupled with the tragic failure
of the Jewish Revolt insured that 2nd generation Christians included
many more Greeks and Romans (gentiles) than Jews
4) Enough Christians were literate in the Mediterranean’s lingua franca,
Greek, that reading gospels, letters, and other writings of important
Christian leaders both in private and in worship services was....
5) ....possible and encouraged. Further- copying and disseminating a text,
while difficult, expensive, and time-consuming, was an effort of love
6) The result: there were lots of Christian writings circulating about the
Roman world in the 2nd–3rd centuries, of all genres.
Why did Christians care about any book?
*Strictly speaking, the OT as a canonical collection of the Hebrew Scriptures was not
formalized until the 2st century AD, possibly as a response to the spread of Christianity.

Part One of this study reviewed how
people of Jesus’ day wrote and published
books (copied them by hand on papyrus
scrolls, distributed them on foot)....
.... and how early Christians read and
prized a wide variety of writings, inclu-
ding letters, gospels, “acts” and revel-
ations.
Why did a book “make the NT cut”?
Part One began exploring the concensus of Biblical scholars
and historians that how Christians came to accept 27 (and
only 27) books as canonical was not an organized process.
The “process” was “messy”, riddled by controversy, driven
by reaction to heretical teachings and persecutions.
And it unfolded over a period of about 300 years.

Part One of this study reviewed how
people of Jesus’ day wrote and published
books (copied them by hand on papyrus
scrolls, distributed them on foot)....
.... and how early Christians read and
prized a wide variety of writings, inclu-
ding letters, gospels, “acts” and revel-
ations.
Why did a book “make the NT cut”?
We introduced the conclusion reached by Biblical scholars
and historians that how Christians came to accept 27 (and
only 27) books as canonical was not an organized process.
In brief, to be
canonical a book
had to be:
 Old
 Apostolic
 Orthodox
 Used Widely
In time, those 27 texts won acceptance because Christians
as a whole regarded them as “old” (not written recently),
apostolic, trustworthy (orthodox), and used in worship
services just about everywhere (“universal” or “catholic”).

Part One of this study introduced the key concept of “apostolicity”;
meaning that to be respected as authoritative (even “inspired”) a book
had to be closely linked to an Apostle, i.e.....
Old and Apostolic
Naturally, a recent book, one published
during the 2nd & 3rd centuries when Christians
began to regard certain books as sacred and
canonical....
...the book’s original author was an Apostle,
say, Peter, John, or Paul, or a close companion
of an Apostle, say Luke or Mark.
...if written by an author known to all, even
if a well-regarded bishop, it could not be
“apostolic”....

Part One of this study introduced the key concept of “apostolicity”;
meaning that to be respected as authoritative (even “inspired”) a book
had to be closely linked to an Apostle, i.e.....
Old and Apostolic
Naturally, a recent book, one published
during the 2nd & 3rd centuries when Christians
began to regard certain books as sacred and
canonical....
...the book’s original author was an Apostle,
say, Peter, John, or Paul, or a close companion
of an Apostle, say Luke or Mark.
...if written by an author known to all, even
if a well-regarded bishop, it could not be
“apostolic”....
Biblical scholars still debate the date of
composition of every NT book. What’s
up with this? Why don’t we know for
sure when a book was written?

Fun exercise: date this text
Imagine that you are wandering through the archives of a major
European library and you open an old folio and out falls a page from an
unknown parchment manuscript. It is in Latin. You scribble out a
translation in modern English and try to date it....

Can you date this manuscript?
If a free man dies intestate, his goods are to be distributed by his next-of-kin
under the supervision of the Church while preserving the rights of his debtors.
No constable shall take corn or other movable goods from any man without
payment, unless the seller voluntarily offers postponement of this. No sheriff,
royal official, or other person shall take horses or carts for transport from any
free man, without his consent. Neither we nor any royal official will take wood
for our castle, or for any other purpose, without the consent of the owner.
No constable may compel a knight to pay money for castle-guard if the knight
is willing to undertake the guard in person, or with reasonable excuse to
supply some other fit man to do it. A knight taken or sent on military service
shall be excused from castle-guard for the period of this service.
All fish-weirs shall be removed from the Thames, the Medway, and
throughout the whole of England, except on the sea coast.

Can you date this manuscript?
Then you find a second page (next slide).
It seems to be from the beginning of the text
and is therefore more helpful.
Now can you date this text?

Can you date this text now? Why?
John, by the grace of God King of England, Lord of Ireland, Duke of
Normandy and Aquitaine, and Count of Anjou, to his archbishops,
bishops, abbots, earls, barons, justices, foresters, sheriffs, stewards,
and to all his officials and loyal subjects, greeting!
Know that before God, for the health of our soul and those of our
ancestors and heirs, to the honor of God, the exaltation of the holy
Church, and the better ordering of our kingdom,
And on the advice of our reverend fathers Stephen, Arch Bishop of
Canterbury, primate of England and Cardinal of the holy Roman
Church, Henry Arch Bishop of Dublin, William Bishop of London,
Peter Bishop of Winchester, Jocelin Bishop of Glastonbury, Hugh
Bishop of Lincoln, Walter Bishop of Worcester, William Bishop of
Coventry, and Benedict Bishop of Rochester,….

How old is the oldest NT text?
the Jews, "For us it is not permitted to kill
anyone," so that the word of Jesus might be fulfilled, which he
spoke signifying what kind of death he was going to
to die. Entered therefore again into the Praeto-
rium Pilate and summoned Jesus
and he said to him, "Thou art king of the
Jews?"
The oldest extant
NT text fragment, a
portion of the verses
Jn. 3: 31-33 (recto)
and Jn. 3:37-38
(verso) is dated to
ca. AD 125.
It is held in the
John Rylands
Library, Manchester,
England

Apostolic? How apostolic?
Teachings of Greek philosophy schools of that culture provided the model:
the founder originated a way of thought and learning that was then trans-
mitted to others by his students (think: Plato writing about Socrates).

Old and Apostolic
In the same way, 2nd & 3rd-gener-
ation Christians, none of whom
heard Jesus teach, were culturally
conditioned to respect and, in
time, treat as sacred any text at-
tributed to one of the 12* special
disciples of Jesus.
Teachings of Greek philosophy schools of that culture provided the model:
the founder originated a way of thought and learning that was then trans-
mitted to others by his students (think: Plato writing about Socrates).
*12 even though Judas was dead
because, as recounted in Acts,
Matthias was elected to replace him
and he also, presumably, received
the Holy Spirit at Pentecost.

Irenaeus, bishop of Lyons in southern Gaul (AD 178-202) and first of the
early Christian teachers honored with the title “Church Father”, insisted
in his major work, “Against Heresies”, that the Church can settle theo-
logical disagreements by:
When in doubt... do as Rome does
“...indicating that tradition, derived from
the apostles, of the very great, the very
ancient and universally known church
founded and organized at Rome by the two
most glorious apostles, Peter and Paul...
And indicating the faith... which came down
to our time by means of the succession of
the bishops.. Every church should agree
with this church on account of its pre-
eminent authority.” - AH, Vol. 3, 3:2

That a canonical writing should be apostolic was in accord with the larger
concept of “apostolic succession”.
Hand me downs
The precept was that legitimacy, authority and spiritual power in all matters
resides in the Church in the person of a Bishop who is “installed” (consecrated
in office) by a pre-siding Bishop who in his* turn was previously so installed.
*“his”: all early church bishops were men
This series of “successions”
ultimately went back to con-
secration of the first Bishops
by Apostles who, of course,
were chosen and instructed
by Jesus.

The precept was that legitimacy, authority and spiritual power in all matters
resides in the Church in the person of a Bishop who is “installed” (consecrated
in office) by a pre-siding Bishop who in his* turn was previously so installed.
That a canonical writing should be apostolic was in accord with the larger
concept of “apostolic succession”.
Hand me downs
This series of “successions”
ultimately went back to con-
secration of the first Bishops
by Apostles who, of course,
were chosen and instructed
by Jesus.
This doctrine was rejected by the followers of
Luther and Calvin during the controversies (now
called the Reformation) of the 16th century.
“Protestants” insisted that spiritual authority re-
sided only in Scripture, Old and New Testaments.
This new religious axiom makes it all the more
critical to know how Scripture acquired authority!

Besides the Apostles, how close to Jesus’ earthly self
could an author (actual or attributed) be in order that
their work be considered for canonical status?

Be near me, Lord Jesus
How near?
At first, second, or third “remove” (see Table, following
slide), but no further.
And not all works by an “R3” author made it into the NT.
No work by an “R4” author (or higher) made “the cut”
An “R3” work was accepted only if the writer was assumed
to be a companion of an R1 or a R2 person.

Remove Person
Relation to
Jesus
Description of Activity
Jesus - - Earthly ministry
R1
“the Twelve” Peter, John,
James, Thomas, etc.
Chosen
Apostle
Companion of Jesus in his earthly
ministry, eyewitness to his life, death
and resurrection
R2
Mary (J’s mom), James &
Jude (J’s bros), Mary Mag.,
Paul, Cleopas, others
Contemporary Knew Jesus or met the Risen Lord (in
Paul’s case, after the Ascension)
R3
Luke, Mark, Barnabas,
Apollos, Clement (Rome),
Timothy, etc.
Friend/disciple
of an R1/R2
person
Early convert, traveled with Paul or other
Apostle or did similar missions work,
active AD 50-90.
R4
Hermas, Polycarp, Justin,
Ignatius, Papias, Clement
Disciple of aged
John/R3 person
Early bishop, martyr, or writer;
active AD 80-150.
R5
Tertullian, Origin, Irenaeus,
Athenagoras
Disciple of R4
person
Important 2nd century Christian writer,
theologian, and/or teacher.
R6
Eusebius, Athanasius,
Constantine
Born >200 yrs
after Christ
Important 3rd and 4th century Christian
leader, historian, or theologian

Apostolic implies free of error
So.. If an Apostle wrote a
book, it was- it had to be-
trustworthy, right?. So it
had to be authoritative.
This meant... that author-
ship was the big question
the early Church faced
regarding a given book.
Was a given book really
the work of an Apostle?
Or was such attribution
mistaken? Or was it (gasp!)
fraudulent?

For discussion:
How would you know, to a reasonable certainty, who the author was
of an earlier written document when all you have is a later copy?
Who wrote this book?

• Self-identification: the text itself states the identity of the author.
This is not as solid as it sounds; it was a common practice for a later
disciple to write in the name of a famous teacher. Such a work is
designated pseudepigrapha
• Tradition: attributed authorship was passed down orally until a
scribe recording the story in writing and inserted a title in accord
with the tradition. Such attribution is not historically verifiable
• Citation: another text identifies the author of the text in question;
helpful but not certain unless the second writer also tells us the
source of the information
• Style analysis: scholarly analysis of the style and quality of the com-
position; its vocabulary, grammar, etc. This approach can support
(or not) a claim only if a body of work is available known to be
written by the putative author
• Internal clues: From its content (internal references, theology, con-
cerns, etc.); perhaps the weakest approach.
Possible ways to know the identity of the original author
N.B. Carbon-dating a text’s substrate or ink
provides a date for the copy not for the original.

• Self-identification: the text itself states the identity of the author.
This is not as solid as it sounds; it was a common practice for a later
disciple to write in the name of a famous teacher. Such a work is
designated pseudepigrapha
• Tradition: attributed authorship was passed down orally until a
scribe recording the story in writing and inserted a title in accord
with the tradition. Such attribution is not historically verifiable
• Citation: another text identifies the author of the text in question;
helpful but not certain unless the second writer also tells us the
source of the information
• Style analysis: scholarly analysis of the style and quality of the
composition; its vocabulary, grammar, etc. This approach can
support (or not) a claim only if a body of work is available known to
be written by the putative author
• Internal clues: From its content (internal references, theology,
concerns, etc.); perhaps the weakest approach.
Possible ways to know the identity of the original author
Hold on! Doesn’t the title tell you who wrote the book?

NT book titles such as “The
Gospel According to Mark” or
“The Epistle of Paul to the
Colossians” were added by the
early Church to a text long after
its composition.
Early writings had no titles
In this fresco, a Roman couple
holds a wax writing tablet and
stylus and a scroll.
Note the tiny hanging red tag or
“sittubas” (“syllabus”) .
It is a label for the scroll identi-
fying the subject and author, e.g.
“Gospel-Mark” or “Letter-Paul”
A writer didn’t waste papyrus telling his intended reader who he was; these
texts were “one-offs” so the author knew his reader knew who wrote it!

The Acts of Peter
This entertaining account of the missionary activities of the Apostle Peter is
largely concerned his battles with his nemesis, the sorcerer Simon Magus
who also claimed to be God’s representative but actually served Satan.
... When the multitude with great astonishment
saw {Peter perform a miracle} many fell down at
the feet of Peter but others said, “Show us another
miracle that we may believe in you as a servant of
the living God.”
And Peter, turning around, saw a smoked tuna fish
in a window... He took it {and} went to a nearby
pond, saying, “In your name O Jesus Christ, in
whom these people do not yet believe, I say, Tuna,
... Live and swim like a fish!”
And he cast the tuna into the pool and it became
alive... Very many who witnessed this followed
Peter and believed...
Why did this Book of Acts not make it into the NT?

1. How many NT books contain the name of the author of the book?
2. How many NT books did the early church attribute to well-known
(revered) men?
3. If they do, and if they did, does this guarantee that the person so
named is in fact the author?
4. Of the 4 canonical Gospels,
how many do most mod-
ern scholars agree were
written by an Apostle or
their close companion?
5. If a NT book is judged
today by most to be the
work of someone other
than an Apostle/close companion, (a) should it be removed from the
NT? Or (b) should it be treated as deutero-canonical (as Apocrypha)?
Pop quiz on authorship (answers on the following slide)

1. How many NT books contain the name of the author of the book?
2. How many NT books did the early church attribute to well-known
(revered) men?
3. If they do, and if they did, does this guarantee that the person so
named is in fact the author?
4. Of the 4 canonical Gospels,
how many do most mod-
ern scholars agree were
written by an Apostle or
their close companion?
5. If a NT book is judged
today by most to be the
work of someone other
than an Apostle/close companion, (a) should it be removed from the
NT? Or (b) should it be treated as deutero-canonical (as Apocrypha)?
Authorship quiz answers (details on following slide)
1. 17 (Paul’s name is on 13)
2. 26 (Hebrews is the exception)
3. No (could be pseudonymous)
4. None
5. a. No b. No (but discuss)
Answers

NT
Book
Author Identified
by work Itself
Author Attributed
by Early Church
Modern
Scholarship Says
4 Gospels & Acts No ID Evangelists Authors unknown
7 Undisputed
Pauline Letters
Yes (Paul, a few
others)
Paul Yes
3 Disputed Letters
(Eph. Col. & 2Thes.)
Yes (Paul, Timothy &
Silas)
Paul Probably not written by Paul but
still actively debated
3 Doubtful Letters
(1&2Tim. & Titus)
Yes (Paul, a few
others)
Paul Not by Paul; author unknown,
written in early 2nd century
Hebrews No ID Attribution to Paul
doubted early on
Not Pauline
Author unknown
James Yes (but which James
is not specified)
James, the brother of
Jesus
Author unknown
1&2 Peter Peter the Apostle St. Peter Not Petrine; author unknown,
written in early 2nd century
Jude Jude, “a brother
of James”
Jude, a brother of
Jesus
Author unknown
Letters of John No ID John, the Apostle Author unknown
Revelation Yes (but which John
not specified)
John, the Apostle Author unknown

 Manuscripts (uncovered 1946-1951) of great historical,
religious, and linguistic significance
 Texts are in Hebrew; some in Aramaic, a few in Greek
 40% of texts are copies of the OT, rest are works of sect
called the Essenes- none written by Christians
 Included is 2nd - oldest surviving manuscripts of works
later included in the Hebrew Bible canon
 Non-OT writings are evidence of the diversity of religious
thought in late Second Temple Judaism
Sidebar: The Dead Sea Scrolls

“Diversity” of Christian thought and doctrine is behind the
next important criterion of canonicity to discuss, that of....

Orthodoxy
“ortho” in Greek means “straight, correct, upright”
 Orthogonal, lines that are perpendicular
 Orthodontics, a specialty of dentistry
 Orthopedic, the study of the musculoskeletal system
 Orthodoxy, right (correct) belief
 Orthopraxy, right (correct) action
“doxa” in Greek means “belief”
(“profession”, “praise”) - - That
which is held to be true by a
person or group, usually with
authority and/or the power to
enforce his/her/their position.
Related words – doxology, dogma

In the years immediately following the Resurrection, in the earliest form-
ative period of what would become Christianity, Jesus-followers formed
small groups within syna-
gogues and gathered in
“house churches” all over
the Mediterranean region.
Believing is accepting the truth
These scattered groups
of followers of “the
Way” accepted Jesus as
Teacher and Messiah.
But there was no single understanding of the
meaning of his life, death, and resurrection.

Believing is accepting the truth
Diversity of views not uniformity characterized the various and necessarily
isolated believing communities which were, nevertheless, passionate about
what they regarded as
“the truth” about Jesus,
as for example, in
1Tim. 6:21
and
2Tim. 2:15-18
Guard what has been entrusted to your care.
Turn away from godless chatter and the
opposing ideas of what is falsely called
knowledge, which some have professed and in
so doing have departed from the faith.
Do your best to present yourself to God as
one... who correctly handles the word of truth.
Avoid godless chatter, because those who
indulge in it will become more and more
ungodly.
Their teaching will spread like gangrene... who
have departed from the truth.... They destroy
the faith of some.

Christians emphasized the importance of trusting God yet insist that
details -- “who”, “what” and “why” -- matter;
That this attitude of the mind we call “belief” could be an essential
part of a religion was almost unique in the ancient world
Most Romans and Greeks were very religious but their worship (of
the gods) meant doing something (“cultivation”) such as pouring out
a libation, sacrificing a bull, or burning incense
Supposedly only these ritual acts mattered
to the gods who did not care what people
thought as long as they got their offerings
Doctrine (belief statements) developed
when Christians explained their “good news”
to non-Christian friends and neighbors who
were potential converts from such practices
.... and defended them against critics. Such
writings, are called “apologies” (defenses).
Believing is an attitude of the mind

Among the many different groups with different
views of Jesus who was right? Who knew “the truth”?
 How many Gods were there?
 Must people become Jewish in order to become Christian?
 What were Christians forbidden to eat and/or drink?
 Was Jesus just a holy man and wise teacher? Or a god, but one having
the appearance of a man? Or a man who God “elevated” to Divinity?
 Should followers of Jesus be formally organized, i.e. be structured as a
hierarchy? If so, how? Who, if anyone, was in charge?
 Are Christian women of equal status to Christian men? Can woman
take part fully in Church life including holding any office?
 Since Christians are “saved by faith, not by works,” how, then, should
they behave? Is anything allowed, e.g. serving in the military?
 Should Christians revere the Jewish Scriptures (Pentateuch, Prophets)?
But what was the truth about Jesus?

Among the many different groups with different
views of Jesus who was right? Who knew “the truth”?
 How many Gods were there?
 Must people become Jewish in order to become Christian?
 What were Christians forbidden to eat and/or drink?
 Was Jesus just a holy man and wise teacher? Or a god, but one having
the appearance of a man? Or a man who God “elevated” to Divinity?
 Should followers of Jesus be formally organized, i.e. be structured as a
hierarchy? If so, how? Who, if anyone, was in charge?
 Are Christian women of equal status to Christian men? Can woman
take part fully in Church life including holding any office?
 Since Christians are “saved by faith, not by works,” how, then, should
they behave? Is anything allowed, e.g. serving in the military?
 Should Christians revere the Jewish Scriptures (Pentateuch, Prophets)?
Beliefs  orthodoxy or heresy
They faded into obscurity, their beliefs regarded by
the growing Christian majority as heresy.
The “proto-orthodox” beliefs of the larger body of
Christians that grew most in numbers and influence,
becoming by the end of the 2nd century both wide-
spread and well-organized, eventually took on the
designation “orthodox.”
The following slides summarize the views of a few of
the groups of Jesus-followers which lost influence.

They were, in essence, Judaizers, holding that Christians must be Jewish
(after all, Jesus and the Apostles were Jewish)
The Jewish religion is compatible with and necessary to Christian belief
Jesus was the Jewish Messiah; a man adopted by God for the special
purpose of the salvation of the Jews, first, and then all people
They accepted the entire OT, favored the Gospel of Matthew, and
insisted that men must be circumcised to become Christians.
The Ebionites

They were, in essence, Judaizers, holding that Christians must be Jewish
(after all, Jesus and the Apostles were Jewish)
The Jewish religion is compatible with and necessary to Christian belief
Jesus was the Jewish Messiah; a man adopted by God for the special
purpose of the salvation of all people
They accepted the entire OT; favored the Gospel of Matthew, and
insisted that men must be circumcised
All Judaizers were firmly
repudiated by Paul....
...and strongly opposed
by Ignatius, Bishop of Antioch:
“To profess Jesus Christ while continuing to follow Jewish customs is
an absurdity. Christian faith does not look to Judaism, but Judaism looks
to Christianity.” - Magn. 10:3
Repudiation of Judaism in toto is the message of the Epistle of Barnabas,
an early 2nd century sermon attributed to a companion of Paul.
We ourselves are Jews by birth and not Gentile
sinners; yet we know that a person is not justified
by works of the law but through faith in Jesus
Christ, so we also have believed in Christ Jesus, in
order to be justified by faith in Christ and not by
works of the law... - Gal. 2:15-17
Jewish first?

“Moses received the covenant but (the
Hebrew people) were not worthy.
Now learn how we (Christians) have
received it.
Moses received it as a servant but the
Lord himself gave it to us (Christians)
as a people of the inheritance...
He was made manifest so that (Jews)
might be completely filled with sins
and that we (Christians) might receive
the covenant through the Lord Jesus.”
Covenant passed to Christians
Barnabas was one of the most popular books circu-
lating among Christians of the 2nd century, was cited
as Scripture by teachers as prominent as Clement of
Alexandria, and was included in some Bibles.
The Epistle
of Barnabas

But {Jews} who imagine by means of blood and the smoke of sacrifices and
burnt-offerings that they offer {acceptable} sacrifices to {God}... suppose that
they can give anything to Him who needs nothing.... appear to me in no respect
to differ from {pagans} who studiously confer the same honor on {idols}....
Jewish rituals ridiculed
Published in 1592 after its discovery in a 13th-century
codex, this early (commonly dated to ca. AD 130) and articulate Christian
apologetic writing also repudiated Judaism. Nothing is known of either its
author (Mathetes) or the recipient (a name meaning “God-born”).
The Epistle
to Diognetus
For {God who} gives to us all the things of
which we stand in need, certainly requires
none of those things which He Himself
bestows on {the Jews}
But as to their scrupulosity concerning food,
superstition as respects Sabbaths, boasting
about circumcision and fancies about fasting
and the new moons, {these all} are utterly
ridiculous and unworthy of notice.

The term is from the Greek word “gnosis” (knowledge)
Is applied to a number of quasi-religious, quasi-mystical groups
with broadly similar tenets
Some of these groups blended Christian elements
into their teachings and participated in church life
Taught that all people possess a “divine spark” or
spirit that is trapped in the body
If one learns the right secret gnosis, it is possible to
escape to the heavenly realm and become a god;
Jesus came from that realm to aid us in our struggle;
to set us free; he only appeared (Grk: doketo) to be
a human being
Gnostic teachings emphasize the unreality and evil of what we might
call the “real world”, the physical world, and especially the body....
....which led to Gnostic rejection of many orthodox teachings (e.g.
salvation by an individual’s knowledge not by the work of Jesus) and
rejection of the authority of church leaders.
The Gnostics

That Jesus was really God and only just looked like a human being
has some Scriptural support.....
DOCETISM
.... yours in Christ Jesus, who, though he was in the form of God, did
not count equality with God a thing to be grasped, but emptied
himself, by taking the form of a servant, being born in the likeness of
men. Being found in human form, he humbled himself by becoming
obedient to the point of death, even death on a cross. – Phil. 2:6-8
Turn a deaf ear to any speaker who avoids mention of Jesus Christ,
who was of David’s line, born of Mary, was truly born, ate and
drank, was truly persecuted under Pontius Pilate, was truly crucified
and died while those in heaven, on earth, and under the earth
beheld it... - Letter to the Tallians
The Gnostics
... But was firmly opposed and roundly denounced by other early
Christians. Bishop Ignatius wrote:

The Gospel of Thomas
The most famous non-canonical Gnostic
work was discovered in 1945 by a peasant
digging for fertilizer near the village of Nag
Hammadi, in Egypt.
He found a jar containing leather-bound
codices hidden over 1,500 years ago.
Of these 13 found their way (it’s a long
story)* into the hands of scholars.
One tractate was a Coptic translation of a
Greek text recording 114 saying of Jesus.
It begins, “These are the secret sayings
which the living Jesus spoke and which
Didymus Judas Thomas wrote down”.
*His mother used some of the papyrus leaves
as fire-starters for their oven in their home.

The Gospel of Thomas
The most famous non-canonical Gnostic
work was discovered in 1945 by a peasant
digging for fertilizer near the village of Nag
Hammadi, in Egypt.
He found a jar containing leather-bound
codices hidden over 1,500 years ago.
Of these 13 found their way (it’s a long
story)* into the hands of scholars.
One tractate was a Coptic translation of a
Greek text recording 114 saying of Jesus.
It begins, “These are the secret sayings
which the living Jesus spoke and which
Didymus Judas Thomas wrote down”.
Many of the sayings of Jesus it
contains are similar to those re-
corded in the canonical Gospels
(see selected verses on next slide).

The Gospel of Thomas (excerpts)
2. Jesus said, "Those who seek should not stop until they find. When they
find, they will be disturbed. When they are disturbed, they will marvel,
and will reign over all. And after they have reigned they will rest."
10. Jesus said, "I have cast fire upon the world, and look, I'm guarding it
until it blazes."
26. Jesus said, "You see the sliver in your friend's eye, but you don't see the
timber in your own eye. When you take the timber out of your eye then
you will see well enough to remove the sliver from your friend's eye."
55. Jesus said, "Whoever does not hate father and mother cannot be my
disciple, and whoever does not hate brothers and sisters, and carry the
cross as I do, will not be worthy of me."
102. Jesus said, "Damn the Pharisees! They are like a dog sleeping in the
cattle manger: the dog neither eats nor lets the cattle eat."

Why not this Gospel?
Written by an Apostle..... Sayings
of Jesus..... For discussion: why is
this work not included in the NT?

Followers of Marcion, the son of a late 1st-century bishop in the city of
Sinope in Pontus on the Black Sea
He became a mariner, then a wealthy ship owner.
He moved to Rome and won respect in that
church by making a large monetary contribution
After considerable study of Scripture, he could
not reconcile the harsh OT God (Yahweh) with
the loving NT God (Jesus)
His conclusion- there are two Gods and wrote a
theological treatise, “Antitheses” (not preserved)
teaching his views
He rejected the entire Jewish Bible. Of the Christian texts circulating at
the time, ca. AD 120-150, he accepted as canonical only one Gospel
(Luke) and only 10 of the 13 Pauline letters (not 1&2 Timothy or Titus)
Marcionites became, in essence, a rival denomination to what later
came to be called the Roman Catholic Church.
The Marcionites

Why didn’t early Jesus-followers just study the NT to determine what was
true and what was false?
They did cite the OT and the books (esp. the Gospels) that were becoming
accepted as authoritative but the NT as we know it today (a single volume
canonical collection) did not exist in the 2nd, nor even the 3rd century.
Why not just consult Scripture?
 Competing, hotly-debated ideas about the person and work of Christ
existed among house churches in a single city
 Complicated arguments caused confusion among ordinary Christians
especially those new to the faith, most of whom were uneducated;
 What today seem like minor things (when to celebrate Easter? What
was the proper title of Jesus’ mother?) were contentious
 Writings fueled these theological contests; proto-orthodox writings
were recommended by some bishops to their churches but...
 Heterodox writings (holding to some “other opinion”) belittling proto-
orthodox ideas circulated as freely since Roman authorities were
suspicious of all Christians regardless of their “brand” of “truth.”

“Orthodox” as a term of faith did not appear in writing until the Codex
Justinianus of 529–534 AD.
But the concept of there being “the faith once delivered” was much
older. In time “orthodox” came to mean the teachings that most
Christians insisted were true and should be held by all Christians
Writings that taught what one or more churches saw as an improper
expression of Christian belief were not “received”, taught, or recom-
mended to other churches; these were heretical, meaning “of a sect”
They were condemned and were, therefore, not copied and not pre-
served for us to read today. What emerged was the faith expressed in
the Apostles’, Nicene, and Athanasian creeds.
WHO DECIDED? The same untidy process by which we make major
decisions today! Discussion, study, prayer, conferences, blogs…
The most influential voices were bishops, martyrs, and gifted
theologians, especially the writers referred to as the “Church Fathers”
Summing up orthodoxy

Church Fathers were the influential Christian theologians, teachers
and great bishops of the first ca. 500 years of Christianity
Greek
Athanasius
Origen
Cyril
Irenaeus
Maximus
John Chrysostom
Clement (Alexandria)
Basil, Gregory Nyssa,
Gregory Nazianzus
John of Damascus
Latin
Tertullian
Ambrose
Augustine
Cyprian
Jerome
Gregory
The Church Fathers, an 11th-century Kiev miniature

Deciding Scripture
We know that one church leader had a significant influence on the exclusion
of The Gospel of Peter from the Canon. This narrative attributed to the
Apostle Peter was accepted as Scripture in many churches in Asia Minor.
They brought forward two evildoers and crucified
the Lord between them. But he (Jesus) was silent
as if he had no pain.
When they had set the cross upright, they wrote
an inscription: “This is the King of Israel.” ...
Thus they brought all things to fulfillment and
completed all their sins on their heads....
Many were wandering around with torches
thinking that it was night.
And the Lord cried out, “My power, O power, you
have left me behind!” When he said this, he was
taken up. - Gospel of Peter v. 10-19

copy to their bishop, Serapion, for his opinion.
He at first accepted it as Scripture; but then had
second thoughts.
Further study caused him to reverse himself. He
judged it as docetic and pronounced it heretical.
He disallowed its use. It was forgotten, from then
on, apparently, not re-copied, not passed on.
So why wasn’t this narrative included in the NT Canon? An account of the
ministry of Jesus written, the text itself said, by the Apostle Peter, one that
was used in worship services?
Here’s why: a church in the town of Rhossus (in what is now southern
Turkey) was unsure it was proper to use it in worship, so the church sent a
Deciding Scripture
It was unknown until a copy was found (1886) in a monk’s tomb
in Egypt. Only a portion of the text was intact, namely, the
section describing the crucifixion and resurrection of Jesus.

Irenaeus, bishop of Lyons in southern Gaul (AD 178-202) was the first of
the early Christian teachers honored with the title “Church Father”
He died a martyr during the persecution of Emperor Septimus Severus
His chief work, “Against Heresies”, is the first theological treatise to make
full use of the NT.
He quoted 1,075 passages from all but three (2Peter, 3John, and Jude)
of the (now canonical) books of the NT.
He was certain that the Church must recognize four Gospels and only four
Gospels... as he explained:
Highlighting one Father
“It is not possible that the Gospels can be either more or fewer in number
than they are, since there are four directions of the world in which we are
and four principal winds… The four living creatures {of Rev. 4:9} symbolize
the four Gospels… and there were four principal covenants made with
humanity through Noah, Abraham, Moses, and Christ. (AH, Vol. 3, 11:8)

While some intellectual and literate Christ-followers debated/refined right
doctrine their church brethren preached right living (“orthopraxy”)
Christians were to live a life of love and service to all, even enemies, as
did their Lord, Jesus
And so the whole person would be right: purity of mind- holding on to
the truth was essential for purity of life- behaving rightly.
These people practiced charity, tended
the sick, and upheld marital faithfulness
And some died for their beliefs.
To them, Christianity was not just
one right way of living, it was the
only right way to be pleasing in
God’s sight.
Faith without “works” is not real

 While some intellectual and literate Christ-followers debated/refined right
doctrine their church brethren preached right living (“orthopraxy”)
 Christians were to live a life of love and service to all, even enemies, as
did their Lord, Jesus
 And so the whole person would be right: purity of mind- holding on to
the truth was essential for purity of life- behaving rightly.
 These people practiced charity, tended
the sick, and upheld marital faithfulness
 And some died for their beliefs.
 To them, Christianity was not just
one right way of living, it was the
only right way to be pleasing in
God’s sight.
Reading Christian writings of the early 2nd century (e.g. the NT
books of 2nd Peter, James, and Jude), one feels the force of the
importance to them of right behavior (“works” mattered).
Faith without “works” is not real
Who is wise and understanding....? By his good
conduct let him show his works in the meekness of
wisdom.
But if you have bitter jealousy and selfish ambition in
your hearts, do not boast and be false to the truth.
This is not the wisdom that comes down from above,
but is earthly, unspiritual, demonic. Where {these}
exist, there will be disorder and every vile practice.
But wisdom from above is first pure, peaceable,
gentle, open to reason, full of mercy and good fruits,
impartial and sincere. - Jam. 3:13-17

 Languages, literacy, literature, letters
and lectors in the 1st century AD
 Separation of Christianity from
Judaism, its growth, its persecution by
the Empire, and its emergence as a
major religion under Constantine
 Why a canonical NT book had to be
“apostolic” and “old”
 Why a canonical book of the NT had
to be “orthodox”
A 4th attribute that cemented
a book’s acceptance into the
NT Canon was that it was ......
Let’s review: so far this study has discussed....

The last criterion to discuss is that a book had to be useful and widely
popular to be accepted into the NT canon
It had to be read in worship services in many different churches and be
recommended for private devotional use by many church leaders
Since early in the 2nd century three of the Gospels were cited by all the
leading Christian writers (apologists and theologians) of the time as if
they had the authority of Scripture (John was still questioned by some)
A book that enjoyed acceptance by many churches over a long period
of time then acquired a “sacred” status....
.... even when acknowledged to be pseudonymous, status that
Christians grant to this day.
By the 4th and 5th centuries, the endorsement of three men in partic-
ular was decisive, ending discussion for all time: Athanasius, Bishop of
Alexandria, Jerome, the great Bible translator, and Augustine, Bishop
of Hippo and theologian.
Canonical means universal

Church Father, St. Jerome
“It does not matter who is the author of the Epistle to
the Hebrews, for in any case it is the work of a church-
writer and is constantly read in the churches”
- Letter to Dardanes,
Prefect of Gaul, AD 414
Canonical means catholic
Heavy Hitter, St. Augustine
“The Christian will hold fast to this in the canonical
Scriptures, that he will prefer those that are
received by all catholic churches to those which
some of them do not receive.”
- De doct. chr. ii. 12, 397 AD

There was debate over many years about some texts but never an official,
recorded vote to decide which books would be included in the NT canon.
To determine which books were “locked in” early on and which were “on
the bubble” we can take a “head count” of preserved manuscripts.
Canonical? Let’s take a vote!

 5,800 in Greek (complete or
fragmented)
 10,000 in Latin
 9,300 in other languages (Syriac,
Slavic, Gothic, Ethiopic, Coptic,
Armenian, etc.)
 The vast majority of extant NT
manu-scripts date from after the
10th century
 Early NT manuscripts are rare.
The NT is preserved in more manu-
scripts dated to before the intro-
duction of the printing press (ca.
1450) than any other ancient work .

Count of surviving NT manuscripts from or before the Byzantine Period (ca.
AD 700) by the Institute for NT Text Research at Munster (as of 1980):
Books
Number
Surviving
Gospels 2,120
Pauline Epistles 571
Acts and Non-Pauline Epistles 447
Revelation 228
Entire NT except Revelation 149
Entire NT 59
Let’s do the numbers!

Got an old Bible?
An example page from an ancient
manuscript is at right.
We have only 59 complete NT codices
prior to 700 AD (previous slide; 208
counting those lacking Revelation)...
... And only 48 manuscripts from the
first 300 years after the time of Christ
(and all are portions of the NT).

For the NT, the answer is ”mostly Yes” (explanation in later slides) but it’s not
certain since only 59 are available for comparison.
•
Didn’t all Bibles have the same books in them?
For the OT, the answer is “No” - Bibles still don’t have the same number of
books of the OT in them today. Does yours have these apocryphal books?
 Baruch
 Bel and the Dragon
 Tobias (or Tobit)
 Sirach (or Ecclesiasticus)
 Wisdom of Solomon
•

For the NT, the answer is “mostly Yes” (explanation in later slides) but it’s not
certain since only 59 are available for comparison.
•
Didn’t all Bibles have the same books in them?
For the OT, the answer is “No” - Bibles still don’t have the same number of
books of the OT in them today. Does yours have these apocryphal books?
 Baruch
 Bel and the Dragon
 Tobias (or Tobit)
 Sirach (or Ecclesiasticus)
 Wisdom of Solomon
•
But the great theologian Augustine preferred the wider Greek collection
(Septuagint) that included these deutero-canonical books.
Some prominent church leaders (Athanasius, Melito, Origen, and Cyril of
Jerusalem) spoke against canonicity of much or all of the apocrypha.
Most weighty in opposition was the great 4th century Bible translator
Jerome, who preferred the Hebrew canon.

Come together
In the early 2nd century, works written on papyrus scrolls were increasingly
copied and shared in the form of codices
For the first time in history, separate books of revered text could be
stitched together into one volume, a collection of once separate books
Of course, few if any churches possessed copies of all of the texts that came
in time to be regarded as the NT Canon.

Come together
In the early 2nd century, works written on papyrus scrolls were increasingly
copied and shared in the form of codices
For the first time in history, separate books of revered text could be
stitched together into one volume, a collection of once separate books
Of course, few if any churches possessed copies of all of the texts that came
in time to be regarded as the NT Canon. It was much more likely
that a particular church
possessed some texts
now regarded as canon-
ical and some now re-
garded as heretical.
Which books might this
church stitch together
into a single volume?

Stitching in time
One common choice was to stitch them together in a single
binding a copy of each of the four most trustworthy Gospels
Another logical choice was to bind together copies of any of
Paul’s letters that they scrounged from other churches with
letters from Justin and Ignatius, both revered martyrs.
And why not bind together the somewhat suspect but fas-
cinating apocalypses attributed to Apostles John and Peter?
But have a care! There is risk putting precious
texts together “in one basket” since, should a
regional persecution break out, local civil offi-
cials might confiscate such a volume.

Making a list
Imagine church leaders planning to
bind texts together in a single
authoritative volume.
First thing they might do is make a
list of them, maybe pass the list
around the region for comments?
Do we have any record of such
lists from the early Church?
If so, which books are included?
First thing they might do is make a
list of them and maybe pass the list
around the region for comments.

The earliest list of approved Christian books...
Then there was the prob-
lem of dating the original.
Most scholars agree to date
it to about the year AD 170
on the basis of the author’s
mention of the most recent
(to him) bishop of Rome,
Pius I (served AD 140-155).
... is The Muratorian Canon, a 7th century copy of a portion of a much
earlier document found (1740) inside a codex in the monastery library of
Bobbio Abbey (below) by the Italian scholar, Ludovico Antonio Muratori.
This text was a challenge for scholars: the beginning of the list was missing.
Worse, whoever wrote it, translating from the original Greek, had only a
poor command of Latin so even the extant copy is hard to understand.

Book In Muratorian canon?
In Present
NT Canon?
Matt. & Mark Probably in missing portion Yes
Luke-to-Philemon Yes Yes
Hebrews No Yes
James No Yes
1 Peter No Yes
2 Peter No Yes
1 John Probably, but not specifically i.d.’d Yes
2 John One of these is included but the text
does not specifically i. d. which
Yes
3 John Yes
Jude Yes Yes
Apocalypse of John Yes Yes
Apocalypse of Peter Yes No
Wisdom of Solomon* Yes No
*Accepted with the comment: “though some amongst us will not have this latter read in the Church.”
The Muratorian list includes 24 books - most of the present NT canon except for
Heb.-to-2ndPe. and one of the letters of John. Here is a summary comparison:
^But it is included in the Old Testament Apocrypha

Book In Muratorian canon?
In Present
NT Canon?
Matt. & Mark Probably in missing portion Yes
Luke-to-Philemon Yes Yes
Hebrews No Yes
James No Yes
1 Peter No Yes
2 Peter No Yes
1 John Probably, but not specifically i.d.’d Yes
2 John One of these is included but the text
does not specifically i. d. which
Yes
3 John Yes
Jude Yes Yes
Apocalypse of John Yes Yes
Apocalypse of Peter Yes No
Wisdom of Solomon* Yes No
.... that formation of a widely acknowledged collec-
tion of authoritative writings for use by Christians in
personal devotions, worship, and doctrinal debate
was largely complete by the end of the 2nd century.
The Muratorian canon tells us....
Finalizing the Canon, however, proved elusive.

• Origen of Alexandria is generally regarded as the most creative
(but not always orthodox) theologian among the Church Fathers
• He did not compile a canonical list as such but his commentaries
on the various texts influenced their acceptance or rejection
• He was definite that there are four and only four true Gospels:
The NT canon of Origen (d. 253 AD)
“Paul did not write to all of the churches which he had instruct-
ted and even to those to which he wrote he sent but a few lines”
Origen as imagined by Fr. André Thévet (d. 1590)
“Peter...left one acknowledged Epistle, possibly
also a second, but that is disputed”;
“John...wrote also the Apocalypse...he left also an
Epistle of a very few lines and it may be a second
and a third, for not all say these are genuine”

 Eusebius was the Bishop of Caesarea, a close advisor to Emperor
Constantine, and the author of numerous historical works including
the extensive and important Ecclesiastical History.
 Made a list of Christian books then in circulation with comments as to
whether they are accepted, disputed, or should be rejected
 Among the “accepted” (in his opinion) are 1st Peter and Revelation, the
latter with caution “if it really seems right”;
 Among the “disputed” are James (“as it is called”), Jude, a second Epistle
of Peter and “those that are called” 2nd and 3rd John, “whether they
belong to the Evangelist or to another person of the same name”
 Among “spurious” books he lists these: Acts of Paul, Shepherd of Hermas,
Apocalypse of Peter, Epistle of Barnabas, Didache, and, somewhat
confusingly, Revelation (repeating his caution).
 All of these books, he wrote, though some are not canonical, are,
nevertheless, “known to all churchmen” (i.e. universal).
The NT canon of Eusebius (330 AD)

What do these lists and commentaries tell us?
Cementing the Canon
That even as late as the year AD 330.....
(1) Most of the books of the (present) NT Canon were accepted
as authoritative and cherished along with the books of the
OT, but, also
(2) There were doubts in the
minds of even the most well-
educated and articulate church
figures as to the orthodoxy and
value of a few books then in
use in Christian churches.
About that same time, one man took
a BIG STEP toward cementing the NT
Canon. That man was....

..... Emperor Constantine. He was the one who granted Christianity
protection, provided financial support for its leaders and funded the con-
struction of churches. He made Christianity not just legal but fashionable.
This guy had clout, unlimited funds and vision. In AD 322 he ordered Bishop
Eusebius to oversee an unprecedented publishing project:
 To produce 50 Bibles worthy to be installed in the 50 churches
he ordered built to grace his new capital city, Constantinople
 Not just any collection of codices, but complete Bibles, magnify-
cent “Divine Scriptures”
 The order stated that scribes should “write them on parchment beau-
tifully, legible and easily portable in order that they may be used.”
 This is the earliest surviving statement by any official on the making of
a complete Bible and its use – but what did “Scriptures” mean to him?
Worthy of an Emperor

..... Emperor Constantine. He was the one who granted Christianity
protection, provided financial support for its leaders and funded the con-
struction of churches. He made Christianity not just legal but fashionable.
This guy had clout, unlimited funds and vision. In AD 322 he ordered Bishop
Eusebius to oversee an unprecedented publishing project:
 To produce 50 Bibles worthy to be installed in the 50 churches
he ordered built to grace his new capital city, Constantinople
 Not just any collection of codices, but complete Bibles, magnify-
cent “Divine Scriptures”
 The order stated that scribes should “write them on parchment beau-
tifully, legible and easily portable in order that they may be used.”
 This is the earliest surviving statement by any official on the making of
a complete Bible and its use – but what did “Scriptures” mean to him?
Worthy of an Emperor
We do not know what texts
were to be included in these
Bibles since none survived to
the present day....
But wait!

Could this be one of them?
CODEX SINAITICUS
The oldest extant complete New Testament

It was “discovered” on Mt. Sinai
The story of its recognition at and recovery from Saint
Catherine's Monastery in Egypt by the German Biblical
scholar Constantin von Tischendorf is fascinating but
too long to detail here*
It began in 1844, during his first visit to the isolated mon-
astery where he saw some scraps of parchment with
portions of the OT in ancient Greek in a waste basket to
be used to light fires^. He received permission to take
these away and later publish them.
*For more information on this codex, go to: http://www.codexsinaiticus.org/en/
^According to the librarian of the monastery the whole of the Codex was marked
in the ancient catalogues and was never used for kindling.
He returned in 1859 under the patronage of Tsar Alexander II of Russia, now
charged to find Biblical texts. This time the monks showed him a text which
he recognized as significant, a manuscript of the complete New Testament
and parts of the Old Testament dating to the 4th century- Codex Sinaiticus.

Holds the 2nd largest collection of early codices and manuscripts in the world, out-
numbered only by the Vatican. It is especially noted for texts in Greek, Coptic, Arabic,
Armenian, Hebrew, Georgian, and Syriac. The complex also houses irreplaceable
works of art: mosaics, early icons and liturgical objects e.g. chalices and reliquaries.
St. Catherine's Monastery, Mt. Sinai, Egypt

• We have only three complete (nearly) Bibles from the age of Emperor
Constantine and his immediate successors (AD 350-450)
• We do not know for sure if any of them are one of those ordered by
the Emperor from Bishop Eusebius
• All are in Greek, all contain the OT (Septuagint) and the 27 books of the
canonical NT – but two contain more than 27
• They are generally regarded as the best “witnesses” we have to the
actual written text of the NT
• Our most accurate modern English translations are based on them
and others as edited into the Nestle-Aland Greek NT, 27th Ed.
• And, yet, just being old does not guarantee being accurate. Hence the
need for on-going critical textual scholarship (and, one hopes, the
discovery of more ancient texts).
What are the oldest Bibles?
What books do they contain?

The three oldest Bibles (and what they contain)
 Alexandrinus contains all books of the New Testament but lacks some leaves
of Matt.(25 missing), John (2 missing), and 2Cor.(3 missing).
 Vaticanus lacks the 4 last books and Hebrews is incomplete.
 One other early codex, Ephremi (5th century) has two-thirds of the NT.
Name Age Discovered Year known Note
Codex
Sinaiticus
4th
century
Kept by the monks
of the Monastery of
St. Catherine, Sinai
Presented (1859) to
the Russian Czar
then sold to the
British Museum
Includes
“The Shepherd”
and “Barnabas”
Codex
Vaticanus
4th
century
Kept in the
Vatican Library
Known
since
ca. 1481
Missing are:
Genesis, the
Pastoral Letters
and Revelation
Codex
Alexandrinus
Early
5th
century
Known to be in
Alexandria since at
least 1308; now in
the British Library
Presented (1624) by
the Patriarch of
Constantinople to
Charles I of Eng.
Includes
1st & 2nd
Clement

The three oldest Bibles
 Alexandrinus contains all books of the New Testament but lacks some leaves
of Matt.(25 missing), John (2 missing), and 2Cor.(3 missing).
 Vaticanus lacks the 4 last books and Hebrews is incomplete.
 One other early codex, Ephremi (5th century) has two-thirds of the NT.
Name Age Discovered Year known Note
Codex
Sinaiticus
4th
century
Kept by the monks
of the Monastery of
St. Catherine, Sinai
Presented (1859) to
the Russian Czar
then sold to the
British Museum
Includes
“The Shepherd”
and “Barnabas”
Codex
Vaticanus
4th
century
Kept in the
Vatican Library
Known
since
ca. 1481
Missing are:
Genesis, the
Pastoral Letters
and Revelation
Codex
Alexandrinus
Early
5th
century
Known to be in
Alexandria since at
least 1308; now in
the British Library
Presented (1624) by
the Patriarch of
Constantinople to
Charles I of Eng.
Includes
1st & 2nd
Clement
Judging from these oldest extant nearly complete
Bibles, the NT canon might conceivably include
The Shepherd of Hermas and the Epistles of
Clement and not have the Book of Revelation.
Can the oldest NT book manuscripts
provide more information?

Oldest Manuscripts 100-300 AD
Handwriting analysis has established that about 40 Greek
manuscripts of books of the NT date from this early period
All are written on papyrus; only six are well-preserved
Taken together with the “big 3” Bibles, here’s the final score:
Book From 200 250 350 400 450
Matthew P45 Vatic. Sin.
Mark P45 Vatic. Sin. Alex.
Luke P4, P45,P75 Vatic. Sin. Alex.
John P66 P45, P75 Vatic. Sin. Alex.
Acts P45 Vatic. Sin. Alex.
Pauline P46 Vatic. Sin. Alex.
Jam.-Jud. P72, Vatic. Sin. Alex.
Revel’n P47 Sin. Alex.

Athanasius, Bishop of
Alexandria, perhaps the most
important cleric of the time,
issued an official letter every
year to all of the churches of his
diocese setting the date for
Easter that year.
His Letter #39 of AD 367 stated
his firm conviction that “Divine
Scripture” included the 27
books accepted to this day as
canonical and only those 27.

We have made mention of... ourselves as possessing the Divine
Scriptures for salvation; and since I fear... some few of the simple
should be beguiled from their simplicity and purity by the subtlety of
certain men, and should henceforth read other books... led astray by
the similarity of their names with the true books...
.... I shall... set before you the books included in the Canon, and
handed down, and accredited as Divine; to the end that any one who
has fallen into error may condemn those who have led him astray...
These are fountains of salvation, that they who thirst may be satisfied
with the living words they contain.
In these alone is proclaimed the doctrine of godliness.
Let no man add to these, neither let him take ought from these...
{there follows the list of the canonical books of the NT}
Pastoral letter #39 of Athanasius

Did a Church council “fix” the Canon?
 No. A regional Synod of Laodicea (AD 363) charged Christians to
read no books other than the “canonical ones” and then listed only
26 books, the present canon excluding the Book of Revelation!
 Following the issuance of Letter #39 of Athanasius, the 3rd Synod of
Carthage (AD 397) confirmed as canonical the present NT books; the
Book of Revelation had survived the “cut.”

The Vulgate closed the Canon
And so it was that after the Church built up
the Canon, the Canon went on to build up
the Church, as it continues to do today.
 A few Bibles containing the odd additional book (i.e. “Barnabas”, or
“Clement”) appeared after this time usually “tacked on” the end
 No significant changes (additions or deletions) in the Canon were
championed by prominent church officials or writers after AD 367
 When Jerome’s Vulgate (Latin) Bible appeared (ca. AD 400), it contained
the accepted 27 NT books. It became the standard Bible for the Western
world for the next 1,200 years (the version of Guttenberg's print Bibles)

The Gothic Bible, a 4th century version in the
language spoken by the Eastern Germanic
(Gothic) tribes who lived on the NE border of the
Roman Empire, in what is now Ukraine, Bulgaria
and Romania.
These people accepted Christianity largely
through the efforts of Bishop Wulfila, who
invented the Gothic alphabet for them working
in Nicopolis ad Istrum (in today's N. Bulgaria).
Wulfila’s parent were slaves, captured in a raid
on Cappadocia. He was raised as a Goth, but
became proficient in both Greek and Latin.
Portions of this version survive, written in silver
ink on vellum dyed purple, the major surviving
example of written Gothic language.

During the 5th century, the
Goths overran large parts of
the West including Italy,
southern France, and Spain.
Gothic (Arian) Christianity
reigned in these areas for
200 years, before re-estab-
lishment of the Roman
Church, and, in Spain, the
mass Gothic conversion to
Catholicism in AD 589.

The Church built up the NT....
Early Christian churches read from and prized many writings
Over a period of about 300 years, the Church as a whole gradually
came to accept as canonical (“rule of faith”) 27 and only 27 texts.

The Church built up the NT....
...those taken to be the writings of a person who
knew Jesus (or their close companion).
Apostolic/Old

Apostolic/Old Orthodox Universal
Confirmation of a work’s Apostolic source was that it was old
(from the “Apostolic age”) and orthodox (of sound doctrine).
Any writings judged heretical were necessarily fraudulent.
A few texts provoked controversy; in some cases the matter was
settled because they were popular and useful in worship services.

Apostolic/Old Orthodox Universal
As early as the opening years of the 2nd century,
Christians cited certain texts as Scripture in order to
refute heresies, formulate and teach right doctrine,
develop church rites, and structure church organization.
....and the NT built up the Church

The Church built up the Canon and the Canon built up the Church.

Having learned about the long and complicated process by which some
Christian writings attained canonical status and others did not, reflect on the
following assumptions often made about the canonical NT books:
For further thought/discussion
 Consistency. What any one NT book teaches must be consistent with
(agrees with) what any other book teaches (no contradictions)
 Correctness. Whatever the NT teaches is true, “inspired” and inerrant,
the only valid source and support of right doctrine and practice
 Constancy. What the Church teaches today is the same as what the early
Church taught, i.e. the Church has never been in error
 Credibility. Events recounted in the NT can be taken as historical, as
having happened as described, even if miraculous or incredible

Having learned about the long and complicated process by which some
Christian writings attained canonical status and others did not, reflect on the
following assumptions often made about the canonical NT books:
For further thought/discussion
 Consistency. What any one NT book teaches must be consistent with
(agrees with) what any other book teaches (no contradictions)
 Correctness. Whatever the NT teaches is true, “inspired” and inerrant,
the only valid source and support of right doctrine and practice
 Constancy. What the Church teaches today is the same as what the early
Church taught, i.e. the Church has never been in error
 Credibility. Events recounted in the NT can be taken as historical, as
having happened as described, even if miraculous or incredible
Would you apply any of these assumptions to other Christian writings,
whether early or modern? What about those written about the same time
as the canonical books, the writings of the “Apostolic Fathers”?

(1) Early Christians thought that some texts were written by an Apostle
(or close companion) and therefore were worthy ipso facto to be
regarded as sacred, inspired, and authoritative. Do you agree?
(2) Decades of scholarly research established such authorship for only
the seven “genuine” Pauline letters. Why not “down-grade” the others?
Is the Canon “closed”?
(3) Can books be added to the canon even today? What if an ancient
manuscript is discovered and it proves to really be written by an Apostle?

Is the Canon “closed”?
(3) Can books be added to the canon even today? Possibly works by one
of these notable Christian authors?
Augustine? A’Kempis? Aquinas? Calvin? Luther? Wesley? Lewis? Bonhoeffer?
Spurgeon? Bunyan? Tillich? Kierkegaard? Niebuhr? Kung? Anselm? Merton?

(3) Can books be added to the canon even today? Possibly works by one
of these notable Christian authors?
Augustine? A’Kempis? Aquinas? Calvin? Luther? Wesley? Lewis? Bonhoeffer?
Spurgeon? Bunyan? Tillich? Kierkegaard? Niebuhr? Kung? Anselm? Merton?
If you could,
which books would you add to the Canon?
Nominate one and present your “apology”
(defense, justification) using the selection
criteria discussed in this study.
If the Canon were “open”....

The New Testament Canon, Its Making and Meaning, by H. Gamble,
Fortress Press (1985)
The Canon of the New Testament, Its Origin, Development, and
Significance, by B. M. Metzger, Oxford University Press (1987)
Who Wrote The New Testament? The Making of the Christian Myth,
by B. L. Mack, HarperCollins Publishers (1995)
Lost Scriptures, Books That Did Not Make It Into the New
Testament, by B. D. Ehrman, Oxford University Press (2003)
Lost Christianties: The Battles for Scripture and the Faiths We Never
Knew, by B. D. Ehrman, Oxford University Press (2003)
From Jesus To Christianity, How Four Generations of Visionaries &
Storytellers Created the New Testament and Christian Faith, by
L. M. White, HarperCollins Publishers (2004)
The Apostolic Fathers- An Essential Guide, by Clayton N. Jefford,
Abingdon Press (2005)
Further reading

This ends Part 2 of
Why These Twenty-Seven?
The Formation Of The New Testament Canon
Part 1 of this study is available on SlideShare along
with many other exciting Scripture-based studies
that are ready for you to use “to-go.”
Address any questions about any of these studies to
msp.291@charter.net

Why These Twenty Seven Part 2

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