1. The Soviet Environmental
Legacy
“Environmental catastrophes, during the days of the
Soviet Union, have created a legacy of human health
problems. These environmental catastrophes continue to
affect the populations of both Russia and the former
satellite states, till this day.”

2. Background
• History of environmental catastrophes and pollution: Dunn & Warn
(2012) reveal “75% of surface water and 40% of groundwater have
been polluted in the Former Soviet Union [FSU]”
• Rooted in political ecology and human dominance over nature –
Turnock (2005) identifies that these legacies stem from Stalin’s
policy making and his attempt to use science as a tool to tame
nature
• Some attempts made to halt pollution which are exemplified by
Turnock (2005) who reveals “lobby groups [were] able to achieve
cuts in pollution… [such as a] 1987 [Presidential] decree [which
halted] pollution of Lake Baikal, following pressure from
intellectuals and academics”

3. Chernobyl: a very Soviet disaster
• Sebestyen (2009) suggests the Chernobyl nuclear disaster could have
been averted without causing a lasting human health and environmental
catastrophe – “if people had been moved earlier they might have been
saved from long exposure to high levels of radiation. Or… within a few
hours they had received iodine they might have been spared… tumours
of the thyroid gland...”
• Cancer is most prevalent amongst children in the Chernobyl area -
Klienfield (2009) identifies that there have been 5,000 recorded cases of
thyroid cancer in children aged between 0-18 in the period 1986 to 2009
• Psychological trauma has been greatly exasperated by the collapse of
the Soviet Union and by relocation of affected populace - The WHO
(World Health Organisation) (2006) reveals that classification of affected
populace as “victims” as a opposed to “survivors” has created feelings of
helplessness and lead to social stigmatisation
(Klienfield, 2009)
(Gronlund, 2011)

4. The Aral: Eden’s drying up
• Human mismanagement of the environment: Columbia
University (n.d) rooted in Khrushchev's agricultural policy
• Significant impact on human health – infant mortality
rate 75 per 1000 live births and maternal mortality rate
120 per 1000 (Columbia University, n.d)
• Columbia University (n.d) state that a combination of
dust storms, poor public health infrastructure, high
concentrations of airborne pesticide and poor water
quality are responsible for this health crisis
(UNEP, 2008)

5. Norilsk:
• Bronder et al (2010) cite a medical research case which suggests
that reproductive capacity has been adversely affected by nickel
pollution:
• “In 2009 [Dr] G.F. Yankovskaya study proves that industrial factors
have [had a] significant impact on the risk of various
complications during pregnancy among women working with non-
ferrous metallurgy.”
• Saiko (2000, p. 62) colludes with Bronder et al in that human
health has been adversely affected:
• “Heavy metals and radionuclides have [had] a strong mutagenic
effect… in Norilsk… the frequency of genetic defects in new born
babies… [reached] 11.2 per 1000 persons compared to the Russian
national average of 6-8.”

6. Summary
• Chernobyl – Lessons have been learnt: Baverstock and Williams (2009) public
awareness over the dangers of exposure to radiation and secondary containment
measures to avoid a repeat of such a large scale disaster
• Chernobyl – Klienfield (2009) discloses that the citizens of Pripyat received
iodine tablets some 6-18 hours of the event occurred which reduced the risk of
cancer by a factor of 6
• The Aral Sea – Human health has improved as a result of fisheries
redevelopment and flow restriction (Columbia University, 2009)
• The Aral Sea - Environmental quality and human health has been jeopardised by
the effects of a complex response in environmental change
• Norilsk – Human health adversely affected by Nickel pollution: life expectancy
is below the Russian national average which is 70.6 years old (CIA, 2014)
• Norilsk – Bronder et al, (2010): Soviet mentality and a fundamental lack of
sound environmental protection and corporate governance: Bronder et al (2010)
conclude that “plants [owned by] the Norilsk Nickel company group do not
measure up to the status as environmentally or socially responsible companies
as they inflict harm to nature and peoples’ health.”

7. Conclusion
• The Soviet government’s decisions are the root causes of these
environment and human health catastrophes
• Following events at Chernobyl, measures, on a global scale, have
been put in place to prevent or guard against a future nuclear
disaster
• In the case of Norilsk, the company and government should bear
the blame for compromising human health
• There is a general consensus from the literature that these
environmental catastrophes have adversely affected human health
and left a legacy of environmental degradation
• Overall, environmental catastrophes during the days of the Soviet
Union have, indeed, left a legacy of human health problems

8. Bibliography
• Baverstock K and Williams D. (2009). The Chernobyl Accident 20
years on. Environmental health perspectives, volume 114, issue
number 9, 1312-1318
• Bronder L, Kudrik I, Nikitin A, Jorgeson V K and Nikiforov V,
(2010). Environmental challenges in the Arctic, Norilsk Nickel:
The Soviet legacy of industrial pollution. Oslo: the Bellona
Foundation
• Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) (2014, June 20th). The World
Factbook. Retrieved from
https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-
factbook/geos/rs.html, accessed 12th January 2015

9. Bibliography
• Columbia University (n.d). The Aral Sea Crisis. Retrieved from:
http://www.columbia.edu/~tmt2120/introduction.htm, accessed
12th January 2015
• Dunn C and Warn S (2012). Geography A2 Unit 3 Contested Planet.
United Kingdom: Philip Allan Updates
• Gronlund, L (2011). How many cancers did Chernobyl cause? Union
of concerned scientists. Retrieved from
http://allthingsnuclear.org/how-many-cancers-did-chernobyl-
really-cause/, accessed 16th January 2015

10. Bibliography
• Klienfield, S (2009). Health consequences of Chernobyl. Retrieved
from http://faculty.virginia.edu/metals/cases/kleinfeld3.html,
accessed 16th January 2015
• Maps of the World (2014). Polluted places around the world.
Retrieved from http://www.mapsofworld.com/around-the-
world/pollution.html, accessed 16th January 2015
• Middleton, N. (2013). The Global Casino: a guide to
environmental issues (fifth edition). Oxford: Routledge
• Sebestyen, V. (2009). Revolution 1989: The Fall of the Soviet
Empire. Great Britain: Phoenix – part two: the thaw, chapter 17
Chernobyl: Nuclear Disaster

11. Bibliography
• Saiko T. (2000). Environmental Crises: Geographical Case Studies
in Post-Socialist Eurasia. Harlow: Prince-Hall - 2: The Arctic
North: intensive industrial development in the Russian tundra,
sub-chapter 2.5: socio-economic and health issues, pp. 62-64.
• Turncock D. (2002). Environmental Problems in East-Central
Europe (second edition). London: Routledge
• UNEP (United Nations Environment Programme), 2008). Virtual
Water Graphics; the disappearance of the Aral Sea. Retrieved
from http://www.unep.org/dewa/vitalwater/article115.html,
accessed 16th January 2015