3. Exponential Function
The function defined by
is called an exponential function with base b
and exponent x.
The domain of f is the set of all real numbers.
( ) ( 0, 1)
x
f x b b b
4. Example
The exponential function with base 2 is the function
with domain (– , ).
The values of f(x) for selected values of x follow:
( ) 2x
f x
(3)
f
3
2
f
(0)
f
3
2 8
3/2 1/2
2 2 2 2 2
0
2 1
5. Example
The exponential function with base 2 is the function
with domain (– , ).
The values of f(x) for selected values of x follow:
( ) 2x
f x
( 1)
f
2
3
f
1 1
2
2
2/3
2/3 3
1 1
2
2 4
6. Laws of Exponents
Let a and b be positive numbers and let x
and y be real numbers. Then,
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
x y x y
b b b
x
x y
y
b
b
b
y
x xy
b b
x x x
ab a b
x x
x
a a
b b
7. Examples
Let f(x) = 2
2x – 1
. Find the value of x for which f(x) = 16.
Solution
We want to solve the equation
2
2x – 1
= 16 = 2
4
But this equation holds if and only if
2x – 1 = 4
giving x = .
5
2
8. Examples
Sketch the graph of the exponential function f(x) = 2x.
Solution
First, recall that the domain of this function is the set of
real numbers.
Next, putting x = 0 gives y = 20 = 1, which is the y-intercept.
(There is no x-intercept, since there is no value of x for
which y = 0)
9. Examples
Sketch the graph of the exponential function f(x) = 2x.
Solution
Now, consider a few values for x:
Note that 2x approaches zero as x decreases without bound:
✦ There is a horizontal asymptote at y = 0.
Furthermore, 2x increases without bound when x increases
without bound.
Thus, the range of f is the interval (0, ).
x – 5 – 4 – 3 – 2 – 1 0 1 2 3 4 5
y 1/32 1/16 1/8 1/4 1/2 1 2 4 8 16 32
10. Examples
Sketch the graph of the exponential function f(x) = 2x.
Solution
Finally, sketch the graph:
x
y
– 2 2
4
2
f(x) = 2x
11. Examples
Sketch the graph of the exponential function f(x) = (1/2)x.
Solution
First, recall again that the domain of this function is the
set of real numbers.
Next, putting x = 0 gives y = (1/2)0 = 1, which is the
y-intercept.
(There is no x-intercept, since there is no value of x for
which y = 0)
12. Examples
Sketch the graph of the exponential function f(x) = (1/2)x.
Solution
Now, consider a few values for x:
Note that (1/2)x increases without bound when x decreases
without bound.
Furthermore, (1/2)x approaches zero as x increases without
bound: there is a horizontal asymptote at y = 0.
As before, the range of f is the interval (0, ).
x – 5 – 4 – 3 – 2 – 1 0 1 2 3 4 5
y 32 16 8 4 2 1 1/2 1/4 1/8 1/16 1/32
13. Examples
Sketch the graph of the exponential function f(x) = (1/2)x.
Solution
Finally, sketch the graph:
x
y
– 2 2
4
2
f(x) = (1/2)x
14. Examples
Sketch the graph of the exponential function f(x) = (1/2)x.
Solution
Note the symmetry between the two functions:
x
y
– 2 2
4
2
f(x) = (1/2)x
f(x) = 2x
15. Properties of Exponential Functions
The exponential function y = bx (b > 0, b ≠ 1) has
the following properties:
1. Its domain is (– , ).
2. Its range is (0, ).
3. Its graph passes through the point (0, 1)
4. It is continuous on (– , ).
5. It is increasing on (– , ) if b > 1 and
decreasing on (– , ) if b < 1.
16. The Base e
Exponential functions to the base e, where e is an
irrational number whose value is 2.7182818…, play an
important role in both theoretical and applied problems.
It can be shown that
1
lim 1
m
m
e
m
17. Examples
Sketch the graph of the exponential function f(x) = ex.
Solution
Since ex > 0 it follows that the graph of y = ex is similar to the
graph of y = 2x.
Consider a few values for x:
x – 3 – 2 – 1 0 1 2 3
y 0.05 0.14 0.37 1 2.72 7.39 20.09
18. 5
3
1
Examples
Sketch the graph of the exponential function f(x) = ex.
Solution
Sketching the graph:
x
y
– 3 – 1 1 3
f(x) = ex
19. Examples
Sketch the graph of the exponential function f(x) = e–x
.
Solution
Since e–x
> 0 it follows that 0 < 1/e < 1 and so
f(x) = e–x
= 1/ex
= (1/e)x
is an exponential function with
base less than 1.
Therefore, it has a graph similar to that of y = (1/2)x
.
Consider a few values for x:
x – 3 – 2 – 1 0 1 2 3
y 20.09 7.39 2.72 1 0.37 0.14 0.05
20. 5
3
1
Examples
Sketch the graph of the exponential function f(x) = e–x
.
Solution
Sketching the graph:
x
y
– 3 – 1 1 3
f(x) = e–x
22. Logarithms
We’ve discussed exponential equations of the form
y = bx (b > 0, b ≠ 1)
But what about solving the same equation for y?
You may recall that y is called the logarithm of x to the
base b, and is denoted logbx.
✦ Logarithm of x to the base b
y = logbx if and only if x = by (x > 0)
23. Examples
Solve log3x = 4 for x:
Solution
By definition, log3x = 4 implies x = 34 = 81.
24. Examples
Solve log164 = x for x:
Solution
log164 = x is equivalent to 4 = 16x = (42)x = 42x, or 41 = 42x,
from which we deduce that
2 1
1
2
x
x
25. Examples
Solve logx8 = 3 for x:
Solution
By definition, we see that logx8 = 3 is equivalent to
3 3
8 2
2
x
x
27. Laws of Logarithms
If m and n are positive numbers, then
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
log log log
b b b
mn m n
log log log
b b b
m
m n
n
log log
n
b b
m n m
log 1 0
b
log 1
b b
28. Examples
Given that log 2 ≈ 0.3010, log 3 ≈ 0.4771, and log 5 ≈ 0.6990,
use the laws of logarithms to find
log15 log3 5
log3 log5
0.4771 0.6990
1.1761
29. Examples
Given that log 2 ≈ 0.3010, log 3 ≈ 0.4771, and log 5 ≈ 0.6990,
use the laws of logarithms to find
log7.5 log(15 / 2)
log(3 5 / 2)
log3 log5 log2
0.4771 0.6990 0.3010
0.8751
30. Examples
Given that log 2 ≈ 0.3010, log 3 ≈ 0.4771, and log 5 ≈ 0.6990,
use the laws of logarithms to find
log81 4
log3
4log3
4(0.4771)
1.9084
31. Examples
Given that log 2 ≈ 0.3010, log 3 ≈ 0.4771, and log 5 ≈ 0.6990,
use the laws of logarithms to find
log50 log5 10
log5 log10
0.6990 1
1.6990
32. Examples
Expand and simplify the expression:
2 3
3
log x y 2 3
3 3
3 3
log log
2log 3log
x y
x y
33. Examples
Expand and simplify the expression:
2
2
1
log
2x
x
2
2 2
2
2 2
2
2
log 1 log 2
log 1 log 2
log 1
x
x
x x
x x
34. Examples
Expand and simplify the expression:
2 2
1
ln x
x x
e
2 2 1/2
2 2 1/2
2
2
( 1)
ln
ln ln( 1) ln
1
2ln ln( 1) ln
2
1
2ln ln( 1)
2
x
x
x x
e
x x e
x x x e
x x x
35. Examples
Use the properties of logarithms to solve the equation for x:
3 3
log ( 1) log ( 1) 1
x x
3
1
log 1
1
x
x
1
1
3 3
1
x
x
1 3( 1)
x x
1 3 3
x x
4 2x
2
x
Law 2
Definition of
logarithms
36. Examples
Use the properties of logarithms to solve the equation for x:
log log(2 1) log6
x x
log log(2 1) log6 0
x x
(2 1)
log 0
6
x x
0
(2 1)
10 1
6
x x
(2 1) 6
x x
2
2 6 0
x x
(2 3)( 2) 0
x x
2
x
Laws 1 and 2
Definition of
logarithms
3
2
log
x
x
is out of
the domain of ,
so it is discarded.
37. Logarithmic Function
The function defined by
is called the logarithmic function with base b.
The domain of f is the set of all positive numbers.
( ) log ( 0, 1)
b
f x x b b
38. Properties of Logarithmic Functions
The logarithmic function
y = logbx (b > 0, b ≠ 1)
has the following properties:
1. Its domain is (0, ).
2. Its range is (– , ).
3. Its graph passes through the point (1, 0).
4. It is continuous on (0, ).
5. It is increasing on (0, ) if b > 1
and decreasing on (0, ) if b < 1.
39. Example
Sketch the graph of the function y = ln x.
Solution
We first sketch the graph of y = ex.
1
x
y
1
y = ex
y = ln x
y = x
The required graph is
the mirror image of the
graph of y = ex with
respect to the line y = x:
40. Properties Relating
Exponential and Logarithmic Functions
Properties relating ex and ln x:
eln x = x (x > 0)
ln ex = x (for any real number x)
41. Examples
Solve the equation 2ex + 2 = 5.
Solution
Divide both sides of the equation by 2 to obtain:
Take the natural logarithm of each side of the equation
and solve:
2 5
2.5
2
x
e
2
ln ln2.5
( 2)ln ln2.5
2 ln2.5
2 ln2.5
1.08
x
e
x e
x
x
x
42. Examples
Solve the equation 5 ln x + 3 = 0.
Solution
Add – 3 to both sides of the equation and then divide both
sides of the equation by 5 to obtain:
and so:
5ln 3
3
ln 0.6
5
x
x
ln 0.6
0.6
0.55
x
e e
x e
x
44. Applied Example: Growth of Bacteria
In a laboratory, the number of bacteria in a culture grows
according to
where Q0 denotes the number of bacteria initially present
in the culture, k is a constant determined by the strain of
bacteria under consideration, and t is the elapsed time
measured in hours.
Suppose 10,000 bacteria are present initially in the culture
and 60,000 present two hours later.
How many bacteria will there be in the culture at the end
of four hours?
0
( ) kt
Q t Q e
45. Applied Example: Growth of Bacteria
Solution
We are given that Q(0) = Q0 = 10,000, so Q(t) = 10,000ekt.
At t = 2 there are 60,000 bacteria, so Q(2) = 60,000, thus:
Taking the natural logarithm on both sides we get:
So, the number of bacteria present at any time t is given by:
0
2
2
( )
60,000 10,000
6
kt
k
k
Q t Q e
e
e
2
ln ln 6
2 ln 6
0.8959
k
e
k
k
0.8959
( ) 10,000 t
Q t e
46. Applied Example: Growth of Bacteria
Solution
At the end of four hours (t = 4), there will be
or 360,029 bacteria.
0.8959(4)
(4) 10,000
360,029
Q e
47. Applied Example: Radioactive Decay
Radioactive substances decay exponentially.
For example, the amount of radium present at any time t
obeys the law
where Q0 is the initial amount present and k is a suitable
positive constant.
The half-life of a radioactive substance is the time required
for a given amount to be reduced by one-half.
The half-life of radium is approximately 1600 years.
Suppose initially there are 200 milligrams of pure radium.
a. Find the amount left after t years.
b. What is the amount after 800 years?
0
( ) (0 )
kt
Q t Q e t
48. Applied Example: Radioactive Decay
Solution
a. Find the amount left after t years.
The initial amount is 200 milligrams, so Q(0) = Q0 = 200, so
Q(t) = 200e–kt
The half-life of radium is 1600 years, so Q(1600) = 100, thus
1600
1600
100 200
1
2
k
k
e
e
49. Applied Example: Radioactive Decay
Solution
a. Find the amount left after t years.
Taking the natural logarithm on both sides yields:
Therefore, the amount of radium left after t years is:
1600 1
ln ln
2
1
1600 ln ln
2
1
1600 ln
2
1 1
ln 0.0004332
1600 2
k
e
k e
k
k
0.0004332
( ) 200 t
Q t e
50. Applied Example: Radioactive Decay
Solution
b. What is the amount after 800 years?
In particular, the amount of radium left after 800 years is:
or approximately 141 milligrams.
0.0004332(800)
(800) 200
141.42
Q e
51. Applied Example: Assembly Time
The Camera Division of Eastman Optical produces a single
lens reflex camera.
Eastman’s training department determines that after
completing the basic training program, a new, previously
inexperienced employee will be able to assemble
model F cameras per day, t months after the employee starts
work on the assembly line.
a. How many model F cameras can a new employee assemble
per day after basic training?
b. How many model F cameras can an employee with one
month of experience assemble per day?
c. How many model F cameras can the average experienced
employee assemble per day?
0.5
( ) 50 30 t
Q t e
52. Applied Example: Assembly Time
Solution
a. The number of model F cameras a new employee can
assemble is given by
b. The number of model F cameras that an employee with
1, 2, and 6 months of experience can assemble per day is
given by
or about 32 cameras per day.
c. As t increases without bound, Q(t) approaches 50.
Hence, the average experienced employee can be expected
to assemble 50 model F cameras per day.
(0) 50 30 20
Q
0.5(1)
(1) 50 30 31.80
Q e