Qualitative Research Mehtodes

1. Qualitative Research Methods: What, Why, How
Prof Dr. Siti-Nabiha Abdul Khalid
Graduate School of Business
nabiha@usm.my
KULIAH TAMU FEB UNIVERSITAS BRAWIJAYA
26 FEBRUARI 2018

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Qualitative Research
1. What?
2. Why?
3. How?

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What is Qualitative Research?
 Broadly interpretive
philosophical position

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View of social reality:
Multiple Realities
Reality is
SOCIALLY CONSTRUCTED
Qualitative
Single Reality
Reality is OBJECTIVE
Quantitative

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Interpretive Approch
INSIDER PERSPECTIVE:
SEEING FROM THE EYES OF THE PEOPLE BEING STUDIED
TAKES PLACE IN THE NATURAL SETTING(?)
MULTIPLES REALITIES

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Our view of reality
is determined by events
viewed
through individual lenses or biases

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… qualitative researchers study things
in their natural settings,
attempting to make sense of or interpret phenomenon
in terms of the meanings people bring to them.
(Denzin & Lincoln, 2000, p.3).

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Differences in Research Approaches
QUANTITATIVE
Objective:
to quantify sample findings and
generalize these results to the
population of interest
Nature of Data: “numerical data
QUALITATIVE
Objective:
to gain a deeper understanding
Nature of Data: “soft data”
words, audio, pictures,

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Differences in Research Approaches
QUANTITATIVE
TYPES OF QUESTIONS: Limited Probing
SAMPLE SIZE: large no of representative
cases
Data collection: highly structured
QUALITATIVE
TYPES OF QUESTIONS Probing
Sample size?: small
Data Collection:
unstructured/semistructured
RESEARCH QUESTIONS?
RESEARCH INSTRUMENTS:
RESEARCH SKILLS

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RESEARCH QUESTIONS?

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Research Questions

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Research Questions?
• WHAT
• WHY
• HOW

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Research Instrument
• Researcher is the Research Instrument.
• Concurrent (simultaneously) data collection
and data analysis.

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Researcher is the research instrument
• "Far from being an impersonal data collector,
the interviewer,
not an interview schedule or protocol,
is the research tool"
( Patton, 1987, p. 13).
• A skilled interviewer observes nonverbal cues such as
body language, facial expressions, tone of voice and
general affect.

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“The validity, meaningfulness and insights
generated from qualitative inquiry
have more to do with
information-richness of the cases selected
and the
observational/analytical capabilities of the
researcher
than with sample size”
(Patton, 1980, pg 185)
.. ... So........................... 19

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So…..
• BE A CAPABLE RESEARCHER
• GET ACCESS TO INFORMATION
RICH CASES?
»……. Preliminary data collection?
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YOU NEED TO KNOW
(i) The differences between qualitative and
quantitative research
(ii) what is qualitative research
• Its Characteristics
• Its Assumptions
(iii)Which qualitative research approach that you
are using!
HOW?

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Three parts:
(i) Setting up the research
(ii) Doing the research/fieldwork
(iii) Writing up the research
HOW?

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(i) Setting up the research:
- Research design and proposal
The first part

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HOW TO?
• Design qualitative
research
…… so that..

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.. You qualitative research is of a good quality …
And…..
……. Others are convinced about the quality of your research!

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“QUALITATIVE RESEARCH IS A MUCH A SCIENCE AS IT IS A
CRAFT”
How do you know you have done a good job?
How do you know that this is a good qualitative work?

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Issues with Qualitative Research
• Qualitative research is too
subjective
• Problems of generalization
• Lack of transparency

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 Do I know the field and its literature
well?
 What are the important research
questions in my field?
 What areas need further exploration?
 Could my study fill a gap?
Originality of the research
The first part

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 your research design will evolve as you conduct
your study,
 and therefore a proposal for a qualitative study
can’t present an EXACT specification of what you
will do...

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• Research objectives influence the
choice of the theoretical framework
and the method to be used for the
study.
• Choose appropriate framework:
Justify your framework - why is it
appropriate
Theoretical Framework

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Identify and generally describe your research
method
• (e.g., ethnographic field study, interpretive
case study), and your research procedures
(e.g., long interviews, observation)
• Cite the major authors who have described
your research method.
• Justify why your method is appropriate for
your research.
Research Method

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Describe what you intend to do in detail,
as you begin your study.
• Case site selected? How many? Why?
Research Method

33. CASE SELECTION
• ONE SITE?
• MULTIPLE SITES?
• SITE SELECTION
• PILOT STUDY
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• Quantitative sampling aims at
representativeness
• Qualitative “sampling” aims at
information-rich cases
–Be realistic and practical
–Need range and diversity
–Link to research aim
Site Selection

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• How many people to be interviewed?
• How many interviews
• What functions, why?
• What documents? What to look for?
• What meetings to observe
• Describe your intended data collection
procedures
• If interviews are to be used, list your
question(s) or attach as an appendix
• Justifications

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Research
Question
Data source
And method
Justification Practicalities

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• List of people interviews
• List of documents review
• Observations
 APPENDIX: PROVIDE THE INTERVIEW QUESTIONS

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 Plan the data collection:
– What cases?
– In what organisations?
– Access?
– Interview questions, equipment, recording data
 Plan the analysis
– What method of analysis
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Planning

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Research Skills
• Key skills needed for qualitative research:
– Data collection skills
– Data analysis skills
– Writing skills

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Data collection skills
Skills required:
• Training in a qualitative research method
• Interpersonal skills to:
– Gain access
– Maintain contact
– Build trust

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Data analysis skills
make sense of and transform massive amounts of data/text
into theory by:
– reducing the volume of raw information
– identifying significant themes
– constructing a conceptual framework

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Data analysis skills
• Ability to go beyond description
• Link elements
• Weave a ‘story’
• ‘Qualitative enquiry depends, at every stage, on the skills
training, insights, and capabilities of the inquirer. Qualitative
analysis ultimately depends on the analytical intellect and style
of the analyst’ (Patton 2004: p.436).
• Analysing and interpreting data whilst still collecting it

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Writing skills
A qualitative researcher needs to be
particularly skilful in writing
because unlike quantitative work,
which can be interpreted through
tables and summaries,
qualitative work carries its meaning in
the entire text
(Richardson 2000).
Qualitative data/text is highly complex
• and only carefully crafted writing can
do justice to this.

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Some pointers
• Obtain feedback
• Discuss your research work with others
• Present your research
• BACK UP YOUR WORK!!!
• TRUST THE PROCESS
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WORK HARD
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BE POSITIVE
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Further Sources
• Good Overview of Qualitative Research:
– Denzin, N., Lincoln, Y., (2000) Handbook of Qualitative Research, Thousand Oaks:
Sage
• Philosophies that Inform Qualitative Research:
– Guba, E. and Lincoln, Y.S. (1994) Competing Paradigms in Qualitative Research, in
N.K. Denzin and Y.S. Lincoln (eds) Handbook of Qualitative Research, Sage:
Newbury Park.
– Johnson, P. and Duberley, J (2000). Understanding Management Research: An
introduction to epistemology. London: Sage

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Further Sources
• Reflexivity
Finlay, L. (2002). Negotiating the swamp: the opportunity and challenge
of reflexivity in research practice. Qualitative Research, 2, 209-230.
Johnson, P. and Duberley, J. (2003) Reflexivity in management research.
Journal of Management Studies, 40, 1279-1303.
Woolgar, S. (ed.) (1988) Knowledge and Reflexivity. London: Sage
Publications.

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Further Sources
• Range of Methods :
• Cassell, C. and Symon G. (2004) Essential Guide to Qualitative Methods
in Organisational Research, London: Sage.
• Potter, W. (1996) An analysis of thinking and researching about
qualitative methods, Mahwah:Erlbaum Associates
• Taylor, S.J. and Bogdan, R. (1984) Introduction to Qualitative Research
Methods: The Search for Meanings (2nd edn). New York::Wiley.

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Further Sources
• Analysis:
– Dey, I (1993) Qualitative data analysis: a user friendly guide for social scientists,
London: Routledge.
– Ryan, G. and Bernard, R. Data Management and Analysis Methods, in Denzin, N.,
Lincoln, Y., (2000) Handbook of Qualitative Research, Thousand Oaks: Sage
– Richards L. and Richards, T. Using Computers in Qualitative Analysis, in N. Denzin,
and Y. Lincoln (eds), Handbook of Qualitative Research, Thousand Oaks: Sage.

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Further Sources
• Writing and Publishing
– Golden-Biddles, K. and Locke, K.,(1997) Composing Qualitative
Research, California: Sage
– Wolcott, H., F. (2001) Writing Up Qualitative Research, California:
Sage
– Richardson, L. (2000) Writing a Method of Inquiry, in Denzin, N.,
Lincoln, Y., Handbook of Qualitative Research, California: Sage

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References
• Cassell, C., Buehring, A., Symon, G., Johnson, P., and Bishop. V. (2005) Benchmarking Good Practice in Qualitative
Management Research, (This report is available on the accompanying resource pack or else can be found on the
website: www.shef.ac.uk/bgpinqmr/)
• Coffrey, A. and Atkinson, P. (1996) Making Sense of Qualitative Data, London: Sage
• Fetterman, D.M. (1991) A Walk through the wilderness: learning to find your way, in W.B. Shaffir and R.A.
Stebbins (eds), Experiencing Fieldwork: an Inside View of Qualitative Research. Newbury Park, C.A. Sage.
• Lofland, J. (1971) Analyzing Social Settings: a guide to qualitative observation and analysis, Belmont: Wadsworth
Publishing Co.

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• Loseke, D. and Cahill, S. (2004) Publishing qualitative manuscripts: lessons learned, in Seale, C., Gobo, G., Gubrium, J., and
Silverman, D. (eds).
• Qualitative Research Practice, London: Sage.
• Miles, M. B. and Huberman, A. M. (1984) Qualitative Data Analysis: A Sourcebook of New Methods, Beverly Hills, CA: Sage
• Patton, M. (2002) Qualitative Research and Evaluation Methods, London: Sage
• Schwandt, T. (2001) Dictionary of Qualitative Inquiry, Thousand Oaks: Sage
• Silverman, D. (2000) Doing Qualitative Research: A Practical Handbook, London: Sage.
• Waddington, D. (1994) Participant Observation in Cassell, C. and Symon, G, (eds) Qualitative Methods in Organisational
Research: A Practical Guide, (eds.) California: Sage.

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