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Jillian (Maggie) Kasner
PSCI 200: Political Violence and Terrorism
Due December 5, 2015
The Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam
Oppression of members of the Tamil ethnic group by the Sri Lankan government
triggered a liberation movement. For more than 30 years, the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam
(LTTE) was one of the most ruthless terrorist organizations in Sri Lanka and globally. The
LTTE's main objective was to create an independent state in the north and east of Sri Lanka for
members of the Tamil ethnic group (Cronin, 2004: 64). The LTTE tried to accomplish this
objective by using a wide range of violent methods from militant raids to assassinations and
suicide bombings to waging a more traditional civil war. Both the LTTE and the Sri Lankan
government violated many human rights during the Sri Lankan Civil War. The LTTE confined
its attacks to Sri Lanka and a single attack in India. Although the LTTE did not achieve their
political objectives, the conflict gained international attention and the Sri Lankan government is
being investigated for committing war crimes against the Tamil people.
Brief History of Sri Lanka
The sensitive relationship between the Tamil and Sinhalese population stems from
European imperialism. In 1505 Portuguese colonized the island and divided it into seven warring
kingdoms. In the late 16th century, the Dutch arrived and began ruling the Sinhalese and Tamil
Kingdoms, but was unable to capture the Kandyan Kingdom. In 1815 the British seized the
Kandyan Kingdom and politically unified the island. The British gave the minority Tamil ethnic
group preferential treatment, which further exacerbated existing tensions between Kingdoms.
The British provided the Tamil ethnic group disproportionate access to English education and
civil services (Alexander, 2014). In 1948, Sri Lanka gained independence from the British. The
Sri Lankan government was created based on the majority ethnic political parties and their ideas.

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The candidates ran on "Sinhalese-only platform" (Alexander, 2014). Sinhalese and Buddhism
became the national language and religion, respectively. The Tamil people began to feel like an
oppressed minority because of the loss of their language and religion.
The goal of the Tamil political party, called the Tamil United Liberation Front, was to
create an independent Tamil state using political and non-violent tactics. Part of the Tamil
population felt that these tactics were unsuccessful and progress was not being made. As a result,
they began using violent tactics to achieve their goal. Thiruvenkadam Velupillai Prabhakaran was
frustrated by the many laws passed to suppress the Tamil population and founded an activist
group called the Tamil New Tigers (TNT). The TNT was a militant group that disbanded after
the Sri Lankan police arrested most of its members. In 1975, Prabhakaran shot and killed Alfred
Duraiappah, the moderate Tamil mayor of Jaffna and created the LTTE.
In 1976 Prabhakaran founded the LTTE and pioneered the use of suicide bombs. The
suicide bombers disguised themselves in black uniforms and masked faces. They were called the
"Black Tigers." In July of 1983, the LTTE killed thirteen Sri Lankan soldiers in a landmine
ambush. In response, the local Sri Lankan civilians went on a murderous rampage across the
southern part of the island and killing, torturing, and raping thousands of Tamil people. This
event led to the Sri Lanka Civil War of 1983. According to Alexander (2014), there is evidence
the "government ministers disclosed private voter registration to their "thug groups" in order to
intimidate and, in some cases, assault Tamil residents; such instances pointed to the
government's involvement with and support of these events. The gross lack of concern and
subsequent absence of political will or remedies convinced even the previously moderate Tamil
people that, perhaps, the LTTE were right to be fighting for a separate homeland." It is clear that

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the tensions stemming from the early 16th century are still affecting the relationship between the
two populations.
Tactical Strategy of the LTTE
The LTTE primarily used violence and militia attacks in its attempt to create a
monoethnic independent state. Cronin estimates that during the Civil War “64,000 people were
killed and between 800,000 and 1.6 million persons were displaced” (2004: 64).
During the war, the LTTE gained control over portions of the north and east in Sri Lanka.
The LTTE’s arsenal included “artillery, mortars, and anti-aircraft weapons … speedboats,
demolition teams, and fishing boats” and air crafts (Cronin, 2004: 64). These weapons and
military machines were used by the Sea Tigers, Black Tigers, and the Air Tigers during the war.
The LTTE received funding from Tamil groups in North America, Europe, and Asia, and from
smuggling and conducting business in Sri Lanka (Cronin, 2004: 63).
According to the Federal Bureau of Investigations, the LTTE "perfected the use of
suicide bombers, invented the suicide belt, pioneered the use of women in suicide attacks,
murdered some [four thousand] people in the past two years alone [2006 to 2008], and
assassinated two world leaders—the only terrorist organization to do so" (2008). The Black
Tigers specialized in suicide attacks and reportedly carried out more than one hundred and fifty
attacks (Cronin, 2004: 64-65). These individuals are specially selected and received advanced
training. The LTTE conducted multiple attacks in the Colombo district near Colombo, the capital
of Sri Lanka. Approximately half of the major attacks occurred where the majority of the Tamil
population lives, also the desired location for the Tamil independent state.
Evolution of the Involvement of Women in the LTTE

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The involvement of women in the LTTE changed dramatically from 1970 to 2009. In
1970, women were only allowed to participate in propaganda work, medical care, information
collection, fundraising and recruitment, but many women made appeals to join the males in
combatant roles (Alison, 2003: 38-39). In 1983, the LTTE founded the Vituthalai Pulikal
Munani, also known as the Women’s Front of the Liberation Tigers or the “Freedom Birds.”
Women were not trained for combatant roles until 1985. By 1989 the women’s training section
of the LTTE had its own leadership structure (Alison, 2003: 38-39). The Sea Tigers were
primarily female, and the Black Tigers also had a large number of women (Alison, 2003: 39).
The LTTE is secretive regarding the actual number of female combatants. Alison reported that
estimates of the number of women who fill combatant roles ranges between 15% and 33%
(2003: 39). Approximately a third of all attacks by the Black Tigers were committed by women
(Women and Terrorism Lecture). Unlike Palestinian and Chechen terrorist groups, LTTE women
were long-term members, fairly integrated into the organization, and held some leadership roles
(Eager, Women and Terrorism Lecture). According to Alison, there were three women on the
LTTE’s Central Committee (the top decision-making body) and in 2002 there were twelve
women (2003: 47).
Alison described five common reasons why women joined the LTTE. The most common
reason was the desire for an independent state for the Tamil population (2003: 39). Suffering and
oppression was the second common reason. Female LTTE members described key personal
experiences that led them to join the LTTE such as displacement, deaths of family members,
oppression of the Tamil people as a whole, suffering of individuals in their communities,
government bombing of places Tamil people go (churches and the kovils [Hindu temples]), and
the lack of education for their children (Alison, 2003: 40-42). The third reason was restriction to

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education and disruption of education. The Sri Lankan government made Sinhalese the national
language. This meant one must be fluent in Sinhalese, not the Tamil language, to apply to jobs
and college. Educational disruption occurred because displacement prevented graduation from
secondary school, a prerequisite to tertiary education (Alison, 2003: 42).
The fourth reason women joined the LTTE was because of sexual violence against
women by the Indian Peacekeeping Force (IPKF) and the Sri Lankan military. Alison stated that
from 1987-1990 there were hundreds of rapes and assaults on women by Indian soldiers. In
general Tamil society, the women were blamed for their own rape, but the LTTE viewed sexual
assault as an “accident” (2003: 42-43). The LTTE also punished offenders of domestic or sexual
violence through their “de facto” judicial system (Alison, 2009: 51) which empowered the
female victims. Many women feared being raped or were angry about its occurrence. The fifth
reason is the emancipation of women. In Tamil society, women are “circumscribed by the social
expectations and cultural conventions of addaccam (modesty and silence) and odduccam (poise
and restraint). A woman’s mobility is monitored and controlled in public spaces and she is
constantly under scrutiny of the male population” (Alexander, 2014). Therefore, some women
participated in the LTTE because they believed they would receive equal rights in an
independent Tamil state.
Although many perceived LTTE women as being victimized by the male population,
there is evidence that not all women were forced to join the LTTE and some women even sought
participation in combatant roles.
Specific Attacks Attributed to the LTTE

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The LTTE is the only terrorist organization to successfully assassinate multiple heads of
state via suicide bombings and carry out multiple massacres. Other types of attacks included air
and car bombings.
In June of 1990, the LTTE requested that policemen from multiple police stations in the
eastern part of the island surrender. The policemen surrendered after being ordered by President
Premadasa. According to the University Teachers for Human Rights, the LTTE beat, gagged,
blindfolded, and bound approximately six hundred policemen. They were placed in a single file
line facing the ground. Some of the surrendered policemen were loaded onto a bus and shot near
the edge of a nearby jungle. The next night, the remaining policemen were taken to the same spot
and shot. The LTTE then set the bodies on fire. In response, the Sri Lankan military forced the
local farmers and other individuals to ‘volunteer’ to bury the bodies of the policemen (1990).
In 1990, President Premadasa sent the Sri Lankan military and death squads to sweep the
south side of Sri Lanka, thereby removing suspected members of the People’s Liberation Front
from their homes and killing them. The People’s Liberation Front was an extremist Buddhist
terrorist organization that opposed any accommodation with the Tamil people who wanted an
independent state. All but one of the People’s Liberation Front leaders was killed during this
raid. President Premadasa hoped to negotiate a constitutional and political solution to end the
civil war (Gargan, 1993).
In 1991, a car explosion killed Deputy Defense Minister Ranjan Wijeratne, along with
eighteen others and left seventy-three individuals injured. The LTTE has never admitted to
planning or having any involvement in planting the bomb (BBC, 1991).
In 1991, the LTTE assassinated Rajiv Ghandi, the Indian Prime Minister, via a suicide
bomb carried by a woman named Dhanu. The LTTE planned this attack for at least a year with

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multiple test runs. At least twelve individuals died in this attack. The assassination of Rajiv
Ghandi occurred in India and is the only attack outside of Sri Lanka that was attributed to the
LTTE. India has a significant Tamil population in the south which borders the northern
provinces of Sri Lanka. In 1993 during a May Day political rally, the president of Sri Lanka,
President Ranasinghe Premadasa, was assassinated via a suicide bombing along with at least 10
other individuals (Gargan, 1993).
In 1994, the LTTE was accused of assassinating Gamini Dissanayake, a presidential
candidate, and Ossie Abeyagoonasekera, a former parliament member. This attack killed fifty
other individuals. The LTTE was also accused of assassinating C.V. Gunaratrie, the Sri Lankan
Cabinet Minister of Industries Development, and his wife. This attack killed twenty other
individuals (Sri Lanka Database, 2001).
The LTTE was involved in or accused of other massacres such as: the Kent and Dollar
Farm massacres that killed 62 people (1984), Kokilai massacre that killed 11 people (1984),
Anuradhapura massacre that killed 146 people (1985), Habarana bus massacre that killed 127
people (1987), Aranthalawa massacre that killed 35 people (1987), Kattankudy mosque massacre
that killed 147 people (1990), Polliyagodella massacre that killed 109 people (1991), Eastern Sri
Lanka massacres that killed 120 people (1995), Kallarawa massacre that killed 42 people (1995),
Gonagala massacre that killed 54 people (1999), Kebithigollewa massacre that killed 65 people
(2006), and the Gomaran Kadawala massacre that killed 6 people (2006) (Sri Lanka Database,
2001). The government responded to these attacks with violence against Tamil citizens, most of
which did not participate in the LTTE or other radical terrorist groups.
The LTTE was involved or accused of being involved in the following bombings: Central
Bus Station bombing that killed 113 people (1987), Central Bank bombing that killed 91 people

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(1996), Dehiwala train bombing that killed 64 people (1996), Temple of the Tooth attack that
killed 17 people, and the Digampathana bombing that killed approximately 92 people (2006) (Sri
Lanka Database, 2001).
Also, the LTTE has been accused of shooting down Lionair Flight 602 that killed 55
people (1998). The LTTE has also been accused of setting off a bomb on Air Lanka Flight 512
killing twenty one individuals (1986) (Sri Lanka Database, 2001).
The LTTE has been accused of or admitted to being involved in multiple attacks that left
thousands of citizens and government officials dead in pursuit of their main goal, an independent
state for the Tamil population.
The Demise of the LTTE
In late 2008 and early 2009 the LTTE began to collapse. After decades of terrorism and
fighting, the LTTE was receiving less financial and artillery support from supporters in other
countries. In January of 2009, the LTTE lost control over its de facto capital, Kilinochchi
(Anderson, 2011). After this devastating loss, LTTE members fled to Mullaittivo, forcing
approximately three hundred thousand civilians to flee with them. The government set up “no
fire zones” for the civilians. The civilians, who managed to get to these zones, were executed by
the military; hundreds were killed each day.
In the middle of April of 2009, the Army attacked the LTTE and civilians on the beach,
shooting from boats, aircraft, and the ground (Anderson, 2011). The LTTE released
approximately two hundred thousand civilians on April 21st. After the civilians were released,
the Sri Lankan Army forced most of the relief workers and all international observers to leave
the area. Reports say that approximately forty thousand civilians were killed by the Sri Lankan

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Army during this offensive strike (Anderson, 2011). A survivor said that they had to dig bunkers
into the beach to avoid being shot. Their bunkers were surrounded by bunkers filled with
members of the Black Tigers. As the military advanced, they were forced to relocate and dig a
new bunker. Many individuals were shot during this process or when trying to find food or
water. One of the survivors acquired a cell phone and was able to reach a General of the Sri
Lankan Army who told him to come out of the bunker waving a white flag when he called him
back. When this call came, he and the other survivors left the bunker. The military told them not
to come any closer because they had been directed to shoot everyone because Black Tigers had
been fleeing alongside the civilians. The survivors were shot at and grenades thrown as they ran
back to their bunker. When the survivors were finally told they could safely come out of the
bunkers, they headed towards the soldiers. The soldiers told them that they were ordered to shoot
everyone but the survivor convinced the soldiers to strip search him and the other survivors
instead (Anderson, 2011).
On May 18th, the Sri Lankan army announced the death of the LTTE leader. Along with
Prabhakaran, two hundred and fifty individuals died during this attack. The Sri Lankan Army
released pictures of Prabhakaran dead with a handkerchief covering his forehead. Many believe
this is to cover an execution style gunshot wound. Soon after the release of the photo, the Sri
Lankan Army recovered the bodies of Prabhakaran’s wife and their two children (Anderson,
2011). After Prabhakaran’s death, the LTTE was unable to find a new leader. The LTTE
organization collapsed after its founder and leader Prabhakaran died in May of 2009.
United Nations’ Investigation of the Sri Lankan Government and the LTTE’s War Crimes

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The Sri Lankan government and the LTTE are both being investigated by the United
Nations for violating human rights during the Sri Lankan civil war. The human rights violations
include unlawful killings, sexual and gender-based violence, disappearances, torture, forced
recruitment of children and adults, and denial of humanitarian aid (Ellis, 2015). The United
Nations (UN) passed a resolution in March of 2013 in order to compel the Sri Lankan
government to take responsibility for war crimes committed by the government.
After the government failed to comply with the 2013 resolution, the UN drafted a second
resolution whereby the "Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR) [will]
investigate serious violations of international human rights and humanitarian law and related
crimes" by the Sri Lankan government and the LTTE during the Sri Lankan civil war (Human
Rights Watch, 2015). To date, the government refuses to investigate or prosecute individuals
who tortured suspected members of the LTTE or their supporters while in custody, even when
there is evidentiary support of the allegations. The Sri Lankan government's response to the
second UN resolution is that the government "will not cooperate with the international
investigation and will deny visas to members of the investigative team seeking to enter the
country" and Sri Lankan nationals were also warned that if they provide "information to the UN
investigation they will be regarded as traitors" (Human Rights Watch, 2015). Moreover, the Sri
Lankan government continues to arrest independent media and defenders of human rights who
support the UN resolution.
Current Relationship between the Sri Lankan Government and the Tamil People
The Sri Lankan government pledged to address the concerns of the Tamil people
regarding their rights, but instead has "blocked simple gestures, such as allowing Tamil
communities to hold commemorative services for their dead or sing the national anthem in

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Tamil" (Human Rights Watch, 2015). The Sri Lankan government also passed an order to freeze
"assets and financial resources of entities ranging from the LTTE to nonviolent Tamil
organizations around the world" (Human Rights Watch, 2015). The OHCHR must also
investigate current allegations that the Sri Lankan government is targeting activists and attacking
Muslims which constitutes for nine percent of the population in Sri Lanka. Human Rights Watch
provided the following example to illustrate the violence against Muslims:
The incident was sparked by a minor traffic incident between Muslim youths and
the driver of a van carrying a Buddhist monk. The BBS [Buddhist Power Force]
held a protest rally led by leader Galagodaaththe Gnanasara Then the next day,
purportedly to express concerns for the safety of Buddhists in the area. Soon after,
mobs carrying poles and other objects went on a rampage, attacking Muslims.
Even after the government ordered a curfew, Muslim homes and properties were
targeted in nearby areas leaving at least four Muslims dead, 80 injured, and
numerous homes and businesses destroyed in the town and surrounding areas.
Senior government officials, including President Rajapaksa, made public
statements denouncing the violence. The government announced some arrests but
had not filed charges against any suspects at the time of writing (2015).
Many Tamils, who sought refuge overseas during and after the civil war, are being forced
to return to Sri Lanka after being denied asylum. In response, the Sri Lankan government is
forcing foreign nationals seeking asylum in Sri Lanka to return to violent and dangerous
communities in Pakistan and Afghanistan (Human Rights Watch, 2015).
Even though it is obvious that the Sri Lankan government has committed war crimes,
many countries still provide economic and political support for the Sri Lankan government.
Japan is a major donor and even publically commended the Sri Lankan government on "post-
wartime developments." The Chinese premiere visited Sri Lanka in September 2014 an "ongoing
show of financial and political support for the government absent any human rights concerns"
(Human Rights Watch, 2015). Australia’s support for the Sri Lankan government is even
stronger. All Sri Lankan asylum seekers were either returned to Sri Lanka or not allowed onto

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Australian territory. Australia advocated against the Human Rights Council’s (HCR) resolution
and did not require the Sri Lankan government to provide better human rights protections
(Human Rights Watch, 2015).
Although India also supports Sri Lanka, the government continually supports the effort to
provide the Tamil people rights and protections; however, India did not vote on the HCR
resolution (Human Rights Watch, 2015). India support for the Sri Lankan government is due to
the heavy Tamil population in southern India. If history can predict the future, the Sri Lankan
government will continue to refuse to address war crimes as long as the government has support
from other countries. That the Sri Lankan government is receiving support from other countries,
while currently committing violations against human rights, is astounding and problematic for
the recovery of Sri Lanka and the fragile relationship between the Tamil and the general
populations of Sri Lanka.
Around 2000, the LTTE became more open to negotiation with the Sri Lankan
government. Instead of becoming an independent state, the LTTE was willing to accept a self-
determined area in the north and east of Sri Lanka for the Tamil people (Cronin, 2004: 64).
However, President Kumaratunga was unwilling to negotiate with the LTTE and possessed the
power to veto any peace agreement. Cronin reports that Prime Minister Wickremesinghe wanted
to eliminate the President’s power to dissolve parliament so that peace could be negotiated
(2004: 65). In the end, the LTTE did not accomplish its objectives and many Tamils immigrated
to other countries. If the Sri Lankan government had negotiated with the LTTE, the tensions may
not be as adversarial as they are today.
Conclusion:

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The oppression of the Tamil population by the Sinhalese majority resulted in the
formation of the LTTE. Although the methods of the LTTE were extreme, the Tamil population
deserved to either be liberated or for the oppression to end. So while the motives behind the
formation of the LTTE were justified, its behavior was not. The LTTE is famous for its suicide
unit, the Black Tigers, and for pioneering the development of the suicide belt. The LTTE is also
one of the first terrorist organizations to allow women to take on combatant roles; this later
became a popular strategy amongst many other global terrorist organizations. The LTTE's
behavior may even be considered understandable when analyzing the actions of the Sri Lankan
government. Even though the LTTE was accused of perpetrating and/or involved in many
massacres, so too was the Sri Lankan government. The government was willing to stand aside as
Sri Lankan citizens killed, raped, and tortured thousands of Tamils, which happened many times
over the course of the Civil War. The LTTE and the Sri Lankan government need to be held
accountable for their actions during the war. Even after a thirty year civil war, the treatment of
the Tamil population has yet to change and if a negotiation is not reached soon it is possible a
new Tamil liberation terrorist organization will emerge.

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