Minerals short notes.pdf

MINERALS INFO GRAPHICS
Catalogued by Syed Awais Bukhari & Ali Raza Chaudary
N67 | NISHTAR MEDICAL UNIVERSITY MULTAN
BIBLIOGRAPHY:
1. Biochemistry Satyanarayana and Chakrapani 5th
Ed. Chapter 18
2. Lippincott Illustrated Reviews Biochemistry 7th
Ed. Chapter 28
3. Harper’s Illustrated Biochemistry 30th
Ed. Chapter 44
4. Internet Sources
a. https://lpi.oregonstate.edu/mic/minerals
b. https://corrosion-doctors.org/Elements-Toxic/Cadmium-distribution.html

2
CONTENTS
DESCRIPTION PAGE NO
Minerals 3
Classification of Minerals 3
General Characters of Minerals 4
Clinical Figure of Minerals 10
Metabolism of Calcium 15
Absorption, Transport and Storage of Iron 16

3
MINERALS
Minerals are elements that originate in the Earth and cannot be made by living organisms. They are inorganic in nature.
Plants obtain minerals from the soil, and most of the minerals in our diets come directly from plants or indirectly from animal
sources. Minerals may also be present in the water we drink, but this varies with geographic locale.
CLASSIFICATION OF MINERALS
MINERALS
PRINCIPAL
ELEMENTS
Na, K, Cl, Ca, P,
Mg, S
TRACE
ELEMENTS
Essential Trace
Fe, Zn, Se, I,
Cu, Cr, Mn, F
Possibly
Essential Trace
Ni, Cd, Ba etc
Non-Essential
Trace
l, Pb, Hg, B etc

4
GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF MINERALS
(Na, K, Cl, S)
NAME RDA SOURCES
ABSORPTION, TRANSPORT
& EXCRETION
STORAGE &
PL
BIOCHEMICAL FUNCTIONS
Na
Normal
5 – 10 g/day
Hypertension
Less than
normal
NaCl 
Ingested foods
Whole grains (Bread)
Leafy vegetables
Nuts
Egg & Milk
Absorption
GIT i.e very little in feces
Transport
ECF (plasma) chief cation
Excretion
Controlled by Aldosterone (99% reabsorbed)
Plasma Level
135 – 145 mEq/L
Storage
Bones = 50%
ECF = 40%
Soft tissues = 10%
Regulate Body’s acid-base balance
Maintain Osmotic pressure
Normal muscle irritability
Cell Permeability
Intestinal absorption of glucose, galactose
& amino acids
Initiate & maintain heart beat
K 3 – 4 g/day
Coconut water 
Fruits (Banana,
Orange, Pineapple)
Vegetables
(potato, beans)
Meat (Chicken,
Liver)
Absorption
GIT (90%) i.e very little in feces
Transport
Whole blood contains much higher level of K
since it is ICF cation.
Excretion
Controlled by Aldosterone
Plasma Level
3.4 – 5 mEq/L
Storage
Intracellualry
Maintain ICF Osmotic pressure
Control Pyruvate Kinsase activity
Impulse transmission
Proper biosynthesis of proteins by
ribosomes
Influence Cardiac muscle activity (ECF K)
Cl 5 – 10 g/day
NaCl
Ingested foods
Whole grains (Bread)
Leafy vegetables
Egg & Milk
Absorption
GIT i.e very little in feces
Transport
ECF (plasma) chief cation after Na
Excretion
Parallel relationship with excretion of Na
Plasma Level
95 – 105 mEq/L
125 mEq/L (CSF)
Storage
ECF
Formation of HCl in gastric juice
Chloride shift in during respiratory
changes
Activation of Salivary amylase
S Not specific
Food proteins rich in
Methionine
Cystine
Cysteine
Absorption
GIT of organic (active) & inorganic (passive)
sulfates
Transport
From GIT to liver and oxidized to sulfates
Excretion
Urine as inorganic (mostly) & organic sulfates
Plasma Level
9-18 mmol/L
Storage
Glutathione
Essential for proteins structure (sulfur AA)
Thaimine, biotin, lipoic acid, coenzyme A
of pantothenic acid contain sulfur
GAGs synthesis and detoxification
(Phosphoadenosine phosphosulphate)
Transmethylation mechanism (Methionin)

5
(Ca, P)
NAME RDA SOURCES
& EXCRETION
STORAGE &
PL
Ca
Normal
0.8 g/day
Pregnancy &
Lactation
1.5 g/day
Children
0.8-1.2 g/day
Milk & Products
Leafy vegetables
Cabbage
Fish
Egg yolk
Absorption
Duodenum via Ca-binding protein (actively)
Favoured by Acidity, PTH, Lactose, Calcitriol,
Lysine, Arginine
Inhibited by Alkality, Phytates, Oxalates, FFA,
High dietary intake
Transport
ECF
Ionized = 50% (Diffusible)
With citrate/phosphate = 1% (Diffusible)
Albumin/globulin = 40% (Non-Diffusible)
Excretion
Kidney & intestines (vitamin D deficiency)
Plasma Level
4.5 – 5.5 mEq/L
Storage
Teeth & Bones=99%
Outside skeletal
tissues = 1%
Bones & teeth development (along with P)
Muscle contraction
 Triggering Troponin C
 Activates ATPase
 Increases Actin-Myosin interaction
Nerve transmission
Membrane integrity & permeability
Calmodulin mediated action of Calcium
(Smooth muscles)
Intracellular messenger
 (2nd) Epinephrine in liver glycogenolysis
 (3rd) ADH
Blood coagulation
Hormonal Release (insulin, PTH, calcitonin)
Action on heart (prolongs systole)
Regulate secretary processes
 Endocytosis, exocytosis, cell motility
Cell to Cell communication & signaling
P
Normal
Depends on
calcium
intake
Ca : P = 1 : 1
0.8 g/day
Infants
2 : 1
Milk
Cereals
Leafy vegetables
Meat
Eggs
Absorption
Jejunum
Favoured by Acidity, Calcitriol & Ratio
(Dietary Ca:P = 1:2 – 2:1)
Inhibited by Alkality, PTH & Phytates
Transport
Serum phosphate as free ions or in a complex
form with cations or proteins.
Excretion
500 mg/day in urine
Plasma Level
40 mg/dL (Blood)
3 – 4 mg/dL
(Serum)
Storage
Every cell
Bones & teeth
(most)
Muscles & Blood
(combined)
Bones & teeth development (along with Ca)
Formation & Utilization (ATP, GTP, Creatine
phosphate)
Formation of nucleic acids, phospholipids,
& phosphoproteins.
Essential component of several nucleotide
enzymes
Phosphorylation of proteins & enzymes
Blood pH maintenance (Phosphate buffer
system)

6
(Mg, Fe)
NAME RDA SOURCES
& EXCRETION
STORAGE &
PL
Mg
300 – 350
mg/day
Milk
Vegetables (beans,
cabbage, cauliflower)
Fruits
Cereals & Nuts
Absorption
Enterocytes (50%) via specific carrier system
Favoured by PTH
Inhibited by Ca, P, Alcohol
Transport
Present in ionized form(60%), in combination
with other ions and bound to proteins(40%).
Excretion
Via kidney and intestines
Plasma Level
2 – 3 mg/dL
Storage
Bones = 70%
Soft tissues & Body
Fluid = 30%
Bones & Teeth Formation
Co – factor for several enzymes
(adenylate cyclase etc.)
Necessary for proper neuromuscular
function – low Mg levels lead to
neuromuscular irritability.
Zn
Normal
10 – 15
mg/day
Pregnancy
50% increase
Meat
Fish
Eggs
Beans
Nuts
Absorption
Duodenum
Animal sources Zn better absorbed than
plant
Favoured by phytate , Ca, Cu, Fe, Small
peptides, Amino Acids
Dependent on metallothionein (transport
protein)
Transport
Main ICF Element
Excretion
Via perspiration & urination (0.5 mg/day each)
Plasma Level
100mg/dL
1.5 mg/dL (RBC)
Storage
Prostate gland is
rich in Zn
Found in
association with
enzyme carbonic
anhydrase in RBCs
Essential component of enzymes (alkaline
phosphatase, carbonic anhydrase)
Antioxidant
Storage & Secretion of insulin from β–cells
Maintenance of normal Vitamin A levels
Wound healing
Enhancement of cell growth & division
taste sensation (By Gusten, a Zn
containing protein)
Essential for proper reproduction.
I
Normal
100 – 150
µg/day
Pregnancy
200 µg/day
Seafoods
Drinking water
Vegetables
Seaboard Fruits
High altitudes lack
iodine
Absorption
Mainly from small intestine. (30%)
Also occurs through skin & lungs.
Transport
Mostly stored in organic form as
iodothyroglobulin in thyroid gland.
Excretion
Via kidney, saliva, bile, skin, milk
Plasma Level
4 – 10mg/dL
Storage
Protein Bound
Iodine (PBI) (Most)
iodothyroglobulin
Synthesis of thyroid hormones, thyroxine
(T4) and triiodothyronine (T3). Functionally
T3 is more active than T4.

7
(Fe)
NAME RDA SOURCES
ABSORPTION, TRANSPORT &
EXCRETION
STORAGE &
PL
BIOCHEMICAL
FUNCTIONS
Fe
Normal
10 – 18
mg/day
Pregnancy
40 mg/day
Organ meats (liver,
heart, kidney)
Leafy vegetables
Pulses
Cereals
Fish
Fruits (apples, dries)
Molasses
Milk & Wheat
Absorption
GIT (stomach, duodenum & jejunum)
Only 10% dietary iron absorbed
Favoured by PTH
Inhibited by Ca, P, Alcohol
Transport
Fe3+ bound to Proteins & Organic Acids in food

In acid medium provided by HCl, Fe3+ is released from
foods.

Reducing substances Like Vitamin C and cysteine convert
Fe3+ to Fe2+ which is then readily soluble.

Fe2+ entering mucosal cells convert it into Fe3+ by
ferroxidase.

Fe3+ combines with apoferritin to form ferritin.

From here iron may enter blood stream. Iron liberated from
ferritin of mucosal cells enters plasma in Fe2+ state where it
is oxidized to Fe3+ form by ceruloplasmin & ferroxidase II.

Fe3+ iron then binds with transferring (siderophilin).
1 plamsa tranferrin = 2 Fe3+ atoms
(250 mg/dl plasma transferrin can bind with 400 mg of
iron/dl)
Excretion
1-2 mg/day in bile, sweat & hair loss (not in urine)
Plasma Level
200 mg/dL
Storage
Ferritin 25%
(Liver, spleen &
bone marrow)
Hemosiderin 35%
(Fe
accumulating in
spleen & liver.)
Hemoglobin & myoglobin
formation,
Involved in O2 & CO2
transport
Phagocytosis (Peroxidase of
lysosome)
Biological oxidation
mechanisms
Associated with effective
immune-competence of
body

8
(Se, Cu, F)
NAME RDA SOURCES
& EXCRETION
STORAGE &
PL
Se 50 – 200
mg/day
Organ meats
(liver,kidney)
Sea foods
Absorption
Duodenum 80% (both organic & inorganic
forms) by passive and active transport
Transport
Transported bound to plasma proteins
Excretion
Via urination & milk (according to amount
ingested)
Plasma Level
0.30 – 1.56 μmol/L
Storage
Mostly in liver,
muscle, and
kidney
Prevents development of hepatic necrosis
& muscular dystrophy (with vitamin E)
Maintain integrity of membranes
As selenocysteine (Important component
of glutathione peroxidase which protects
cell against damage due to H2O2)
Prevents lipid peroxidation (protection
against free radicals)
Binds with heavy metals (protection)
Se containing enzyme 5’ – deiodinase
converts thyroxine to triiodothyronine
Thioredoxin reductase,a selenoprotein,is
involved in purine metabolism
Immune function
Antioxidants
Cu 2 – 3 mg/day
Liver
Kidney
Meat
Egg Yolk
Cereals
Nuts
Green Leafy
Vegetables
Absorption
Duodenum (10%)
Facilitated by metallothionein
Inhibited Phytate, Zn, Mo
Transport
Transported bound to plasma proteins
Excretion
Via urination & milk (amount ingested)
Plasma Level
100 – 200 mg/dl
Storage
Bound to
ceruloplasmin
(95%) & albumin
(5%) in different
organs
Essential constituent of several enzymes
(ALA synthase, ascorbic acid oxidase)
Synthesis of hemoglobin, melanin,
Phospholipids
Conversion of lysine residues to collagen &
elastin (By Lysyl oxidase – Cu containing)
Ceruloplasmin acts as ferroxidase
Development of bones & nervous system
F 2 – 4 mg/day
Water
Tea
Absorption
Oral Mucosa (5-8%) & GIT (passive transport)
Lowered by milk and Ca
Transport
Passive transport as Hydrofluoric acid (HF)
Excretion
Via kidney and intestines
Plasma Level
2 μmol/L
Storage
Bones & teeth
Prevents development of dental caries
Structural component of bones & teeth
NaF inhibits enolase (of glycolysis)

9
(Cr, Mn, Cd)
NAME RDA SOURCES
& EXCRETION
STORAGE &
PL
Cr 10 – 100
mg/day
Brewer’s yeast
Grains
Cereals
Cheese
Meat
Absorption
In small intestine - Inversely related to
dietary intake (0.5% in 40 mg intake and 2%
in 10 mg intake)
Transport
Primarily bound to transferrin***.
Excretion
Via urine (mainly 0.2 mg/day), bile, hair loss,
perspiration
Plasma level
20 mg/dL (Blood)
Storage
Liver, spleen,
heart, skeletal
muscles & kidney
Promotes utilization of glucose in
association with insulin
Component of chromodulin facilitating
insulin binding to cell receptor sites
Lowers total serum cholesterol level
Lipoprotein metabolism (decreases LDL &
increases HDL)
Transport of amino acids into heart and
liver cells
Mn 2 – 9 mg/day
Tea
Cereals
Nuts
Leafy vegetables
Fruits
Absorption
Normally absorbed in small intestine. (3-4%)
Iron inhibits absorption.
Transport
In serum it is bound to transmagnanin
Excretion
Via bile and pancreatic secretion
Plasma level
5 – 20 mg/dL
Storage
Liver & kidney
Found in nuclei
association with
nucleic acids
Cofactor for several enzymes (arginase,
peptidase)
Bone Formation
Proper reproduction
Functioning of Normal nervous system
Synthesis of Hb, GAGs, Glycoproteins
Inhibits lipid peroxidation
Necessary for cholesterol biosynthesis
Cd
(Daily Intake
depend on
pollution in
area)
No RDA
Oral exposure
(smoking, industrial
air)
Drinking water
Contaminated sea
food
Absorption
Absorbed in the small intestine mainly through
the metal – binding ligands. Also in lungs.
Transport
Plasma initially bound to albumin and then to
metallothionein
Excretion
Via urine and feces mainly (90% ingested) and
also by milk and hair loss (trace amounts)
Plasma Level
40-50 µg/g wet
weight
Storage
Kidney (cadmium-
metallothionein)
and also other
parts of body
Induces the synthesis of metallothionein
(involved in absorption of Cu and Zn)
***There are two metal binding sites on transferrin— one primarily for iron and a second involved in Cr transport.

10
CLINICAL FIGURE OF MINERALS
(Na, K)
Catalogued by Ali Raza Chaudary
NAME STATE DEFINITION CAUSES SYMPTOMS TREATMENT
Na
HYPERNATREMIA Serum Na
Cushing syndrome (adrenal cortex hyperactivity)
Prolonged administration of cortisone, ACTH or
sex hormones
Dehydration (Diabetes insipidus)
Rapid administration of Na salts
Blood Volume 
Blood Pressure 
Diuretic Drugs
HYPONATREMIA Serum Na
Diarrhea
Vomiting
Chronic Renal Disease
Addison Disease (adrenocortic insufficiency)
Overhydration (Rapid administration of salts free
fluids)
Blood Volume 
Blood Pressure 
Circulatory Failure
IV Fluids
EDEMA Water + Na
Increased activity of steroid, pregnancy and
placental hormones
Hypernatremia
Hyponatremia (cirrhosis)
Blood Volume 
Blood Pressure 
Diuretic Drugs
K
HYPERKALEMIA Serum K
Addison Disease (adrenocortic insufficiency)
Renal failure
Diabetic coma
Severe dehydration
IV administration of fluids with excess K salts
Blood Pressure 
CNS depression
Mental confusion
Numbness
Cardiac Arrest
Elevated T wave in ECG
HYPOKALEMIA Serum K
Cushing syndrome (adrenal cortex hyperactivity)
Prolonged administration of cortisone, ACTH or
sex hormones
Rapid administration of K salts
Prolonged Diarrhea & Vomiting
Treatment of diabetic coma with insulin
Blood Pressure 
Muscular Weakness
Irritibility
Cardiac Arrest
Flattened waves with
inverted T waves in
ECG

11
CINICAL FIGURE OF MINERALS
(Cl, S, Ca)
NAME STATE DEFINITION CAUSES SYMPTOMS TREATMENT
Cl
HYPERCHLOREMIA Serum Cl
Vomiting
Diarrhea
Respiratory Alkalosis
Addision Disease
Excessive Sweating
HYPOCHLOREMIA Serum Cl
Cushing’s Syndrome
Dehydration
Respiratory Acidosis
S HYPOSULFUREIA Serum S
Homocystinuria
Homocysteinemia
Neural tube defects
Thiol imbalance (vascular disease,
Alzheimer's, HIV and cancer)
Ca
HYPERCALCEMIA Serum Ca
Hyperparathyroidism
Serum phosphate
Alkaline phosphate Activity 
Urinary excretion of Ca and P
Urinary caninuli
Lethargy
Muscle weakness
Loss of appetite
Nausea
Constipation
Myocardial contraction
Fractures 
Determination of
inonized serum Ca to
diagnose
hyperparathyroidism
as some patients have
normal total serum Ca
level rather than
normal ionized Ca
serum level
HYPOCALCEMIA Serum Ca (7 mg/dL)
Hypoparathyroidism due to surgical removal
or autoimmune disease of PTH
Tetany
Neuromuscular irritability
Convulsions
Supplementation of
oral Ca with Vitamin D
or IV administration of
Calcium gluconate
RICKETS
Defective calcification
of bones
Dietary deficiency of Ca and P
Bend bones
Supplementation of
oral Ca with Vitamin D
RENAL RICKETS
Impairment of synthesis
of calcitriol by renal
tissue
Damage to renal tissue
Serum phosphate
Bend bones
Administration of
calcitriol

12
(Ca, P, Mg, Zn)
NAME STATE DEFINITION CAUSES/DISEASE STATES SYMPTOMS TREATMENT
Ca
OSTEOPOROSIS
Demineralization of
bones
Deficiency of sex hormones
Decreased production of calcitriol from
vitamin D with age
Frequent bone fractures
Estrogen
administration with Ca
supplementation
OSTEOPETROSIS
Increased bone
density
Inability to resorb bone (demineralize)
Renal tubular acidosis
Ceberal calcification
Marble hard bones
P
HYPERPHOSPHATEMIA Serum P
Hypoparathyroidism
Renal disease
Diabetes Mallitus (Inorganic Phosphate)
HYPOPHOSPHATEMIA Serum P (7 mg/dL)
Hyperparathyroidism
Vitamin K Deficient Rickets
Renal Rickets
Diabetes Mallitus (Organic Phosphate)
Mg HYPOMAGNESEMIA Serum Mg
Uremia
Rickets
Abnormal Pregnancy
Muscle weakness
Muscular irritability
Convulsions
Zn
Zn DEFICIENCY Serum Zn
Acrodermatitis enteropathica (Zinc
deficiency due to defect in absorption of
Zn from intestine)
Growth retardation
Poor wound healing
Loss of taste sensation
Impaired spermatogenisis
Depression
Dementia
Psychiatric disorders
Zn TOXICITY Excessive Zn Inhalation of zinc oxide fumes
Nausea
Gastric ulcer
Pancreatitis
Anemia
Excessive salivation

13
(I, Fe, Se, Cl)
NAME STATE DEFINITION CAUSES/DISEASES SYMPTOMS TREATMENT
I
GOITER/ TOXIC
GOITER
Abnormal increase in
size of thyroid gland
Elevation of TSH
Failure in thyroid autoregulation
Deficiency/Excess of iodine
Excessive swelling in neck
region
Fe
MICROCYTIC ANEMIA Iron deficiency anemia
Strict vegetarians (Fe inhibitors in veges)
Adequate intake of iron
Defective absorption of iron
Repeated pregnancies
Hookworm infections
Hypochrmoic anemia
Apathy
Retarded growth
Lethargy
Loss of appetite
Supplementation of
iron with vitamin C
and folic acid
HEMOSIDEROSIS Iron toxicity
Repeated blood transfusions in patients
of hemolytic anemia and hemophilia
Not much visible
HEMOCHROMATOSIS
Direct deposition of
iron in tissues
Hemosiderosis
Cause bronze diabetes
Bronzed pigmentation of skin
Liver cirrhosis
Pancreatic fibrosis
Se
KESHAN DISEASE Se deficiency Increased CVD and cancer risks
Se TOXICITY Excessive Se
Selenosis
Weight loss
Emotional disturbances
Diarrhea
Hair loss
Garlic odor breath
Cu WILSON DISEASE
Hepatolenticular
degenration
Failure to synthesize ceruloplasmin
Impairment of bindnig capacity of Cu
Mutataion in gene encoding copper
binding ATPase
Deposition of Cu in abnormal
amounts in liver & lenticular
nucleus of brain
Lower levels of Cu &
Ceruloplasmin in plasma
Increased excretion of Cu in
urine
Renal damage due to Cu
deposition
Increased intestinal absorption
of Cu
Administration of
penecilliamine

14
(F, Cr, Mn, Cd)
NAME STATE DEFINITION CAUSES/DISEASES SYMPTOMS TREATMENT
F
DENTAL CARIES Tooth decay Drinking water containing 0.5 ppm of F Tooth decay
DENTAL FLUOROSIS
Excessive intake of F
affecting teeth
Mottling of enamel
Discoloration of teeth
Week teeth
Rough teeth
Brown/Yellow pathy teeth
SKELETAL FLUOROSIS
affecting bones
Hypercalcification in bones,
ligaments and collagen
ADVANCED
FLUOROSIS
affecting joints
Crippled individual
Cannot perform any activity
Cr
Cr DEFICIENCY Serum Cr
Defective CHO, Lipid and
Protein metabolisms
Cr TOXICITY Excessive Cr
Liver Damage
Kidney Damage
Mn Mn DEFICIENCY Serum Mn
β-cells of pancreas Activity 
Fat accumulation in liver
Retarded growth
Bone deformities
Sterility
Cd Cd TOXICITY Excessive Cd
Cadmium blues (chills, fever,
and muscle ache)
Tracheo-bronchitis,
pneumonitis, and pulmonary
edema
Renal Failure
Osteomalacia & osteoporosis
Renal tubular dysfunction
Increased lipid peroxidation

15
METABOLISMS OF CALCIUM

16
ABSORPTION AND TRANSPORT OF IRON

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